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|year= }}</ref> Winston Churchill argued that it enlarges "the opportunities for the pursuit of health and happiness among the millions of people who live in this country" and pundits have dubbed it "Daylight Slaving Time". Historically, retailing, sports, and tourism interests have favored daylight saving, while agricultural and evening entertainment interests have opposed it, and its initial adoption had been prompted by energy crisis and war.

The fate of Willett's 1907 proposal illustrates several political issues involved. The proposal attracted many supporters, including Balfour, Churchill, Lloyd George, MacDonald, Edward VII (who used half-hour DST at Sandringham), the managing director of Harrods, and the manager of the National Bank. However, the opposition was stronger: it included Prime Minister H. H. Asquith, Christie (the Astronomer Royal), George Darwin, Napier Shaw (director of the Meteorological Office), many agricultural organizations, and theatre owners. After many hearings the proposal was narrowly defeated in a Parliament committee vote in 1909. Willett's allies introduced similar bills every year from 1911 through 1914, to no avail. The US was even more skeptical: Andrew Peters introduced a DST bill to the US House of Representatives in May 1909, but it soon died in committee.

After Germany led the way with starting DST (Template:Lang-de) during World War I on April 30, 1916 together with its allies to alleviate hardships from wartime coal shortages and air raid blackouts, the political equation changed in other countries; the United Kingdom used DST first on May 21, 1916. US retailing and manufacturing interests led by Pittsburgh industrialist Robert Garland soon began lobbying for DST, but were opposed by railroads. The US's 1917 entry to the war overcame objections, and DST was established in 1918.

The war's end swung the pendulum back. Farmers continued to dislike DST, and many countries repealed it after the war. Britain was an exception: it retained DST nationwide but over the years adjusted transition dates for several reasons, including special rules during the 1920s and 1930s to avoid clock shifts on Easter mornings. The US was more typical: Congress repealed DST after 1919. President Woodrow Wilson, like Willett an avid golfer, vetoed the repeal twice but his second veto was overridden. Only a few US cities retained DST locally thereafter, including New York so that its financial exchanges could maintain an hour of arbitrage trading with London, and Chicago and Cleveland to keep pace with New York. Wilson's successor Warren G. Harding opposed DST as a "deception". Reasoning that people should instead get up and go to work earlier in the summer, he ordered District of Columbia federal employees to start work at 08:00 rather than 09:00 during summer 1922. Some businesses followed suit though many others did not; the experiment was not repeated.

Since Germany's adoption in 1916, the world has seen many enactments, adjustments, and repeals of DST, with similar politics involved.

The history of time in the United States includes DST during both world wars, but no standardization of peacetime DST until 1966. In May 1965, for two weeks, St. Paul, Minnesota and Minneapolis, Minnesota were on different times, when the capital city decided to join most of the nation by starting Daylight Saving Time while Minneapolis opted to follow the later date set by state law. In the mid-1980s, Clorox (parent of Kingsford Charcoal) and 7-Eleven provided the primary funding for the Daylight Saving Time Coalition behind the 1987 extension to US DST, and both Idaho senators voted for it based on the premise that during DST fast-food restaurants sell more French fries, which are made from Idaho potatoes.

In 1992, after a three-year trial of daylight saving in Queensland, Australia, a referendum on daylight saving was held and defeated with a 54.5% 'no' vote – with regional and rural areas strongly opposed, while those in the metropolitan south-east were in favor. In 2005, the Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association and the National Association of Convenience Stores successfully lobbied for the 2007 extension to US DST. In December 2008, the Daylight Saving for South East Queensland (DS4SEQ) political party was officially registered in Queensland, advocating the implementation of a dual-time zone arrangement for Daylight Saving in South East Queensland while the rest of the state maintains standard time. DS4SEQ contested the March 2009 Queensland State election with 32 candidates and received one percent of the statewide primary vote, equating to around 2.5% across the 32 electorates contested. After a three-year trial, more than 55% of Western Australians voted against DST in 2009, with rural areas strongly opposed. On April 14, 2010, after being approached by the DS4SEQ political party, Queensland Independent member Peter Wellington, introduced the Daylight Saving for South East Queensland Referendum Bill 2010 into Queensland Parliament, calling for a referendum at the next State election on the introduction of daylight saving into South East Queensland under a dual-time zone arrangement. The Bill was defeated in Queensland Parliament on June 15, 2011.

