Misplaced Pages

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by DuncanHill (talk | contribs) at 00:10, 5 February 2016 (→Prayer: E. A. Wallis Budge). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Part of a series on
Islam
Beliefs Oneness of God Angels Revealed Books Prophets Day of Resurrection Predestination
Practices Profession of Faith Prayer Almsgiving Fasting Pilgrimage
Texts Foundations Quran Sunnah (Hadith, Sirah) Tafsir (exegesis) Aqidah (creed) Qisas al-Anbiya ("Stories of the Prophets") Mathnawi (Poems) Fiqh (jurisprudence) Sharia (law)
History Timeline Jahiliyyah Muhammad Ahl al-Bayt Sahabah Rashidun Caliphate Imamate Spread of Islam Succession to Muhammad
Culture and society Academics Animals Art Association football Calendar Children Circumcision Demographics Diaspora Denominations Sunni Shia Economics Education Ethics Exorcism Feminism Festivals Finance Madrasa Moral teachings Mosque Music Mysticism Philosophy Poetry Politics Proselytizing Science Sexuality LGBTQ Slavery Concubinage Social welfare Women
Related topics Apostasy Criticism Muhammad Quran Hadith Arabic language Other religions Islamism Violence terrorism war Islamophobia Jihad Jihadism Salafi jihadism Deobandi jihadism Military laws Glossary
Islam portal
v t e

Islam (/ˈɪslɑːm/; Template:Lang-ar, al-ʾIslām IPA: [alʔisˈlaːm] ) is a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion articulated by the Qur'an, a religious text considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of God (Allāh), and, for the vast majority of adherents, by the teachings and normative example (called the sunnah, composed of accounts called hadith) of Muhammad (c. 570–8 June 632 CE), considered by most of them to be the last prophet of God. An adherent of Islam is called a Muslim (sometimes spelled "Moslem").

Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable and that the purpose of existence is to worship God. Muslims also believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. Muslims maintain that the previous messages and revelations have been partially misinterpreted over time, they are nevertheless all obliged, according to the Qur'an, to treat the older scriptures with the utmost respect. As for the Qur'an, Muslims consider it to be both the unaltered and the final revelation of God. Religious concepts and practices include the five pillars of Islam, which are obligatory acts of worship, and following Islamic law, which touches on virtually every aspect of life and society, from topics ranging from banking and welfare, to family life and the environment.

The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders and conversion to Islam by missionary activities. Most Muslims are of two denominations: Sunni (75–90%) or Shia (10–20%). About 13% of Muslims live in Indonesia, the largest Muslim-majority country, 25% in South Asia, 20% in the Middle East, and 15% in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sizable Muslim communities are also found in Europe, China, Russia, and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world. With about 1.6 billion followers or 23% of the global population, Islam is the second-largest religion by number of adherents and, according to many sources, the fastest-growing major religion in the world.

Etymology and meaning

Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means "voluntary submission to God". Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means "submission" or "surrender". Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb form, and means "one who submits" or "one who surrenders". Believers demonstrate submission to God by serving God, following his commands, and rejecting polytheism. The word sometimes has distinct connotations in its various occurrences in the Qur'an. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as an internal conviction: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He opens his heart to Islam." Islam, by its own inner logic, embraces every possible facet of existence, for God has named Himself al-Muḥīṭ, the All-Embracing.

Other verses connect Islām and dīn (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (dīn) for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion." Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that includes imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence), where islām is defined theologically as Tawhid, historically by asserting that Muhammad is messenger of God, and doctrinally by mandating five basic and fundamental pillars of practice.

Articles of faith

God

Islam's most fundamental concept is a rigorous monotheism, called tawḥīd (Template:Lang-ar). God is described in chapter 112 of the Qur'an as: "Say: He is God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him."(112:1-4) Muslims and Jews repudiate the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus, comparing it to polytheism. In Islam, God is beyond all comprehension and Muslims are not expected to visualize God. God is described and referred to by certain names or attributes, the most common being Al-Rahmān, meaning "The Compassionate" and Al-Rahīm, meaning "The Merciful" (See Names of God in Islam).

Muslims believe that the creation of everything in the universe was brought into being by God's sheer command, "'Be' and so it is," and that the purpose of existence is to worship God. He is viewed as a personal god who responds whenever a person in need or distress calls him. There are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God who states, "I am nearer to him than (his) jugular vein."

Allāh is the term with no plural or gender used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews to reference God, while ʾilāh (Template:Lang-ar) is the term used for a deity or a god in general. Other non-Arab Muslims might use different names as much as Allah, for instance "Tanrı" in Turkish, "Khodā" in Persian or Error: {{Transliteration}}: unrecognized language / script code: urdu (help) in Urdu.

Angels

Belief in angels is fundamental to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for angel (Template:Lang-ar malak) means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew (malʾákh) and Greek (angelos). According to the Qur'an, angels do not possess free will, and therefore worship and obey God in total obedience. Angels' duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. Muslims believe that angels are made of light. They are described as "messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He adds to Creation as He pleases..."

The astrophysicist Nidhal Guessoum in his book "Islam's Quantum Question" has pointed to modern Islamic scholars, like Muhammad Asad and Ghulam Ahmed Parwez who have emphasized a metaphorical reinterpretation of the concept of angels. For example, Asad highlighted the following words in the Quran as evidence that the aid provided by angels in the Battle of Badr was not literal: "and God ordained this only as a glad tiding."

Pictorial depictions of angels are generally avoided in Islamic Art, as the idea of giving form to anything immaterial is not accepted. Muslims believe that angels can not be seen with the naked eye, and prophets such as Muhammad received revelation from them only in a spiritual sense. Since Muslims do not believe in image-representations of celestial beings, they therefore do not share the perceptions of angelic pictorial depictions, such as those found in Western Art.

Revelations

The Islamic holy books are the records which most Muslims believe were dictated by God to various prophets. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospels), had become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both. The Qur'an (literally, "Reading" or "Recitation") is viewed by Muslims as the final revelation and literal word of God and is widely regarded as the finest literary work in the Arabic language.

Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the archangel Gabriel (Jibrīl) on many occasions between 610 CE until his death on June 8, 632. While Muhammad was alive, all of these revelations were written down by his companions (sahabah), although the prime method of transmission was orally through memorization.

The Qur'an is divided into 114 suras, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 āyāt, or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.

The Qur'an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values". Muslim jurists consult the hadith ("reports"), or the written record of Prophet Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Qur'an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur'anic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir. The set of rules governing proper pronunciation is called tajwid.

Muslims usually view "the Qur'an" as the original scripture as revealed in Arabic and that any translations are necessarily deficient, which are regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an.

Prophets

Muslims identify the prophets of Islam (Template:Lang-ar anbiyāʾ ) as those humans chosen by God to be his messengers. According to the Qurʼan, the prophets were instructed by God to bring the "will of God" to the peoples of the nations. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic theology says that all of God's messengers preached the message of Islam—submission to the will of God. The Qurʼan mentions the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others.

Muslims believe that God finally sent Muhammad as the last law bearing prophet (Seal of the Prophets) to convey the divine message to the whole world (to sum up and to finalize the word of God). In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives and the Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an. This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith, which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as verbatim words of God quoted by Muhammad but is not part of the Quran.

A hadith involves two elements- a chain of narrators, called sanad, and the actual wording, called matn. Hadiths can be classified, by studying the narration, as "authentic" or "correct", called Sahih (Template:Lang-ar), "good", called Ḥasan (Template:Lang-ar) or "weak", called Ḍaʻīf (Template:Lang-ar) among others. Muhammad al-Bukhari collected over 300,000 hadith, but only included 2,602 distinct hadith that passed the tests that codified them as authentic into his book Sahih al-Bukhari, which is considered by many to be the most authentic source after the Quran.

Resurrection and judgment

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Template:Lang-ar) is also crucial for Muslims. They believe the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah are described in the Qur'an and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of scholars. The Qur'an emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.

On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all mankind will be judged on their good and bad deeds and consigned to Jannah (paradise) or Jahannam (hell). The Qurʼan in Surat al-Zalzalah describes this as, "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it (99:7) and whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it (99:8)." The Qurʼan lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief in God (Template:Lang-ar kufr), and dishonesty; however, the Qurʼan makes it clear God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he so wills. Good deeds, such as charity, prayer and compassion towards animals, will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and bliss, with Qurʼanic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.

Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Qur'an as Yawm ad-Dīn (Template:Lang-ar), "Day of Religion"; as-sāʿah (Template:Lang-ar), "the Last Hour"; and al-Qāriʿah (Template:Lang-ar), "The Clatterer".

Divine will

The concept of divine will is referred to as al-qadā wa'l-qadar (Template:Lang-ar), which literally derives from a root that means to to measure. Everything, good and bad, is believed to have been decreed.

Five pillars

The Pillars of Islam (arkan al-Islam; also arkan ad-din, "pillars of religion") are five basic acts in Islam, considered obligatory for all believers. The Quran presents them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They are (1) the creed (shahadah), (2) daily prayers (salat), (3) almsgiving (zakah), (4) fasting during Ramadan and (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at least once in a lifetime if you are financially and physically able to. Both Shia and Sunni sects agree on the essential details for the performance of these acts.

Testimony

The Shahadah, which is the basic creed of Islam that must be recited under oath with the specific statement: "'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh", or "I testify that there is no god but God, Muhammad is the messenger of God." This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.

Prayer

• The weekly Jumu'ah prayer, being held in Pristina, Kosovo.
• Muslim men prostrating during prayer in the Umayyad Mosque, Damascus.

Ritual prayers, called Ṣalāh or Ṣalāt (Arabic: صلاة), must be performed five times a day. Salat is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. Salat is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language, and consist of verses from the Qur'an. The prayers are done with the chest in direction of the kaaba though in the early days of Islam, they were done in direction of Jerusalem.

A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name, masjid. The word mosque in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (masjid jāmi'). Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community as a place to meet and study. Al-Masjid al-Nabawi or the Prophets Mosque in Medina was also a place of refuge for the poor. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as minarets.

Alms-giving

"Zakāt" (Template:Lang-ar zakāh "alms") is giving a fixed portion of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy and for those employed to collect Zakat; also, for bringing hearts together, freeing captives, for those in debt (or bonded labour) and for the (stranded) traveller. It is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". Conservative estimates of annual zakat is estimated to be 15 times global humanitarian aid contributions. The amount of zakat to be paid on capital assets (e.g. money) is 2.5% (1/40) per year, for people who are not poor. The Qur'an and the hadith also urge a Muslim to give even more as an act of voluntary alms-giving called Sadaqah.

Fasting

Fasting, (Template:Lang-ar ṣawm), from food and drink (among other things) must be performed from dawn to dusk during the month of Ramadhan. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. Sawm is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly.

