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Christianized populations

When referring to Northern Europe, the means of this conversion were chiefly Proselytism directed towards monarchs and chieftains whose people then followed their conversion.

Crusades against the Wends, Balticum, and present-day Finland were also organized, although it is disputed how much these served a religious purpose or the power ambitions of kings, princes and noble bishops.

Christianized sites

Few Christian churches built in the first half millennium of the established Christian Church were not built upon sites already consecrated as pagan temples or mithraea.

The Christianized landscape

The British Isles and other areas of northern Europe that were formerly druidic are still densely punctuated by holy wells and holy springs that are now attributed to some saint, often a highly local saint unknown elsewhere. These water sources have always been guarded by supernatural forces in the European imagination. An example of the pre-Christian water spirit is the melusina.

Celtic observation of Samhain

In the 19th century, James Frazer and John Rhys claimed that the Christian establishment had successfully Christianized the Samhain season, although neither of them had any written record available of any such "Samhain" festival, beyond the existence of a month in the old Irish calendar with that name. So the particular details of observations that follow deserve to be considered with some reserve.

The earliest roots of Halloween are found in the Druidic observation which took place each year the night of October 31 (Celtic days beginning with the eve), opening the season of Samhain. A three-day festival called Samhain (pronounced "sow-inn") followed. After the crops were harvested, Druids in Ireland and Britain would light fires and offer sacrifices of crops and animals. As they danced around the fires, the season of the sun passed and the season of darkness would begin. This was a time of year when the veil was thin between worlds. In Ireland it was believed to be the night on which the invisible "gates" between this world and the Other World were opened, and free movement between both worlds was possible. In the Other World lived the immortal "Sidhe" (pronounced "shee"), the female members of whom were called beán sidhe or banshees.

Bonfires played a large part in the festivities and hundreds of fires are still lit each year in Ireland on Halloween night. The obscure origins of the word "bonfire" are sometimes derived from "bone fires:" villagers, the thought goes, would cast the bones of the slaughtered cattle upon the flames. The suggestion that, with the bonfire ablaze, the villagers extinguished all other fires and that each family then solemnly lit their hearth from the common flame, may confuse Samhain with the midsummer festivities.

In the three days preceding the Samhain month the Sun God, Lugh, maimed at Lughnassadh, dies by the hand of his Tanist (his other self), the Lord of Misrule. Lugh traverses the boundaries of the worlds on the first day of Samhain. His Tanist is a miser and though he shines brightly in the winter skies he gives no warmth and does not temper the breath of the Crone, Cailleach Bheare, the north wind. In this may be discerned the ageless battle between the light and dark and the cyclic nature of life and the seasons.

It was the time to placate the supernatural powers controlling the processes of nature. In addition, Halloween was thought to be the most favorable time for divinations concerning marriage, luck, health and death. It was supposedly the day, Christians imagined, that the help of the devil was invoked for such purposes.

Christianizing the Celtic Samhain

The first of November, as a day to placate all the Saints, was interposed to counter Samhain, when Pope Gregory III (731-741) consecrated a chapel in the Basilica of St. Peter to all the saints and fixed the anniversary, not by chance, for 1 November, in accordance with practices in Frankish territories. In 835, Pope Gregory IV extended to all the churches this celebration for all the martyrs (which later became later "All Saints"), on November 1. When November 1 became the new date for the feast of All Saints, all the Saints and Martyrs being called upon to sanctify the season, the pagan Celtic Samhain became merely "Hallows Eve." It was converted to a vigil of preparation for the morrow, which was made a day of obligation, when Christians were obliged to attend mass.

Even later, in the 11th century, the church would make November 2 All Souls' Day, a day to honor all the dead: all the Christian souls in the half-world of Purgatory. Catholic doctrine clearly reveals the liminal or threshold connection between the two worlds: "that the souls which, on departing from the body, are not perfectly cleansed from venial sins, or have not fully atoned for past transgressions, are debarred from the Beatific Vision, and that the faithful on earth can help them by prayers, almsdeeds and especially by the sacrifice of the Mass." (Catholic Encyclopedia, 1910: 'All Soul's Day').

All Soul's Day was accepted by Odilo (died 1048) in the Cluniac monasteries, and its observance spread through the Celtic north before it was introduced into Italy.

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