In the UK the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents supports a proposal to observe SDST's additional hour year-round, but is opposed in some industries, such as postal workers and farmers, and particularly by those living in the northern regions of the UK.

In some Muslim countries DST is temporarily abandoned during Ramadan (the month when no food should be eaten between sunrise and sunset), since the DST would delay the evening dinner. Ramadan took place in July and August in 2012. This concerns at least Morocco and Palestine, although Iran keeps DST during Ramadan. Most Muslim countries do not use DST, partially for this reason.

The 2011 declaration by Russia that it would not turn its clocks back and stay in DST all year long was subsequently followed by a similar declaration from Belarus. The plan generated widespread complaints due to the dark of wintertime morning, and thus was abandoned in 2014. The country changed its clocks to Standard Time on October 26, 2014 - and intends to stay there permanently.

Dispute over benefits and drawbacks

Proponents of DST generally argue that it saves energy, promotes outdoor leisure activity in the evening (in summer), and is therefore good for physical and psychological health, reduces traffic accidents, reduces crime, or is good for business. Groups that tend to support DST are urban workers, retail businesses, outdoor sports enthusiasts and businesses, tourism operators, and others who benefit from increased light during the evening in summer.

Opponents argue that actual energy savings are inconclusive, that DST increases health risks such as heart attack, that DST can disrupt morning activities, and that the act of changing clocks twice a year is economically and socially disruptive and cancels out any benefit. Farmers have tended to oppose DST.

Common agreement about the day's layout or schedule confers so many advantages that a standard DST schedule has generally been chosen over ad hoc efforts to get up earlier. The advantages of coordination are so great that many people ignore whether DST is in effect by altering their nominal work schedules to coordinate with television broadcasts or daylight. DST is commonly not observed during most of winter, because its mornings are darker; workers may have no sunlit leisure time, and children may need to leave for school in the dark. Since DST is applied to many varying communities, its effects may be very different depending on their culture, light levels, geography, and climate; that is why it is hard to make generalized conclusions about the absolute effects of the practice. Some areas may adopt DST simply as a matter of coordination with others rather than for any direct benefits.

Energy use

DST's potential to save energy comes primarily from its effects on residential lighting, which consumes about 3.5% of electricity in the United States and Canada. Delaying the nominal time of sunset and sunrise reduces the use of artificial light in the evening and increases it in the morning. As Franklin's 1784 satire pointed out, lighting costs are reduced if the evening reduction outweighs the morning increase, as in high-latitude summer when most people wake up well after sunrise. An early goal of DST was to reduce evening usage of incandescent lighting, once a primary use of electricity. Although energy conservation remains an important goal, energy usage patterns have greatly changed since then, and recent research is limited and reports contradictory results. Electricity use is greatly affected by geography, climate, and economics, making it hard to generalize from single studies.