Pilgrimage

The pilgrimage, called the ḥajj (Template:Lang-ar), has to be done during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. Rituals of the Hajj include: spending a day and a night in the tents in the desert plain of Mina, then a day in the desert plain of Arafat praying and worshiping God, following the foot steps of Abraham. Then spending a night out in the open, sleeping on the desert sand in the desert plain of Muzdalifah, then moving to Jamarat, symbolically stoning the Devil recounting Abraham's actions. Then going to Mecca and walking seven times around the Kaaba which Muslims believe was built as a place of worship by Abraham. Then walking seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, while she was looking for water for her son Ismael in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement.

Law and jurisprudence

Part of a series on
Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh)
Ritual Shahada Salah Raka'ah Qibla Turbah Sunnah prayer (Tarawih Tahajjud) Witr Nafl prayer Sawm Zakat Hajj Ihram (clothing Mut'ah) Tawaf Umrah (and Hajj)
Political Islamic leadership Caliphate Majlis-ash-Shura Imamate Wilayat al-faqih Bay'ah Dhimmi Aman
Family Marriage Contract Mahr Misyar Halala Urfi Mut‘ah Polygyny Divorce Khula Zihar Iddah Kafa'ah Adoption Breastfeeding Sexual Awrah Abortion Baligh Haya Hygiene Rape Zina Masturbation
Criminal Hudud Blasphemy Maisir  (gambling) Zina  (illicit sex) Hirabah  (unlawful warfare and banditry) Fasad  ("mischief") Mofsed-e-filarz  ("spreading corruption") Fitna  ("sedition") Rajm  (stoning) Tazir  (discretionary) Qisas  (retaliation) Diya  (compensation)
Etiquette Adab Gender segregation (Purdah) Mahram Honorifics Toilet
Economic History Zakat Jizya Nisab Khums Sadaqah (Waqf) Bayt al-mal Banking Riba Murabaha Takaful Sukuk Inheritance
Hygiene Sexual Toilet Taharah Ihram Wudu Masah Ghusl Tayammum Miswak Najis Istinja Dietary Dhabihah Alcohol Pork Comparison with kashrut
Military Jihad Ghanimah Hudna Istijarah (asylum) Prisoners of war
Islamic studies
v t e

The Shariʻah (literally "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law and constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his or her religious belief. The study of Islamic law is called Fiqh, or "Islamic jurisprudence". The methods of jurisprudence used are known as usul al-fiqh ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). Much of it has evolved with the objective to prevent innovation or alteration in the original religion, known as bid‘ah. Four fundamental evidence, codified by ash-Shafi'i, used are, in order of precedence: the Qur'an, the Hadith (the practice of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas). Rulings over actions can be categorized as those that are obligatory (fardh) recommendanded (mustahabb), permissible (mubah), frowned on (makrooh) and prohibited (haraam).

The Quran set the rights, the responsibilities and the rules for people and for societies to adhere to. Muhammad provided an example, which is recorded in the hadith books, showing how he practically implemented those rules in a society.

Many of the Sharia laws that differ are devised through Ijtihad where there is no such ruling in the Quran or the Hadiths of Islamic prophet Muhammad regarding a similar case. As Muhammad's companions went to new areas, they were pragmatic and in some cases continued to use the same ruling as was given in that area during pre-Islamic times. If the population felt comfortable with it, it was just and they used Ijtihad to deduce that it did not conflict with the Quran or the Hadith. This made it easier for the different communities to integrate into the Islamic State and that assisted in the quick expansion of the Islamic State. Since the Constitution of Medina was drafted by the Islamic prophet Muhammad the Jews and the Christians continued to use their own laws in the Islamic State and had their own judges.

Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and foreign relations, to issues of daily living. The Qur'an defines hudud as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Qur'an and Sunnah also contain laws of inheritance, marriage, and restitution for injuries and murder, as well as rules for fasting, charity, and prayer.

Scholars

Islam, like Judaism, has no clergy in the sacerdotal sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. However, there are many terms in Islam to refer to religiously sanctioned positions of Islam. In the broadest sense, the term ulema (Template:Lang-ar) is used to describe the body of Muslim scholars who have completed several years of training and study of Islamic sciences. A jurist who interprets Islamic law is called a mufti (Template:Lang-ar) and often issues judicial opinions, called fatwas. A scholar of jurisprudence is called a faqih (Template:Lang-ar). Someone who studies the science of hadith is called a muhaddith. A qadi is a judge in an Islamic court. Honorific titles given to scholars include shiekh, mullah and maulvi. Imam (Template:Lang-ar) is a leadership position, often used in the context of conducting Islamic worship services. Education is considered very important to Muslims, so that they could distinguish between right and wrong, but when it comes to entry into heaven, the most noble in the sight of God are the most righteous and they may be honest, compassionate and helpful to others but not necessarily very educated.

Schools of jurisprudence

A school of jurisprudence is referred to as a madhab (Template:Lang-ar). The four major Sunni schools are the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali and sometimes Ẓāhirī while the two major Shia schools are Ja'fari and Zaidi. Each differ in their methodology, called Usul al-fiqh. The following of decisions by a religious expert without necessarily examining the decision's reasoning is called taqlid. The term ghair muqallid literally refers to those who do not use taqlid and by extension do not have a madhab. The practice of an individual interpretating law with independent reasoning is called ijtihad.

Etiquette and diet

Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "as-salamu `alaykum" ("peace be unto you"), saying bismillah ("in the name of God") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health. Circumcision of male offspring is also practiced in Islam. Islamic burial rituals include saying the Salat al-Janazah ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food.

Family life

The basic unit of Islamic society is the family, and Islam defines the obligations and legal rights of family members. The father is seen as financially responsible for his family, and is obliged to cater for their well-being. The division of inheritance is specified in the Qur'an, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. The woman's share of inheritance is generally half of that of a man with the same rights of succession. Marriage in Islam is a civil contract which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr) to the bride, as stipulated in the contract. The Quran (verse 4:3) limits the number of wives to four and only if a man could treat them with fairness and equity. Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous as the rule is a conditional permission not a recommendation. Polyandry, a form of polygamy, where a woman takes on two or more husbands is prohibited in Islam. With Muslims coming from diverse backgrounds including 49 Muslim-majority countries, plus a strong presence as large minorities throughout the world there are many variations on Muslim Weddings. The Nikah mut‘ah is practised by Shia Muslims. Sunni Muslims practice Nikah Misyar, a similar marriage arrangement. Sunni Muslims also practice Nikah 'urfi.

Even after marriage, there are limitations regarding sex. For example, Islam prohibits a man to have sexual intercourse with his wife while she is menstruating and during postpartum period. It is considered a great sin for a man to have anal sex with his wife.

Economy

To reduce the gap between the rich and the poor, Islamic economic jurisprudence encourages trade, discourages the hoarding of wealth and outlaws interest-bearing loans (usury; the term is riba in Arabic). Therefore, wealth is taxed through Zakat, but trade is not taxed. Usury, which allows the rich to get richer without sharing in the risk, is forbidden in Islam. Profit sharing and venture capital where the lender is also exposed to risk is acceptable. Hoarding of food for speculation is also discouraged.

Grabbing other people's land is also prohibited. The prohibition of usury has resulted in the development of Islamic banking. During the time of Muhammad, any money that went to the state, was immediately used to help the poor. Then in 634, Umar formally established the welfare state Bayt al-mal. The Bayt al-mal or the welfare state was for the Muslim and Non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran for hundreds of years under the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century and continued through the Umayyad period and well into the Abbasid era. Umar also introduced Child Benefit and Pensions for the children and the elderly.

Government

Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the scholars function as both jurists and theologians. Currently no government conforms to Islamic economic jurisprudence, but steps have been taken to implement some of its tenets.

Jihad

Jihad means "to strive or struggle" (in the way of God). Jihad, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation". Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the Devil, and aspects of one's own self (such as sinful desires), different categories of jihad are defined. Jihad, when used without any qualifier, is understood in its military aspect. Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection. Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and Sufis, distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.

Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-believer/non-Muslim/Muslim combatants who insulted Islam. The ultimate purpose of military jihad is debated, both within the Islamic community and without. Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, apostates, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims. Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare. Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization. For most Twelver Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's occultation in 868 AD.

History

Muhammad (610–632)

Muslim tradition views Muhammad (c. 570 – June 8, 632) as the seal of the prophets. During the last 22 years of his life, beginning at age 40 in 610 CE, according to the earliest surviving biographies, Muhammad reported revelations that he believed to be from God, conveyed to him through the archangel Gabriel (Jibril). Muhammad's companions memorized and recorded the content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an.

During this time, Muhammad in Mecca preached to the people, imploring them to abandon polytheism and to worship one God. Although some converted to Islam, the leading Meccan authorities persecuted Muhammad and his followers. This resulted in the Migration to Abyssinia of some Muslims (to the Aksumite Empire). Many early converts to Islam were the poor and former slaves like Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi. The Meccan élite felt that Muhammad was destabilising their social order by preaching about one God and about racial equality, and that in the process he gave ideas to the poor and to their slaves.

After 12 years of the persecution of Muslims by the Meccans and the Meccan boycott of the Hashemites, Muhammad's relatives, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the Hijra ("emigration") to the city of Medina (formerly known as Yathrib) in 622. There, with the Medinan converts (Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun), Muhammad in Medina established his political and religious authority. A state was established in accordance with Islamic economic jurisprudence. The Constitution of Medina was formulated, instituting a number of rights and responsibilities for the Muslim, Jewish, Christian and pagan communities of Medina, bringing them within the fold of one community — the Ummah.

The Constitution established:

• the security of the community
• religious freedoms
• the role of Medina as a sacred place (barring all violence and weapons)
• the security of women
• stable tribal relations within Medina
• a tax system for supporting the community in time of conflict
• parameters for exogenous political alliances
• a system for granting protection of individuals
• a judicial system for resolving disputes where non-Muslims could also use their own laws

All the tribes signed the agreement to defend Medina from all external threats and to live in harmony amongst themselves. Within a few years, two battles took place against the Meccan forces: first, the Battle of Badr in 624 - a Muslim victory, and then a year later, when the Meccans returned to Medina, the Battle of Uhud, which ended inconclusively.

The Arab tribes in the rest of Arabia then formed a confederation and during the Battle of the Trench (March–April 627) besieged Medina, intent on finishing off Islam. In 628, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims and was broken by Mecca two years later. After the signing of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah many more people converted to Islam. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control. By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at the age of 62) he had united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.

The earliest three generations of Muslims are known as the Salaf, with the companions of Muhammad being known as the Sahaba. Many of them, such as the largest narrator of hadith Abu Hureyrah, recorded and compiled what would constitute the sunnah.

Caliphate and civil strife (632–750)

With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Abu Bakr, a companion and close friend of Muhammad, was made the first caliph. Under Abu Bakr the Muslims expanded into Syria after putting down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy". The Quran was compiled into a single volume at this time.

Abu Bakr's death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar ibn al-Khattab as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib and Hasan ibn Ali. The first caliphs are known as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into the parts of the Persian and Byzantine territories.

When Umar was assassinated by Persians in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. The standard copies of the Quran were also distributed throughout the Islamic State. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After the first civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Following a peace treaty, Mu'awiyah came to power and began the Umayyad dynasty.

These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that only Ali and some of his descendants should rule; they became known as the Shia. After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "Second Fitna".

The Umayyad dynasty conquered the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh. Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and taxed heavily to finance the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars, often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests. Since the Constitution of Medina, Jews and Christians continued to use their own laws in the Islamic State and had their own judges.

The generation after the death of Muhammad but contemporaries of his companions are known as the Tabi‘un, and the generation after that are known as the Tabi‘ al-Tabi‘in. The early scholars who contributed to the development of jurisprudence include Malik ibn Anas's teacher Hisham ibn Urwah and the Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz set up the influential committee, "The Seven Fuqaha of Medina", headed by Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr and including Urwah ibn Zubayr. Mailk Ibn Anas wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the Muwatta, as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.

The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented non-Arab converts (mawali), poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750.

Classical era (750–1258)

During this time, the Delhi Sultanate took over northern parts of Indian subcontinent. Religious missions converted Volga Bulgaria to Islam. Many Muslims also went to China to trade, virtually dominating the import and export industry of the Song Dynasty.

Al-Shafi'i also codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith. During the early Abbasid era, the major Sunni hadith collections were compiled by scholars such as Bukhari and Muslim while major Shia hadith collections by scholars such as Al-Kulayni and Ibn Babawayh were also compiled. The Ja'fari jurisprudence was formed from the teachings of Ja'far al-Sadiq while the four Sunni Madh'habs, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad bin Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i respectively. In the 9th century, ash-Shafi'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence in his book ar-Risālah. Al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir completed the most commonly cited commentaries on the Quran, the Tafsir al-Tabari in the 9th century and the Tafsir ibn Kathir in the 14th century, respectively. Philosophers Al-Farabi and Avicenna sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like Al-Ghazali argued against them and ultimately prevailed.

Caliphs such as Mamun al Rashid and Al-Mu'tasim made the mutazilite philosophy an official creed and imposed it upon Muslims to follow. Mu'tazila was a Greek influenced school of speculative theology called kalam, which refers to dialectic. Many orthodox Muslims rejected mutazilite doctrines and condemned their idea of the creation of the Quran. In inquisitions, Imam Hanbal refused to conform and was tortured and sent to an unlit Baghdad prison cell for nearly thirty months. The other branch of kalam was the Ash'ari school founded by Al-Ash'ari.

Some Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into Tasawwuf (Sufism). Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely because of efforts to legitimize and reorganize the movement by Al-Ghazali, who developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students.

This era is sometimes called the "Islamic Golden Age". Public hospitals established during this time (called Bimaristan hospitals), are considered "the first hospitals" in the modern sense of the word, and issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors. The Guinness World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university. The doctorate is argued to date back to the licenses to teach in Muslim law schools. Standards of experimental and quantification techniques, as well as the tradition of citation, were introduced. An important pioneer in this, Ibn Al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist". The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today. It is argued that the data used by Copernicus for his heliocentric conclusions was gathered and that Al-Jahiz proposed a theory of natural selection. Rumi wrote some of the finest Persian poetry and is still one of the best selling poets in America. Legal institutions introduced include the trust and charitable trust (Waqf).

The first Muslims states independent of a unified Muslim state emerged from the Berber Revolt (739/740-743). In 930, the Ismaili group known as the Qarmatians unsuccessfully rebelled against the Abbassids, sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone, which was eventually retrieved. The Mongol Empire put an end to the Abbassid dynasty in 1258.

Pre-Modern era (1258–20th century)

Islam spread with Muslim trade networks and Sufi orders activity that extended into Sub-Saharan Africa, Central Asia and the Malay archipelago. The Ottomans challenged European powers on land and sea, and reached deep into Central Europe at the Siege of Vienna (1529). Under the Ottoman Empire, Islam spread to Southeast Europe, Crimea, and the Caucasus. The Muslims in China who were descended from earlier immigration began to assimilate by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study.

The Muslim world was generally in serious political decline starting the 1800s, especially relative to the non-Muslim European powers. This decline was evident culturally; while Taqi al-Din founded an observatory in Istanbul and the Jai Singh Observatory was built in the 18th century, there was not a single Muslim country with a major observatory by the twentieth century. The Reconquista, launched against Muslim principalities in Iberia, succeeded in 1492. By the 19th century the British Empire had formally ended the Mughal dynasty in India. The Ottoman Empire disintegrated after World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924.

The majority and oldest group among Shia at that time, the Zaydis, named after the great grandson of Ali, the scholar Zayd ibn Ali, used the Hanafi jurisprudence, as did most Sunnis. The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran. The ensuing mandatory conversion of Iran to Twelver Shia Islam for the largely Sunni population also ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shiism over the Zaidi sect, the largest group amongst the Shia before the Safavid Dynasty, and the Ismaili sect. Nader Shah, who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Shiism by calling it the Jaafari Madh'hab.

A revival movement during this period was an 18th-century Salafi movement led by Ibn Abd al-Wahhab in today's Saudi Arabia. Referred to as Wahhabi, their self designation is Muwahiddun (unitarians). Building upon earlier efforts such as those by Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn al-Qayyim, the movement allegedly seeks to uphold monotheism and purify Islam of what they see as later innovations. Their zeal against idolatrous shrines led to the desecration of shrines around the world, including that of Muhammad and his companions in Mecca and Medina. In the 19th century, the Deobandi and Barelwi movements were initiated.

Modern times (20th century–present)

Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants, from mostly India and Indonesia, to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas. The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith, likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914. Muslim immigrants began arriving, many as guest workers and largely from former colonies, in several Western European nations since the 1960s.

There are more and more new Muslim intellectuals who increasingly separate perennial Islamic beliefs from archaic cultural traditions. Liberal Islam is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and they stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters". Women's issues receive significant weight in the modern discourse on Islam.

Secular powers such as the Chinese Red Guards closed many mosques and destroyed Qurans, and Communist Albania became the first country to ban the practice of every religion. About half a million Muslims were killed in Cambodia by communists who, it is argued, viewed them as their primary enemy and wished to exterminate them since they stood out and worshipped their own god. In Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were banned in official buildings, as also happened in Tunisia.

Jamal-al-Din al-Afghani, along with his acolyte Muhammad Abduh, have been credited as forerunners of the Islamic revival. Abul A'la Maududi helped influence modern political Islam. Islamist groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood advocate Islam as a comprehensive political solution, often in spite of being banned. In Iran, revolution replaced a secular regime with an Islamic state. In Turkey, the Islamist AK Party has democratically been in power for about a decade, while Islamist parties did well in elections following the Arab Spring. The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), consisting of Muslim countries, was established in 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.

Piety appears to be deepening worldwide. In many places, the prevalence of the hijab is growing increasingly common and the percentage of Muslims favoring Sharia laws has increased. With religious guidance increasingly available electronically, Muslims are able to access views that are strict enough for them rather than rely on state clerics who are often seen as stooges. Some organizations began using the media to promote Islam such as the 24-hour TV channel, Peace TV. Perhaps as a result of these efforts, most experts agree that Islam is growing faster than any other faith in East and West Africa.

Denominations

Sunni

The largest denomination in Islam is Sunni Islam, which makes up 75%–90% of all Muslims. Sunni Muslims also go by the name Ahl as-Sunnah which means "people of the tradition ". These hadiths, recounting Muhammad's words, actions, and personal characteristics, are preserved in traditions known as Al-Kutub Al-Sittah (six major books).

Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him and those leaders were elected. Sunnis believe that anyone who is righteous and just could be a caliph but they have to act according to the Qur'an and the Hadith, the example of Muhammad and give the people their rights.

The Sunnis follow the Quran, then the Hadith. Then for legal matters not found in the Quran or the Hadith, they follow four madh'habs (schools of thought): Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki and Shafi'i, established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad bin Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i respectively.

All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim may choose any one that he or she finds agreeable.

Ahle Sunnat Barelvi and Deobandi movements of Sunni Islam accept the validity of all four Sunni schools of thought. Ahle Sunnat Barelvi movement is a South Asian revivalist movement of Sunni Islam with over 200 million followers. They believe themselves South Asia's heirs and representatives of the earliest Muslim community. The movement emphasizes primacy of Islamic law in all matters with adherence to Sufi practices and personal devotion to the Prophet Muhammad. Since partition of India and Pakistan in 1947, it has addressed leading political issues for Muslims. It has spread to South Africa, Europe, United States of America and in Australia with the help of their missionary movements like Dawat-e-Islami and World Islamic Mission. While Deobandi movement is an Indo-Pakistani reformist movement centered around the institution of Dar al-Ulum of Deoband, India.The school was founded in 1867 and is much influenced by the Wahhabi movement in Saudi Arabia. Alternatively, the Salafi (also known as Wahhabi or Ahl al-Hadith) is an ultra-orthodox Islamic movement which either rejects or doesn't strictly follow all four schools of Sunni thought, and they claim to take the first generation of Muslims as exemplary models.

Shia

The Shia constitute 10–20% of Islam and are its second-largest branch.

Maria Massi Dakake argues that Shi'ism as a unique phenomenon within the larger body of Islamic community can not be adequately described as a "sect" or "school", and it is also wrong to view it as an offshoot or detached community therein. Shiites have always considered themselves an integral part of the Islamic community and, in fact, to represent the elite believers thereof. Additionally, being more than just one of the many schools of Islamic thought, different branches of Shiite scholarship are aspects of a larger and more comprehensive phenomenon, embodying a completely independent system of religious and political authority and historical interpretation that deeply informs its own highly structured intellectual and religious hierarchy. Shiism, as such, despite being a minority, has made remarkable contributions to Islamic civilization that far outweigh its size.

While the Sunnis believe that a Caliph should be elected by the community, Shia's believe that Muhammad appointed his son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib, as his successor and only certain descendants of Ali could be Imams. As a result, they believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib was the first Imam (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs Abu Bakr, Uthman ibn al-Affan and Umar ibn al-Khattab.

Shia Islam has several branches, the most prominent being the Twelvers (the largest branch), Zaidis and Ismailis. Different branches accept different descendants of Ali as Imams. After the death of Imam Jafar al-Sadiq who is considered the sixth Imam by the Twelvers and the Ismaili's, the Ismailis recognized his son Isma'il ibn Jafar as his successor whereas the Twelver Shia's (Ithna Asheri) followed his other son Musa al-Kadhim as the seventh Imam. The Zaydis consider Zayd ibn Ali, the uncle of Imam Jafar al-Sadiq, as their fifth Imam, and follow a different line of succession after him.