• The United States Department of Transportation (DOT) concluded in 1975 that DST might reduce the country's electricity usage by 1% during March and April, but the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) reviewed the DOT study in 1976 and found no significant savings.
• In 2000 when parts of Australia began DST in late winter, overall electricity consumption did not decrease, but the morning peak load and prices increased.
• In Western Australia during summer 2006–2007, DST increased electricity consumption during hotter days and decreased it during cooler days, with consumption rising 0.6% overall.
• Although a 2007 study estimated that introducing DST to Japan would reduce household lighting energy consumption, a 2007 simulation estimated that DST would increase overall energy use in Osaka residences by 0.13%, with a 0.02% decrease due to less lighting more than outweighed by a 0.15% increase due to extra cooling; neither study examined non-residential energy use. This is probably because DST's effect on lighting energy use is mainly noticeable in residences.
• A 2007 study found that the earlier start to DST that year had little or no effect on electricity consumption in California.
• A 2007 study estimated that winter daylight saving would prevent a 2% increase in average daily electricity consumption in Great Britain. This paper was revised in October 2009.
• A 2008 study examined billing data in Indiana before and after it adopted DST in 2006, and concluded that DST increased overall residential electricity consumption by 1% to 4%, due mostly to extra afternoon cooling and extra morning heating; the main increases came in the fall. A study estimated the overall annual cost of DST to Indiana households $9 million, with an additional $1.7–5.5 million for social costs due to increased pollution.
• The United States Department of Energy (DOE) concluded in a 2008 report that the 2007 United States extension of DST saved 0.5% of electricity usage during the extended period. This report analyzed only the extension, not the full eight months of DST, and did not examine the use of heating fuels.

Several studies have suggested that DST increases motor fuel consumption. The 2008 DOE report found no significant increase in motor gasoline consumption due to the 2007 United States extension of DST.

Economic effects

Retailers, sporting goods makers, and other businesses benefit from extra afternoon sunlight, as it induces customers to shop and to participate in outdoor afternoon sports. In 1984, Fortune magazine estimated that a seven-week extension of DST would yield an additional $30 million for 7-Eleven stores, and the National Golf Foundation estimated the extension would increase golf industry revenues $200 million to $300 million. A 1999 study estimated that DST increases the revenue of the European Union's leisure sector by about 3%.

Conversely, DST can adversely affect farmers, parents of young children, and others whose hours are set by the sun and they have traditionally opposed the practice, although some farmers are neutral. One reason why farmers oppose DST is that grain is best harvested after dew evaporates, so when field hands arrive and leave earlier in summer their labor is less valuable. Dairy farmers are another group who complain of the change. Their cows are sensitive to the timing of milking, so delivering milk earlier disrupts their systems. Today some farmers' groups are in favor of DST.

DST also hurts prime-time television broadcast ratings, drive-ins and other theaters.

Changing clocks and DST rules has a direct economic cost, entailing extra work to support remote meetings, computer applications and the like. For example, a 2007 North American rule change cost an estimated $500 million to $1 billion, and Utah State University economist William F. Shughart II has estimated the lost opportunity cost at around $1.7 billion USD. Although it has been argued that clock shifts correlate with decreased economic efficiency, and that in 2000 the daylight-saving effect implied an estimated one-day loss of $31 billion on US stock exchanges, the estimated numbers depend on the methodology. The results have been disputed, and the original authors have refuted the points raised by disputers.

Public safety

In 1975 the US DOT conservatively identified a 0.7% reduction in traffic fatalities during DST, and estimated the real reduction at 1.5% to 2%, but the 1976 NBS review of the DOT study found no differences in traffic fatalities. In 1995 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety estimated a reduction of 1.2%, including a 5% reduction in crashes fatal to pedestrians. Others have found similar reductions. Single/Double Summer Time (SDST), a variant where clocks are one hour ahead of the sun in winter and two in summer, has been projected to reduce traffic fatalities by 3% to 4% in the UK, compared to ordinary DST. However, accidents do increase by as much as 11% during the two weeks that follow the end of British Summer Time. It is not clear whether sleep disruption contributes to fatal accidents immediately after the spring clock shifts. A correlation between clock shifts and traffic accidents has been observed in North America and the UK but not in Finland or Sweden. If this effect exists, it is far smaller than the overall reduction in traffic fatalities. A 2009 US study found that on Mondays after the switch to DST, workers sleep an average of 40 minutes less, and are injured at work more often and more severely.