Major points of contention include the cursing of figures revered by Sunnis. However, Jafar al-Sadiq himself disapproved of people who disapproved of his great grand father Abu Bakr and Zayd ibn Ali revered Abu Bakr and Umar. More recently, Ali al-Sistani condemned the practice.

Other smaller groups include the Bohra as well as the Alawites and Alevi. Some Shia branches label other Shia branches that do not agree with their doctrine as Ghulat.

Sufism

Sufism or Tasawwuf (Template:Lang-ar), according to its adherents, is the inner mystical dimension of Islam. Classical Sufi scholars have defined Sufism as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God". Alternatively, in the words of the Darqawi Sufi teacher Ahmad ibn Ajiba, "a science through which one can know how to travel into the presence of the Divine, purify one's inner self from filth, and beautify it with a variety of praiseworthy traits". Traditional Sufis, such as Bayazid Bastami, Jalaluddin Rumi, Haji Bektash Veli, Junaid Baghdadi, and Al-Ghazali, define Sufism as purely based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of Muhammad. Sufism (Tasawwuf) is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find divine love and knowledge through direct personal experience of God. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use. Hasan al-Basri was inspired by the ideas of piety and condemnation of worldliness preached by Muhammad and these ideas were later further developed by Al-Ghazali in his books on Sufism. Sufism is popular in countries such as Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, Chad and Niger.

Sufism enjoyed a strong revival in central Asia. Central Asia is considered to be a center of Sufism. Sufism has played a significant role in fighting against Tsars of Russia and Soviet colonization. Here, Sufis and their different orders are the main religious sources.

Other denominations

• Ahmadiyya is an Islamic reform movement (with Sunni roots) founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad that began in India in 1889 and is practiced by 10 to 20 million Muslims around the world. Ahmad claimed to have fulfilled the prophecies concerning the arrival of the 'Imam Mahdi' and the 'Promised Messiah'.
• The Ibadi is a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam and is a branch of Kharijite and is practiced by 1.45 million Muslims around the world. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers.
• Mahdavia is an Islamic sect that believes in a 15th-century Mahdi, Muhammad Jaunpuri
• The Quranists are Muslims who generally reject the Hadith.
• Yazdânism is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to Kurdistan by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century.
• There are also black Muslim movements such as the Nation of Islam (NOI), Five-Percent Nation and Moorish scientists.

Non-denominational Muslims

Non-denominational Muslims is an umbrella term that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific Islamic denomination. Prominent figures who refused to identify with a particular Islamic denomination have included Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad Iqbal and Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response. The Pew Research Center reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in Kazakhstan at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identify in this way.

Demographics

A comprehensive 2009 demographic study of 232 countries and territories reported that 23% of the global population, or 1.57 billion people, are Muslims. Of those, it is estimated that over 75–90% are Sunni and 10–20% are Shia with a small minority belonging to other sects. Approximately 57 countries are Muslim-majority, and Arabs account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide. The number of Muslims worldwide increased from 200 million in 1900 to 551 million in 1970, and tripled to 1.57 billion by 2009.

The majority of Muslims live in Asia and Africa. Approximately 62% of the world's Muslims live in Asia, with over 683 million adherents in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh. In the Middle East, non-Arab countries such as Turkey and Iran are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in Africa, Egypt and Nigeria have the most populous Muslim communities.

Most estimates indicate that the People's Republic of China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population). However, data provided by the San Diego State University's International Population Center to U.S. News & World Report suggests that China has 65.3 million Muslims. Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity in many European countries, and is slowly catching up to that status in the Americas, with between 2,454,000, according to Pew Forum, and approximately 7 million Muslims, according to the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR), in the United States.

Culture

The term "Islamic culture" could be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as festivals and dress code. It is also commonly used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people. Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims, sometimes referred to as 'Islamicate'.

Architecture

Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic art is architecture, particularly that of the mosque (four-iwan and hypostyle). Through the edifices, the effect of varying cultures within Islamic civilization can be illustrated. The North African and Spanish Islamic architecture, for example, has Roman-Byzantine elements, as seen in the Great Mosque of Kairouan which contains marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings, in the Alhambra palace at Granada, or in the Great Mosque of Cordoba.

Art

Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily Muslim) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by Muslim populations. It includes fields as varied as architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others.

Making images of human beings and animals is frowned on in many Islamic cultures and connected with laws against idolatry common to all Abrahamic religions, as 'Abdullaah ibn Mas'ood reported that Muhammad said, "Those who will be most severely punished by Allah on the Day of Resurrection will be the image-makers" (reported by al-Bukhaari, see al-Fath, 10/382). However this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods, and there are examples of paintings of both animals and humans in Mughal, Persian and Turkish art. The existence of this aversion to creating images of animate beings has been used to explain the prevalence of calligraphy, tessellation and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture.

Calendar

The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the Hijra in 622 CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. The assignment of this year as the year 1 AH (Anno Hegirae) in the Islamic calendar was reportedly made by Caliph Umar. It is a lunar calendar with days lasting from sunset to sunset. Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Template:Lang-ar) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.

Criticism

Criticism of Islam has existed since Islam's formative stages. Early written criticism came from Christians, prior to the ninth century, many of whom viewed Islam as a radical Christian heresy. Later there appeared criticism from the Muslim world itself, and also from Jewish writers and from ecclesiastical Christians.

Objects of criticism include the morality of the life of Muhammad, the last law bearing prophet of Islam, both in his public and personal life. Issues relating to the authenticity and morality of the Qur'an, the Islamic holy book, are also discussed by critics. Other criticisms focus on the question of human rights in modern Islamic nations, and the treatment of women in Islamic law and practice. In wake of the recent multiculturalism trend, Islam's influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been criticized.

See also

Template:Misplaced Pages books

• Criticism of Islam
• Challenge of the Quran
• Glossary of Islam
• History of Islam
• Islam and other religions
• Criteria of True Prophet
• Islam by country
• Islamic economics
• Islamic ethics
• Islamic literature
• Islamic mythology
• Islamic schools and branches
• Islamic studies
• List of Muslim empires and dynasties
• List of notable converts to Islam
• Lists of Muslims
• Major religious groups
• Muslim world
• Religious conversion#Islam
• Scientific foreknowledge in sacred texts
• Timeline of Muslim history

• Islam

References

Notes

1. There are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the s is /z/ or /s/, and whether the a is pronounced /ɑː/, /æ/ or (when the stress is on the first syllable) /ə/ (Merriam Webster). The most common are /ˈɪzləmˌ ˈɪsləmˌ ɪzˈlɑːmˌ ɪsˈlɑːm/ (Oxford English Dictionary, Random House) and /ˈɪzlɑːmˌ ˈɪslɑːm/ (American Heritage Dictionary).
2. /ʔiˈslaːm/: Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from [i]~[ɪ]~[e]. The second vowel ranges from [æ]~[a]~[ɑ]~[ɛ]. In Northwestern Africa, they do not have stress or lengthened vowels.

Citations

1. thefreedictionary.com: "muslim"
2. quran.com:
3. • Quran 51:56
   • "God". Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. Retrieved 2010-12-18. For Muslims, God is unique and without equal.
   • "Human Nature and the Purpose of Existence". Patheos.com. Retrieved 2011-01-29.
4. "People of the Book". Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. Retrieved 2010-12-18.
5. ^
   • Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it.
   • Esposito (1998, pp. 6, 12)
   • Esposito (2002, pp. 4–5) harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFEsposito2002 (help)
   • Peters (2003, p. 9)
   • Buhl, F; Welch, A.T. "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)* Hava Lazarus-Yafeh. "Tahrif". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
6. Cf. Qur'an, III. 3; V. 4; V. 43 etc.
7. Bennett (2010, p. 101)
8. Esposito (2002b, p. 17)
9. • Esposito (2002b, pp. 111, 112, 118)
   • "Shari'ah". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
10. The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pg.125-258
11. Harney, John (January 3, 2016). "How Do Sunni and Shia Islam Differ?". New York Times. Retrieved January 4, 2016.
12. Almukhtar, Sarah; Peçanha, Sergio; Wallace, Tim (January 5, 2016). "Behind Stark Political Divisions, a More Complex Map of Sunnis and Shiites". New York Times. Retrieved January 6, 2016.
13. ^
    • "Sunnite". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2010-08-26. They numbered about 900 million in the late 20th century and constituted nine-tenths of all the adherents of Islām.
    • Islamic Beliefs, Practices, and Cultures. Marshall Cavendish. 2010. p. 352. ISBN 0-7614-7926-0. Retrieved December 19, 2011. A common compromise figure ranks Sunnis at 90 percent.
    • "Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population". Pew Research Center. October 7, 2009. Retrieved 2013-09-24. Of the total Muslim population, 10-13% are Shia Muslims and 87-90% are Sunni Muslims.
    • "Quick guide: Sunnis and Shias". BBC News. 2011-12-06. Retrieved December 18, 2011. The great majority of Muslims are Sunnis - estimates suggest the figure is somewhere between 85% and 90%.
    • Sunni Islam: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90 percent) of that community."
    • "Sunni and Shia Islam". Library of Congress Country Studies. Retrieved December 17, 2011. Sunni constitute 85 percent of the world's Muslims.
    • "Sunni". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Retrieved December 20, 2012. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85% of the world's over 1.5 billion Muslims.
    • "Tension between Sunnis, Shiites emerging in USA". USA Today. 2007-09-24. Retrieved 2013-09-24. Among the world's estimated 1.4 billion Muslims, about 85% are Sunni and about 15% are Shiite.
    • Inside Muslim minds "around 80% are Sunni"
    • Who Gets To Narrate the World "The Sunnis (approximately 80%)"
    • A world theology N. Ross Reat "80% being the Sunni"
    • Islam and the Ahmadiyya jama'at "The Sunni segment, accounting for at least 80% of the worlds Muslim population"
    • Eastern Europe Russia and Central Asia "some 80% of the worlds Muslims are Sunni"
    • A dictionary of modern politics "probably 80% of the worlds Muslims are Sunni"
    • "Religions". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2010-08-25. Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population...
14. ^ See
    • "Shīʿite". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2010-08-25. Shīʿites have come to account for roughly one-tenth of the Muslim population worldwide.
    • "Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population". Pew Research Center. 2009-10-07. Retrieved 2013-09-24. The Pew Forum's estimate of the Shia population (10-13%) is in keeping with previous estimates, which generally have been in the range of 10-15%. Some previous estimates, however, have placed the number of Shias at nearly 20% of the world's Muslim population.
    • "Shia". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Retrieved December 5, 2011. Shi'a Islam is the second largest branch of the tradition, with up to 200 million followers who comprise around 15% of all Muslims worldwide...
    • "Religions". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2010-08-25. Shia Islam represents 10-20% of Muslims worldwide...
    • Iran, Israel and the United States "The majority of the world's Islamic population, which is Sunni, accounts for over 75% of the Islamic population; the other 10-20 percent is Shia." (reference: CIA)
    • Sue Hellett; U.S. should focus on sanctions against Iran "Let me review, while Shia Islam makes up only 10-20 percent of the world's Muslim population, Iraq has a Shia majority (between 60-65 percent), but had a Sunni controlled government under Saddam Hussein and cronies from 1958-2003... (If you like government figures, see the CIA World Factbook.)"
15. ^ Miller (2009, pp. 8, 17)
16. • Esposito (2002b, p. 21)
    • Esposito (2004, pp. 2, 43)
    • Miller (2009, pp. 9, 19)
17. ^ Miller (2009)
18. "Executive Summary". The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. Retrieved 22 December 2011.
19. "Table: Muslim Population by Country | Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project". Features.pewforum.org. 2011-01-27. Retrieved 2014-07-23.
20. PBS - Islam: Empire of Faith - Faith - Islam Today.
21. Lippman, Thomas W. (2008-04-07). "No God But God". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
22. Burke, Daniel (April 4, 2015). "The world's fastest-growing religion is ..." CNN. Retrieved 18 April 2015.
23. Dictionary listing for Siin roots derived from Lane's Arabic-English Lexicon via www.studyquran.co.uk
24. Lewis, Barnard; Churchill, Buntzie Ellis (2009). Islam: The Religion and The People. Wharton School Publishing. p. 8. ISBN 9780132230858.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
25. "What does Islam mean?". The Friday Journal. 2011-02-06. Archived from the original on 2011-03-13. {{cite web}}: |archive-date= / |archive-url= timestamp mismatch; 2011-03-14 suggested (help)
26. • Quran 6:125, Quran 61:7, Quran 39:22
    • Gardet, L.; Jomier, J. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
27. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2008). Islamic spirituality : foundations. London: Routledge. p. 658. ISBN 978-0-415-44262-6.
28. Quran 5:3, Quran 3:19, Quran 3:83
29. • Quran 9:74, Quran 49:14
    • Gardet, L.; Jomier, J. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
30. Esposito, John L. (2000-04-06). The Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. pp. 76–77. ISBN 9780195107999.
31. Mahmutćehajić, Rusmir (2006). The mosque: the heart of submission. Fordham University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-8232-2584-2.
32. • Quran 112:1–4
    • Esposito (2002b, pp. 74–76)
    • Esposito (2004, p. 22)
    • Griffith (2006, p. 248) harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFGriffith2006 (help)
    • D. Gimaret. "Allah, Tawhid". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
33. God Created the Universe with the Purpose to Serve Humankind: God Created ... By Fateh Ullah Khan Page 298
34. Turfe, Tallal Alie (1985). Islamic Unity and Happiness. TTQ, Inc. p. 37. ISBN 9780940368477.
35. What is Islam? By Jamaal Zarabozo Page 37. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
36. Agwan, A.R.; Khan, N.K. A - E. Global Vision Publishing. p. 357. ISBN 9788187746003.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
37. Bentley, David (September 1999). The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the Book. William Carey Library. ISBN 0-87808-299-9.
38. • Quran 2:117
    • "Islām". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
39. • "Human Nature and the Purpose of Existence". Patheos.com. Retrieved 2011-01-29.
    • Quran 51:56
40. • "Islām". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
    • Quran 2:186
41. Quran 50:16
42. • "God". Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. Retrieved 2010-12-18.
    • "Islam and Christianity", Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer to God as Allāh.
    • L. Gardet. "Allah". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
43. • Quran 35:1
    • Esposito (2002b, pp. 26–28)
    • W. Madelung. "Malā'ika". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
    • Gisela Webb. "Angel". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
44. Nidhal Guessoum (30 October 2010). Islam's Quantum Question: Reconciling Muslim Tradition and Modern Science. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-0-85773-075-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
45. Kaiyume Baksh (2007). Islam and Other Major World Religions. Trafford Publishing. pp. 163–. ISBN 978-1-4251-1303-2.
46. Chejne, A. (1969) The Arabic Language: Its Role in History, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.
47. Speicher, K. (1997) in: Edzard, L., and Szyska, C. (eds.) Encounters of Words and Texts: Intercultural Studies in Honor of Stefan Wild. Georg Olms, Hildesheim, pp. 43–66.
48. Esposito (2004, pp. 17, 18, 21)
49. Al Faruqi; Lois Ibsen (1987). "The Cantillation of the Qur'an". Asian Music (Autumn – Winter 1987): 3–4.
50. • "Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
    • "Qur'an". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
51. Esposito (2004, p. 79)
52. • Esposito (2004, pp. 79–81)
    • "Tafsir". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
53. • Teece (2003, pp. 12, 13)
    • Turner (2006, p. 42)
    • "Qur'an". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help): The word Qurʼan was invented and first used in the Qurʼan itself. There are two different theories about this term and its formation.
54. "Google". google.com.pk. Retrieved 17 December 2015.
55. • Momem (1987, p. 176) harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFMomem1987 (help)
    • "Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
56. * Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p.666* J. Robson. "Hadith". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)* D. W. Brown. "Sunna". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
57. ^ Read, Study, Search Online. Sahih Bukhari. Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
58. The Canonization of Al-Bukhari and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunni Hadith Canon by Jonathan Brown, BRILL, 2007
59. Muqaddimah Ibn al-Salah, pg. 160-9 Dar al-Ma'aarif edition
60. • "Resurrection", The New Encyclopedia of Islam (2003)
    • "Avicenna". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help): Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as "Avicenna".
    • L. Gardet. "Qiyama". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
61. Animals in Islam By Basheer Ahmad Masri Page 27
62. What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam:Second Edition: Second Edition By John L. Esposito Page 130
63. • Smith (2006, p. 89); Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World, p.565
    • "Heaven", The Columbia Encyclopedia (2000)
    • Asma Afsaruddin. "Garden". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
    • "Paradise". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
64. Quran 1:4
65. Quran 6:31
66. Quran 101:1
67. *Cohen-Mor (2001, p. 4): "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen: 'Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us..." ' "* Ahmet T. Karamustafa. "Fate". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help): The verb qadara literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".
68. "Hajj - ReligionFacts". www.religionfacts.com. Retrieved 2015-11-21.
69. Pillars of Islam, Oxford Islamic Studies Online
70. Hossein Nasr The Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp 3, 39, 85, 27–272
71. N Mohammad (1985), The doctrine of jihad: An introduction, Journal of Law and Religion, 3(2): 381-397
72. • Farah (1994), p.135
    • Momen (1987), p.178
    • "Islam", Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals (2004)
73. • Esposito (2002b, pp. 18, 19)
    • Hedáyetullah (2006, pp. 53–55) harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFHedáyetullah2006 (help)
    • Kobeisy (2004, pp. 22–34)
    • Momen (1987, p. 178)