In the 1970s the US Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) found a reduction of 10% to 13% in Washington, D.C.'s violent crime rate during DST. However, the LEAA did not filter out other factors, and it examined only two cities and found crime reductions only in one and only in some crime categories; the DOT decided it was "impossible to conclude with any confidence that comparable benefits would be found nationwide". Outdoor lighting has a marginal and sometimes even contradictory influence on crime and fear of crime.

In several countries, fire safety officials encourage citizens to use the two annual clock shifts as reminders to replace batteries in smoke and carbon monoxide detectors, particularly in autumn, just before the heating and candle season causes an increase in home fires. Similar twice-yearly tasks include reviewing and practicing fire escape and family disaster plans, inspecting vehicle lights, checking storage areas for hazardous materials, reprogramming thermostats, and seasonal vaccinations. Locations without DST can instead use the first days of spring and autumn as reminders.

Health

DST has mixed effects on health. In societies with fixed work schedules it provides more afternoon sunlight for outdoor exercise. It alters sunlight exposure; whether this is beneficial depends on one's location and daily schedule, as sunlight triggers vitamin D synthesis in the skin, but overexposure can lead to skin cancer. DST may help in depression by causing individuals to rise earlier, but some argue the reverse. The Retinitis Pigmentosa Foundation Fighting Blindness, chaired by blind sports magnate Gordon Gund, successfully lobbied in 1985 and 2005 for US DST extensions.

Clock shifts were found to increase the risk of heart attack by 10 percent, and to disrupt sleep and reduce its efficiency. Effects on seasonal adaptation of the circadian rhythm can be severe and last for weeks. A 2008 study found that although male suicide rates rise in the weeks after the spring transition, the relationship weakened greatly after adjusting for season. A 2008 Swedish study found that heart attacks were significantly more common the first three weekdays after the spring transition, and significantly less common the first weekday after the autumn transition. The government of Kazakhstan cited health complications due to clock shifts as a reason for abolishing DST in 2005. In March 2011, Dmitri Medvedev, president of Russia, claimed that "stress of changing clocks" was the motivation for Russia to stay in DST all year long. Officials at the time talked about an annual increase in suicides.

An unexpected adverse effect of daylight saving time may lie in the fact that an extra part of morning rush hour traffic occurs before dawn and traffic emissions then cause higher air pollution than during daylight hours.

Complexity

DST's clock shifts have the obvious disadvantage of complexity. People must remember to change their clocks; this can be time-consuming, particularly for mechanical clocks that cannot be moved backward safely. People who work across time zone boundaries need to keep track of multiple DST rules, as not all locations observe DST or observe it the same way. The length of the calendar day becomes variable; it is no longer always 24 hours. Disruption to meetings, travel, broadcasts, billing systems, and records management is common, and can be expensive. During an autumn transition from 02:00 to 01:00, a clock reads times from 01:00:00 through 01:59:59 twice, possibly leading to confusion.

Damage to a German steel facility occurred during a DST transition in 1993, when a computer timing system linked to a radio time synchronization signal allowed molten steel to cool for one hour less than the required duration, resulting in spattering of molten steel when it was poured. Medical devices may generate adverse events that could harm patients, without being obvious to clinicians responsible for care. These problems are compounded when the DST rules themselves change; software developers must test and perhaps modify many programs, and users must install updates and restart applications. Consumers must update devices such as programmable thermostats with the correct DST rules, or manually adjust the devices' clocks. A common strategy to resolve these problems in computer systems is to express time using the Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) rather than the local time zone. For example, Unix-based computer systems use the UTC-based Unix time internally.

Some clock-shift problems could be avoided by adjusting clocks continuously or at least more gradually—for example, Willett at first suggested weekly 20-minute transitions—but this would add complexity and has never been implemented.

DST inherits and can magnify the disadvantages of standard time. For example, when reading a sundial, one must compensate for it along with time zone and natural discrepancies. Also, sun-exposure guidelines such as avoiding the sun within two hours of noon become less accurate when DST is in effect.