74. Budge, E.A. Wallis (June 13, 2001). Budge's Egypt: A Classic 19th century Travel Guide. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 123–128. ISBN 0-486-41721-2.
75. Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America: edited by Rosemary Skinner Keller, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Marie Cantlon Page 615
76. • Pedersen, J.; Hillenbrand, R.; Burton-Page, J. "Masdjid". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
    • "Mosque". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
77. Qurʼan, Surat al-Tawbah 9:60 "Zakat expenditures are only for the poor and for the needy and for those employed to collect (Zakat) and for bringing hearts together and for freeing captives and for those in debt (or bonded labour) and for the cause of Allah and for the (stranded) traveller - an obligation (imposed) by Allah . And Allah is Knowing and Wise."
78. The Islamic Voluntary Sector in Southeast Asia edited by K. A. Mohamed Ariff
79. "Analysis: A faith-based aid revolution in the Muslim world?". IRIN. 2012-06-01. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
80. Medani Ahmed and Sebastian Gianci, Zakat, Encyclopedia of Taxation and Tax Policy, p. 479
81. • Quran 2:177
    • Esposito (2004, p. 90)
    • "Zakat". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
    • "Zakat". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
82. • Quran 2:184
    • Esposito (2004, pp. 90, 91)
    • "Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
83. Getting the Best Out of Hajj By Abu Muneer Ismail Davids. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
84. Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians By F. E. Peters Page 20. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
85. Islam and the Glorious Ka'abah: None By Sayed M Alhuseini, Farouq M. Alhuseini Page 61
86. • Farah (1994, pp. 145–147)
    • Goldschmidt (2005, p. 48) harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFGoldschmidt2005 (help)
    • "Hajj". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
87. "Shari'ah". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
88. Islam Vs. West: Fact Or Fiction? By Abubakr Asadulla - Page 30. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
89. Islamic State Practices, International Law And The Threat From Terrorism By Javaid Rehman Page 20
90. Muwatta Imam Malik, translated by professor Mohammad Rabimuddin. ISBN 81-7151-097-3 published by Nusrat Ali Nasri for Kitab Bhavan in New Delhi-110002 India, Page iv
91. ^ R. B. Serjeant, "Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib: analysis and translation of the documents comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies (1978), 41: 1-42, Cambridge University Press.
92. ^ Watt. Muhammad at Medina and R. B. Serjeant "The Constitution of Medina." Islamic Quarterly 8 (1964) p.4.
93. ^ "Constitution of Medina". Retrieved 7 October 2014.
94. "Surat Al-Hujurat 49:13". Retrieved 7 October 2014.
95. Encyclopedeia of Eminent Thinkers - Page 38, K. S. Bharathi - 1998
96. Weiss (2002, pp. 3, 161)
97. • Quran 5:5
    • Curtis (2005, p. 164)
    • Esposito (2002b, p. 111)
    • Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws
    • Ghamidi (2001): The Dietary Laws
    • Ghamidi (2001): Various types of the prayer
    • Ersilia Francesca. "Slaughter". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
98. "al-Mar'a". Encyclopaedia of Islam
99. • Waines (2003, pp. 93–96)
    • The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2003), p.339
    • Esposito (1998, p. 79)
100. Newby, Gordon D. (2002). A concise encyclopedia of Islam (Repr. ed.). Oxford: Oneworld. p. 141. ISBN 1851682953.
101. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2001). Islam : religion, history, and civilization. New York: HarperOne. p. 68. ISBN 0060507144.
102. "Why Can't a Woman have 2 Husbands?". 14 Publications. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
103. Pew Research-Muslim-Majority Countries-
104. "Can a husband make use of every part of his wife during sexual intercourse? - Questions on Islam". questionsonislam.com. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
105. • International Business Success in a Strange Cultural Environment By Mamarinta P. Mababaya Page 203
     • Quran 4:29
106. Karim, Shafiel A. (2010). The Islamic Moral Economy: A Study of Islamic Money and Financial Instruments. Boca Raton, FL: Brown Walker Press. ISBN 978-1-59942-539-9.
107. Financial Regulation in Crisis?: The Role of Law and the Failure of Northern Rock By Joanna Gray, Orkun Akseli Page 97
108. • Ibn Majah Vol 3 Hadith 2289
     • International Business Success in a Strange Cultural Environment By Mamarinta P. Mababaya Page 202
     • Islamic Capital Markets: Theory and Practice By Noureddine Krichene Page 119
109. • Abu Daud Hadith 2015
     • Ibn Majah Vold 3 Hadith 2154
     • The Stability of Islamic Finance: Creating a Resilient Financial Environment By Zamir Iqbal, Abbas Mirakhor, Noureddine Krichenne, Hossein Askari Page 75
110. Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective By Muhammad Al-Buraey Page 254
111. The challenge of Islamic renaissance By Syed Abdul Quddus
112. Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective By Muhammad Al-Buraey Page 252
113. Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths By Said Öztürk Page 539. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
114. Islamic Identity and the Struggle for Justice edited by Nimat Hafez Barazangi, M. Raquibuz Zaman, Omar Afzal Page 5
115. Iran's Economy Under the Islamic Republic By Jahangir Amuzegar. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
116. Iran: A Country Study: A Country Study edited by Glenn E. Curtis, Eric Hooglund Page 196
117. Firestone (1999) pp. 17–18
118. Reuven Firestone (1999), The Meaning of Jihād, p. 17–18
119. Britannica Encyclopedia, Jihad
120. • Brockopp (2003, pp. 99–100)
     • Esposito (2003, p. 93)
     • "jihad". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
121. • Firestone (1999, p. 17)
     • "Djihad", Encyclopedia of Islam Online.
122. Firestone (1999, p. 17)
123. ^ "Djihād". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
124. Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror, Mary R. Habeck, Yale University Press, p.108–109, 118
125. Seyyed Hossein Nasr The Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp 72
126. Sachedina (1998, pp. 105, 106)
127. • Esposito (1998, p. 12)
     • Esposito (2002b, pp. 4–5)
     • F. E. Peters (2003), p.9
     • "Muhammad". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
128. • Quran 18:110
     • Buhl, F; Welch, A.T. "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
129. The Qur'an with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English By Ali Ünal Page 1323
130. Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, Slaves and Slavery
131. Bilal b. Rabah, Encyclopedia of Islam
132. The Cambridge History of Islam (1977), p.36
133. Serjeant (1978), p. 4.
134. Watt. Muhammad at Medina. pp. 227-228 Watt argues that the initial agreement came about shortly after the hijra and that the document was amended at a later date - specifically after the battle of Badr (AH 2, = AD 624). Serjeant argues that the constitution is in fact 8 different treaties which can be dated according to events as they transpired in Medina, with the first treaty written shortly after Muhammad's arrival. R. B. Serjeant. "The Sunnah Jâmi'ah, Pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrîm of Yathrib: Analysis and Translation of the Documents Comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'." in The Life of Muhammad: The Formation of the Classical Islamic World: Volume iv. Ed. Uri Rubin. Brookfield: Ashgate, 1998, p. 151 and see same article in BSOAS 41 (1978): 18 ff. See also Caetani. Annali dell'Islam, Volume I. Milano: Hoepli, 1905, p. 393. Julius Wellhausen. Skizzen und Vorabeiten, IV, Berlin: Reimer, 1889, p 82f who argue that the document is a single treaty agreed upon shortly after the hijra. Wellhausen argues that it belongs to the first year of Muhammad's residence in Medina, before the battle of Badr in 2/624. Even Moshe Gil a skeptic of Islamic history argues that it was written within five months of Muhammad's arrival in Medina. Moshe Gil. "The Constitution of Medina: A Reconsideration." Israel Oriental Studies 4 (1974): p. 45.
135. • Peters (2003, pp. 78, 79, 194)
     • Lapidus (2002, pp. 23–28)
136. Buhl, F; Welch, A.T. "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
137. • Holt & 1977a), p. 57) harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFHolt1977a) (help)
     • Hourani & 2003), p. 22) harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFHourani2003) (help)
     • Lapidus & 2002), p. 32) harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFLapidus2002) (help)
     • Madelung (1996, p. 43)
     • Tabatabaei (1979, pp. 30–50) harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFTabatabaei1979 (help)
138. See
     • Holt (1977a, p. 74) harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFHolt1977a (help)
     • Gardet, L.; Jomier, J. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
139. Holt (1977a), pp.67–72
140. Waines (2003) p.46
141. Donald Puchala, Theory and History in International Relations, page 137. Routledge, 2003.
142. Esposito (2010), p.38
143. Hofmann (2007), p.86
144. The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978-603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad Page 505
145. Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz By Imam Abu Muhammad Adbullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH 829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi Page 54-59
146. The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978-603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad Page 522
147. "Al-Muwatta'". Retrieved 7 October 2014.
148. History of Islamic Law by N. J. Coulson page 103. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
149. E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936, Volume 5 By Martijn Theodoor Houtsma page 207
150. Studies in Islamic History and Civilization: In Honour of Professor David Ayalon By Moshe Sharon Page 264
151. Lapidus (2002, p. 56); Lewis (1993, pp. 71–83)
152. "Islam in China". BBC. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
153. Lapidus (2002), p.86
154. Weiss (2002, pp. xvii, 162)
155. • Lapidus (2002), p.160
     • Waines (2003) p.126,127
156. Esposito (2010, p. 88)
157. Doi, Abdur Rahman (1984). Shariah: The Islamic Law. London: Ta-Ha Publishers. p. 110. ISBN 0-907461-38-7.
158. • Lapidus (2002, pp. 90, 91)
     • "Sufism". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
159. Esposito (2004, pp. 104, 105)
160. • Holt (1977a, pp. 80, 92, 105) harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFHolt1977a (help)
     • Holt (1977b, pp. 661–663) harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFHolt1977b (help)
     • Lapidus (2002, p. 56)
     • Lewis (1993, p. 84)
     • Gardet, L.; Jomier, J. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
161. Micheau, Françoise. "Encyclopedia of the History of Islamic Science: Technology, alchemy and life": 991–2. {{cite journal}}: |contribution= ignored (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help), in (Morelon & Rashed 1996, pp. 985–1007) harv error: no target: CITEREFMorelonRashed1996 (help)
162. "The beginnings of modern medicine: the Caliphate". Planetseed.com. Retrieved 2011-01-29.
163. Alatas, Syed Farid (2006). "From Jami'ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue". Current Sociology. 54 (1): 112–32. doi:10.1177/0011392106058837. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
164. Imamuddin, S. M. (1981). Muslim Spain 711–1492 AD. Brill Publishers. p. 169. ISBN 90-04-06131-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
165. The Guinness Book Of Records. 1998. p. 242. ISBN 0-553-57895-2.
166. Makdisi, George (April–June 1989). "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 109 (2). American Oriental Society: 175–182 . doi:10.2307/604423. JSTOR 604423. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
167. ^ Ahmed, Imad-ad-Dean. Signs in the heavens. 2. Amana Publications, 2006. Print. ISBN 1-59008-040-8 page 23, 42, 84.

     "Despite the fact that they did not have a quantified theory of error they were well aware that an increased number of observations qualitatively reduces the uncertainty."

168. Al-Khalili, Jim (4 January 2009). "The 'first true scientist'". BBC News. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
169. Gorini, Rosanna (October 2003). "Al-Haytham the man of experience. First steps in the science of vision" (PDF). Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine. 2 (4): 53–55. Retrieved 2008-09-25. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
170. Al-Khalili, Jim (2008-01-30). "It's time to herald the Arabic science that prefigure Darwin and Newton". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
171. Al-Khalili, Jim (2008-01-29). "Science: Islam's forgotten geniuses". London: The Telegraph. Retrieved 2011-12-13.
172. Haviland, Charles (2007-09-30). "The roar of Rumi - 800 years on". BBC News. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
173. "Islam: Jalaluddin Rumi". BBC. 2009-09-01. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
174. (Gaudiosi 1988) harv error: no target: CITEREFGaudiosi1988 (help)
175. (Hudson 2003, p. 32) harv error: no target: CITEREFHudson2003 (help)
176. "Mecca (Saudi Arabia)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2011-11-12.
177. • Lapidus (2002, pp. 103–143)
     • "Abbasid Dynasty". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
178. Gardet, L.; Jomier, J. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
179. "The Spread of Islam" (PDF). Retrieved 2 November 2013.
180. "Ottoman Empire". Oxford Islamic Studies Online. 6 May 2008. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
181. Israeli, Raphael (2002). Islam in China. pg 292. United States of America: Lexington Books. ISBN 0-7391-0375-X.
182. Dillon, Michael (1999). China's Muslim Hui Community. Curzon. p. 37. ISBN 0-7007-1026-4.
183. Ahmed, Imad-ad-Dean. Signs in the heavens. 2. Amana Publications, 2006. pg170. Print. ISBN 1-59008-040-8
184. Lapidus (2002), pp.358,378–380,624
185. Lapidus (2002), pp.380,489–493
186. "New Turkey". Al-Ahram Weekly. No. 488. 29 June – 5 July 2000. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
187. Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice By Mahmoud A. El-Gamal Page 122
188. The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social and Military History edited by Spencer C. Tucker, Priscilla Mary Roberts Page 917
189. The Iraq Effect: The Middle East After the Iraq War By Frederic M. Wehrey Page 91
190. Peter B. Golden: An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples; In: Osman Karatay, Ankara 2002, p.321
191. "Ismail Safavi" Encyclopædia Iranica
192. Nadir Shah and the Ja 'fari Madhhab Reconsidered, Ernest Tucker, Iranian Studies, Vol. 27, No. 1/4, Religion and Society in Islamic Iran during the Pre-Modern Era (1994), pp. 163-179, Published by: International Society for Iranian Studies
193. Esposito (2010, p. 146)
194. "Graves desecrated in Mizdah". Libyan Herald. 4 September 2013. Retrieved 2 November 2013.
195. Muslim Minorities in the West: Visible and Invisible By Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Jane I. Smith, pg 271
196. Bulliet, Richard, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, and David Northrup. The Earth and Its Peoples. 3. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005. ISBN 0-618-42770-8
197. Nigosian (2004, pp. 41) harvtxt error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFNigosian2004 (help)
198. • Esposito (2004, pp. 118, 119, 179)
     • Lapidus (2002, pp. 823–830)
199. Rippin (2001, p. 288)
200. Page18*Elsie, Robert. 2000. A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology, and Folk Culture. C. Hurst & Co. ISBN 978-1-85065-570-1.
201. *Goldman, Merle (1986). "Religion in Post-Mao China". Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 483 (1): 146–156. doi:10.1177/0002716286483001013. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
202. Perrin, Andrew (October 10, 2003). "Weakness in numbers". TIME. Retrieved 2013-09-24. (subscription required)
203. "Huge rally for Turkish secularsim". BBC News. 2011-04-29. Retrieved 2011-12-06.
204. Saleh, Heba (2011-10-15). "Tunisia moves against headscarves". BBC News. Retrieved 2011-12-06.
205. Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, Thomson Gale, 2004
206. "Political Islam: A movement in motion". Economist Magazine. 3 January 2014. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
207. "Are secular forces being squeezed out of Arab Spring?". BBC News. 2011-08-09. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
208. Kirkpatrick, David D. (2011-12-03). "Egypt's vote puts emphasis on split over religious rule". New York Times. Retrieved 2011-12-08.
209. "Organization of the Islamic Conference". BBC News. 2010-12-26. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
210. "Ultraconservative Islam on rise in Mideast". MSNBC. 2008-10-18. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
211. ^ Laying down the law: Islam's authority deficit. 2007-06-28. Retrieved 2011-08-15. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
212. Slackman, Michael (2008-12-23). "Jordanian students rebel, embracing conservative Islam". New York Times. Retrieved 2011-08-15.
213. Slackman, Michael (2007-01-28). "In Egypt, a new battle begins over the veil". New York Times. Retrieved 2011-08-15.
214. Beech, Hannah (2007-02-22). "Why Indonesia matters". TIME. Retrieved 2013-09-24. (subscription required)
215. "24-hours Islamic International TV channel". Peace TV. Retrieved 2010-11-22.
216. Onishi, Norimitsu (2001-11-01). "Rising Muslim power causes unrest in Nigeria and elsewhere". New York Times. Retrieved 2011-11-17.
217. "Muslims say their faith growing fast in Africa". wwrn.org. Retrieved 2011-11-17.
218. ^ "Islām". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
219. • "Islam Today". Islam: Empire of Faith (2000). PBS. Retrieved 2010-08-25. Islam, followed by more than a billion people today, is the world's third fastest growing religion.
     • Lippman, Thomas W. (2008-04-07). "No God But God". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 2013-09-24. Islam is the youngest, the fastest growing, and in many ways the least complicated of the world's great monotheistic faiths. It is a unique religion based on its own holy book, but it is also a direct descendant of Judaism and Christianity, incorporating some of the teachings of those religions—modifying some and rejecting others.
     • "Understanding Islam". Susan Headden. U.S. News & World Report. April 7, 2008. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
     • "Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents". Adherents.com. Retrieved 2007-07-03.
220. • Esposito (2003, pp. 275, 306)
     • "Shariah". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
     • "Sunnite". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
221. Nahid Afrose Kabir (26 October 2010). Young British Muslims: Identity, Culture, Politics and the Media. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 60–. ISBN 978-0-7486-4373-8.
222. "Barelvi - Oxford Reference". oxfordreference.com.
223. Usha Sanyal. Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the Twentieth Century. Modern Asian Studies (1998), Cambridge University Press.
224. "Ahl al-Sunnah wa'l-Jamaah". oxfordreference.com.
225. "Deobandis - Oxford Reference". oxfordreference.com.
226. Salafi Islam GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved on 2010-11-09.
227. Massi Dakake, Maria (2008). The Charismatic Community: Shi'ite Identity in Early Islam. State University of New York Press. p. 1.
228. The waning of the Umayyad caliphate by Tabarī, Carole Hillenbrand, 1989, p37, p38
229. The Encyclopedia of Religion Vol.16, Mircea Eliade, Charles J. Adams, Macmillan, 1987, p243.
230. "Shiite leaders forbid insults against Sunnis". Al-monitor. 2014-07-11. Retrieved 2016-01-06.
231. • Kramer (1987), Syria's Alawis and Shiism pp.237–254
     • Shia branches
232. Ahmed Zarruq, Zaineb Istrabadi, Hamza Yusuf Hanson. The Principles of Sufism. Amal Press. 2008.
233. An English translation of Ahmad ibn Ajiba's biography has been published by Fons Vitae.
234. Corrections of Popular Versions of Poems From Rumi's Divan
235. Ibrahim Gamard, Rumi and Self-Discovery
236. Chittick, William C (2008). Sufism: A Beginner's Guide. ISBN 9781780740522. Retrieved 17 January 2015.
237. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein Nasr (1993-01-01). An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. ISBN 9780791415153. Retrieved 17 January 2015.
238. "Religions". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Retrieved 2010-08-25.
239. Trimingham (1998), p.1
240. • Esposito (2003, p. 302)
     • Malik (2006, p. 3) harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFMalik2006 (help)
     • Turner (1998, p. 145)
     • "Afghanistan: A Country Study - Sufism". Library of Congress Country Studies. 1997. Retrieved 2007-04-18.
241. "The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity". Pew Research Center. 2012-08-09. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
242. "Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal", Babou, Cheikh Anta, The International Journal of African Historical Studies, v. 40 no. 1 (2007) pp. 184–6
243. http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/uoc/PDF-FILES/(2)%20The%20Significant%20Role%20of%20Sufism%20in%20Central%20Asia%20(Dr.%20Farh.pdf
244. "Sufism in Southeast Asia: Reflections and Reconsiderations". jstor.org. Retrieved 17 December 2015.
245. "Who Are the Ahmadi?". bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 6 October 2013.
246. • Breach of Faith. Human Rights Watch. June 2005. p. 8. Retrieved March 29, 2014. Estimates of around 20 million would be appropriate
     • Larry DeVries, Don Baker, and Dan Overmyer. Asian Religions in British Columbia. University of Columbia Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-1662-5. Retrieved March 29, 2014. The community currently numbers around 15 million spread around the world{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
     • Juan Eduardo Campo. Encyclopedia of Islam. p. 24. ISBN 0-8160-5454-1. Retrieved March 29, 2014. The total size of the Ahmadiyya community in 2001 was estimated to be more than 10 million
     • "Ahmadiyya Muslims". pbs.org. Retrieved 6 October 2013.
     • A figure of 10-20 million represents approximately 1% of the Muslim population. See also Ahmadiyya by country.
247. Robert Brenton Betts. The Sunni-Shi'a Divide: Islam's Internal Divisions and Their Global Consequences. pp. 14–15. Retrieved 7 January 2015.
248. Benakis, Theodoros (13 January 2014). "Islamophoobia in Europe!". New Europe. Brussels. Retrieved 20 October 2015. Anyone who has travelled to Central Asia knows of the non-denominational Muslims – those who are neither Shiites nor Sounites, but who accept Islam as a religion generally.
249. Longton, Gary Gurr (2014). "Isis Jihadist group made me wonder about non-denominational Muslims". The Sentinel. Retrieved 21 October 2015. THE appalling and catastrophic pictures of the so-called new extremist Isis Jihadist group made me think about someone who can say I am a Muslim of a non-denominational standpoint, and to my surprise/ignorance, such people exist. Online, I found something called the people's mosque, which makes itself clear that it's 100 per cent non-denominational and most importantly, 100 per cent non-judgemental.
250. Kirkham, Bri (2015). "Indiana Blood Center cancels 'Muslims for Life' blood drive". Retrieved 21 October 2015. Ball State Student Sadie Sial identifies as a non-denominational Muslim, and her parents belong to the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. She has participated in multiple blood drives through the Indiana Blood Center.
251. Pollack, Kenneth (2014). Unthinkable: Iran, the Bomb, and American Strategy. p. 29. Although many Iranian hardliners are Shi'a chauvinists, Khomeini's ideology saw the revolution as pan-Islamist, and therefore embracing Sunni, Shi'a, Sufi, and other, more nondenominational Muslims
252. Cughtai, Muhammad Ikram (2005). Jamāl Al-Dīn Al-Afghāni: An Apostle of Islamic Resurgence. p. 454. Condemning the historically prevailing trend of blindly imitating religious leaders, al- Afghani revised to identity himself with a specific sect or imam by insisting that he was just a Muslim and a scholar with his own interpretation of Islam.
253. Jones, Justin. Shi'a Islam in Colonial India: Religion, Community and Sectarianism. pp. 25–26.
254. Ahmed, Khaled. "Was Jinnah a Shia or a Sunni?". The Friday Times. Retrieved 23 October 2015.
255. ^ "Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation". The World’s Muslims: Unity and Diversity. Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. August 9, 2012. Retrieved 4 September 2013.
256. Burns, Robert. Christianity, Islam, and the West. p. 55. 40 per cent called themselves "just a Muslim" according to the Council of American-Islamic relations
257. Tatari, Eren (2014). Muslims in British Local Government: Representing Minority Interests in Hackney, Newham and Tower Hamlets. p. 111. Nineteen said that they are Sunni Muslims, six said they are just Muslim without specifying a sect, two said they are Ahmadi, and two said their families are Alevi
258. Lopez, Ralph (2008). Truth in the Age of Bushism. p. 65. Many Iraqis take offense at reporters' efforts to identify them as Sunni or Shiite. A 2004 Iraq Centre for Research and Strategic Studies poll found the largest category of Iraqis classified themselves as "just Muslim."
259. CIA retrieved 21 Dec 2011
260. Miller (2009, p. 11)
261. Ba-Yunus, Ilyas; Kone, Kassim (2006). Muslims in the United States. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 172. ISBN 0-313-32825-0.
262. Whaling, Frank (1987). Religion in today's world: the religious situation of the world from 1945 to the present day. T & T Clark. p. 38. ISBN 0-567-09452-9.
263. "Islam: An Overview in Oxford Islamic Studies Online". Oxfordislamicstudies.com. 2008-05-06. Retrieved 2010-05-16.(subscription required)
264. "Secrets of Islam". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 2013-09-24. Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, San Diego State University (2005).
265. Miller (2009, pp. 15, 17)
266. "Number of Muslim by country". nationmaster.com. Retrieved 2007-05-30.
267. "The World Factbook – China". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 2009-06-15.
268. "China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet)". State.gov. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
269. "NW China region eyes global Muslim market". China Daily. 2008-07-09. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
270. "Muslim Media Network". Muslim Media Network. 2008-03-24. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
271. Secrets of Islam, U.S. News & World Report. Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, San Diego State University.
272. • Esposito (2004, pp. 2, 43)
     • "Islamic World". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
     • "Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents". Adherents.com. Retrieved 2007-01-09.
     • "Muslims in Europe: Country guide". BBC News. BBC. 2005-12-23. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
     • "Religion In Britain" (PDF). National Statistics. Office for National Statistics. 2003-02-13. Retrieved 2006-08-27.
273. The Mosque in America: A National Portrait Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR). April 26, 2001. Retrieved on 2010-08-01.
274. "'Islamic' Culture: A Groundless Myth". nytimes.com. 4 November 2011. Retrieved 25 November 2013.
275. Esposito (2010, p. 56)
276. "Islam", The New Encyclopædia Britannica (2005)
277. Isichei, Elizabeth Allo (1997). Elizabeth Allo Isichei, A history of African societies to 1870, page 175. Cambridge University Press, 1997. ISBN 978-0-521-45599-2. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
278. Marilyn Jenkins-Madina, Richard Ettinghauset and Architecture 650–1250, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-08869-8, p.3
279. Patheos Library – Islam Sacred Time – Patheos.com
280. Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws
281. De Haeresibus by John of Damascus. See Migne. Patrologia Graeca, vol. 94, 1864, cols 763-73. An English translation by the Reverend John W Voorhis appeared in THE MOSLEM WORLD for October 1954, pp. 392–398.
282. Warraq, Ibn (2003). Leaving Islam: Apostates Speak Out. Prometheus Books. p. 67. ISBN 1-59102-068-9.
283. Kammuna, Ibn (1971). Examination of the Three Faiths. Berkeley and Los Angeles: Moshe Perlmann. pp. 148–49.
284. ^ Oussani, Gabriel. "Mohammed and Mohammedanism". Newadvent.org. Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved April 16, 2006.
285. Warraq, Ibn (March 1, 2000). The Quest for Historical Muhammad (1st ed.). Amherst, Mass.: Prometheus Books. p. 103. ISBN 1-57392-787-2.
286. Bible in Mohammedian Literature., by Kaufmann Kohler Duncan B. McDonald, Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved April 22, 2006.
287. Spencer, Robert (October 25, 2002). Islam Unveiled: Disturbing Questions About the World's Fastest Growing Faith. Encounter Books. pp. 22–63. ISBN 1-893554-58-9.
288. http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2005&country=6825. See also Timothy Garton Ash (2006-10-05). "Islam in Europe". The New York Review of Books.
289. Timothy Garton Ash (2006-10-05). "Islam in Europe". The New York Review of Books.
290. Modood, Tariq (April 6, 2006). Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: A European Approach (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-415-35515-5.

Books and journals

• Accad, Martin (2003). "The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: An Exegetical Inventorial Table (Part I)". Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations. 14 (1). {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Ahmed, Akbar (1999). Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World (2.00 ed.). I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-86064-257-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Bennett, Clinton (2010). Interpreting the Qur'an: a guide for the uninitiated. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-8264-9944-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Brockopp, Jonathan E. (2003). Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia. University of South Carolina press. ISBN 1-57003-471-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Cohen-Mor, Dalya (2001). A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513398-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Curtis, Patricia A. (2005). A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations. Blackwell Publishing Professional. ISBN 978-0-8138-1946-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Esposito, John (2010). Islam: The Straight Path (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539600-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511234-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Esposito, John; Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck (2000a). Muslims on the Americanization Path?. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513526-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Esposito, John (2000b). Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510799-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Esposito, John (2002a). Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-516886-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Esposito, John (2002b). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515713-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512558-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Esposito, John (2004). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd Rev Upd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518266-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Farah, Caesar (1994). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (5th ed.). Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0-8120-1853-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Farah, Caesar (2003). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (7th ed.). Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0-7641-2226-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Firestone, Reuven (1999). Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512580-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Ghamidi, Javed (2001). Mizan. Dar al-Ishraq. OCLC 52901690. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Goldschmidt, Jr., Arthur; Davidson, Lawrence (2005). A Concise History of the Middle East (8th ed.). Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-4275-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Griffith, Ruth Marie; Savage, Barbara Dianne (2006). Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-8370-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck (2002). Muslims in the West: from sojourners to citizens. Oxford University Press. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Hawting, G. R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-24073-5. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Hedayetullah, Muhammad (2006). Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1-55369-842-5. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Hofmann, Murad (2007). Islam and Qur'an. ISBN 978-1-59008-047-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Holt, P.M; Lewis, Bernard (1977a). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29136-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Holt, P. M.; Lambton, Ann K.S; Lewis, Bernard (1977b). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29137-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Hourani, Albert; Ruthven, Malise (2003). A History of the Arab Peoples. Belknap Press; Revised edition. ISBN 978-0-674-01017-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Kobeisy, Ahmed Nezar (2004). Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0-313-32472-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Kramer, Martin (1987). Shi'Ism, Resistance, and Revolution. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-0453-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77933-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7102-0462-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Lewis, Bernard (1993). The Arabs in History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-285258-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Lewis, Bernard (1997). The Middle East. Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-83280-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Lewis, Bernard (2001). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East (2nd ed.). Open Court. ISBN 978-0-8126-9518-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Lewis, Bernard (2003). What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East (Reprint ed.). Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-06-051605-5. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Lewis, Bernard (2004). The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror. Random House, Inc., New York. ISBN 978-0-8129-6785-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Madelung, Wilferd (1996). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64696-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Malik, Jamal; Hinnells, John R (2006). Sufism in the West. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-27408-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Menski, Werner F. (2006). Comparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-85859-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Miller, Tracy, ed. (October 2009). Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population (PDF). Pew Research Center. Retrieved 2013-09-24. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Momen, Moojan (1987). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03531-5. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Nasr, Seyed Muhammad (1994). Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7). HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-067700-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Nigosian, Solomon Alexander (2004). Islam: its history, teaching, and practices. Indiana University Press. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Patton, Walter M. (April 1900). "The Doctrine of Freedom in the Korân". The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures. 16 (3). Brill Academic Publishers: 129. doi:10.1086/369367. ISBN 90-04-10314-7. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Peters, F. E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11553-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Rahman, H. U. (1999). Chronology of Islamic History, 570-1000 CE (3rd ed.). Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Rippin, Andrew (2001). Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-21781-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Sachedina, Abdulaziz (1998). The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-511915-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Siljander, Mark D. and John David Mann. A Deadly Misunderstanding: a Congressman's Quest to Bridge the Muslim-Christian Divide. First ed. New York: Harper One, 2008. ISBN 978-0-06-143828-8
• Smith, Jane I. (2006). The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515649-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn; Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1979). Shi'ite Islam. Suny press. ISBN 0-87395-272-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Teece, Geoff (2003). Religion in Focus: Islam. Franklin Watts Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7496-4796-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Trimingham, John Spencer (1998). The Sufi Orders in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512058-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Turner, Colin (2006). Islam: the Basics. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-34106-X. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Turner, Bryan S. (1998). Weber and Islam. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-17458-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Waines, David (2003). An Introduction to Islam. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-53906-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Watt, W. Montgomery (1973). The Formative Period of Islamic Thought. University Press Edinburgh. ISBN 0-85224-245-X. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Watt, W. Montgomery (1974). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman (New ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-881078-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Weiss, Bernard G. (2002). Studies in Islamic Legal Theory. Boston: Brill Academic publishers. ISBN 90-04-12066-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Encyclopedias

• William H. McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian, ed. (2005). Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History. Berkshire Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-9743091-0-1. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
• Gabriel Oussani, ed. (1910). Catholic Encyclopedia. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Paul Lagasse, Lora Goldman, Archie Hobson, Susan R. Norton, ed. (2000). The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). Gale Group. ISBN 978-1-59339-236-9. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
• Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Erwin Fahlbusch, William Geoffrey Bromiley, ed. (2001). Encyclopedia of Christianity (1st ed.). Eerdmans Publishing Company, and Brill. ISBN 0-8028-2414-5. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
• John Bowden, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Christianity (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-522393-4. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Bearman, P.J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Richard C. Martin, Said Amir Arjomand, Marcia Hermansen, Abdulkader Tayob, Rochelle Davis, John Obert Voll, ed. (2003). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0-02-865603-8. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
• Jane Dammen McAuliffe (ed.). Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Brill Academic Publishers. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Salamone Frank, ed. (2004). Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-94180-8. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Glasse Cyril, ed. (2003). New Encyclopedia of Islam: A Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. AltaMira Press. ISBN 978-0759101906. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)

Further reading

• Abdul-Haqq, Abdiyah Akbar (1980). Sharing Your Faith with a Muslim. Minneapolis: Bethany House Publishers. N.B. Presents the genuine doctrines and concepts of Islam and of the Holy Qur'an, and this religion's affinities with Christianity and its Sacred Scriptures, in order to "dialogue" on the basis of what both faiths really teach. ISBN 0-87123-553-6
• Akyol, Mustafa (2011). Islam Without Extremes (1st ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-07086-6.
• Arberry, A. J. (1996). The Koran Interpreted: A Translation (1st ed.). Touchstone. ISBN 978-0-684-82507-6.
• Cragg, Kenneth (1975). The House of Islam, in The Religious Life of Man Series. Second ed. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1975. xiii, 145 p. ISBN 0-8221-0139-4
• Hourani, Albert (1991). Islam in European Thought. First pbk. ed. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1992, cop. 1991. xi, 199 p. ISBN 0-521-42120-9; alternative ISBN on back cover, 0-521-42120-0
• Khan, Muhammad Muhsin; Al-Hilali Khan; Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din (1999). Noble Quran (1st ed.). Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-9960-740-79-9.
• A. Khanbaghi (2006). The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran. I. B. Tauris.
• Khavari, Farid A. (1990). Oil and Islam: the Ticking Bomb. First ed. Malibu, Calif.: Roundtable Publications. viii, 277 p., ill. with maps and charts. ISBN 0-915677-55-5
• Kramer (ed.), Martin (1999). The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis. Syracuse University. ISBN 978-965-224-040-8. {{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help)
• Kuban, Dogan (1974). Muslim Religious Architecture. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-03813-2.
• Lewis, Bernard (1994). Islam and the West. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509061-1.
• Lewis, Bernard (1996). Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510283-3.
• Mubarkpuri, Saifur-Rahman (2002). The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1-59144-071-0.
• Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah (2001). History of Islam. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1-59144-034-5.
• Nigosian, S. A. (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices (New ed.). Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21627-4.
• Rahman, Fazlur (1979). Islam (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-70281-2.
• Tausch, Arno (2009). Muslim Calvinism (1st ed.). Rozenberg Publishers, Amsterdam. ISBN 978-90-5170-995-7.
• Tausch, Arno (2009). What 1.3 Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study, Based on the "World Values Survey". Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University (1st ed.). Nova Science Publishers, New York. ISBN 978-1-60692-731-1.
• Walker, Benjamin (1998). Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith. Peter Owen Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7206-1038-3.

External links

Academic resources

• Patheos Library – Islam
• University of Southern California Compendium of Muslim Texts
• Divisions in Islam

Online resources

• Islam, article at Encyclopædia Britannica
• Template:DMOZ

Directories

• Islam (Bookshelf) at Project Gutenberg
• Islam from UCB Libraries GovPubs

• Islam
• Monotheistic religions
• Abrahamic religions
• 610 establishments