Terminology

As explained by Richard Meade in the English Journal of the (American) National Council of Teachers of English, the form daylight savings time (with an "s") was already in 1978 much more common than the older form daylight saving time in American English ("the change has been virtually accomplished"). Nevertheless, even dictionaries such as Merriam-Webster's, American Heritage, and Oxford, which describe actual usage instead of prescribing outdated usage (and therefore also list the newer form), still list the older form first. This is because the older form is still very common in print and preferred by many editors. ("Although daylight saving time is considered correct, daylight savings time (with an "s") is commonly used.") The first two words are sometimes hyphenated (daylight-saving time). Merriam-Webster's also lists the forms daylight saving (without "time"), daylight savings (without "time"), and daylight time.

In Britain, Willett's 1907 proposal used the term daylight saving, but by 1911 the term summer time replaced daylight saving time in draft legislation. Continental Europe uses similar phrases, such as Sommerzeit in Germany, zomertijd in Dutch-speaking regions, kesäaika in Finland, horario de verano or hora de verano in Spain and heure d'été in France, whereas in Italy the term is ora legale, that is, legal time (legally enforced time) as opposed to "ora solare", solar time, in winter.

The name of local time typically changes when DST is observed. American English replaces standard with daylight: for example, Pacific Standard Time (PST) becomes Pacific Daylight Time (PDT). In the United Kingdom, the standard term for UK time when advanced by one hour is British Summer Time (BST), and British English typically inserts summer into other time zone names, e.g. Central European Time (CET) becomes Central European Summer Time (CEST).

The North American mnemonic "spring forward, fall back" (also "spring ahead ...", "spring up ...", and "... fall behind") helps people remember which direction to shift clocks.

Computing

Changes to DST rules cause problems in existing computer installations. For example, the 2007 change to DST rules in North America required that many computer systems be upgraded, with the greatest impact on e-mail and calendar programs. The upgrades required a significant effort by corporate information technologists.

Some applications standardize on UTC to avoid problems with clock shifts and time zone differences. Likewise, most modern operating systems internally handle and store all times as UTC and only convert to local time for display.

However, even if UTC is used internally, the systems still require information on time zones to correctly calculate local time where it is needed. Many systems in use today base their date/time calculations from data derived from the IANA time zone database also known as zoneinfo.

IANA time zone database

The IANA time zone database maps a name to the named location's historical and predicted clock shifts. This database is used by many computer software systems, including most Unix-like operating systems, Java, and the Oracle RDBMS; HP's "tztab" database is similar but incompatible. When temporal authorities change DST rules, zoneinfo updates are installed as part of ordinary system maintenance. In Unix-like systems the TZ environment variable specifies the location name, as in TZ=':America/New_York'. In many of those systems there is also a system-wide setting that is applied if the TZ environment variable isn't set: this setting is controlled by the contents of the /etc/localtime file, which is usually a symbolic link or hard link to one of the zoneinfo files. Internal time is stored in timezone-independent epoch time; the TZ is used by each of potentially many simultaneous users and processes to independently localize time display.

Older or stripped-down systems may support only the TZ values required by POSIX, which specify at most one start and end rule explicitly in the value. For example, TZ='EST5EDT,M3.2.0/02:00,M11.1.0/02:00' specifies time for the eastern United States starting in 2007. Such a TZ value must be changed whenever DST rules change, and the new value applies to all years, mishandling some older timestamps.

Microsoft Windows

As with zoneinfo, a user of Microsoft Windows configures DST by specifying the name of a location, and the operating system then consults a table of rule sets that must be updated when DST rules change. Procedures for specifying the name and updating the table vary with release. Updates are not issued for older versions of Microsoft Windows. Windows Vista supports at most two start and end rules per time zone setting. In a Canadian location observing DST, a single Vista setting supports both 1987–2006 and post-2006 time stamps, but mishandles some older time stamps. Older Microsoft Windows systems usually store only a single start and end rule for each zone, so that the same Canadian setting reliably supports only post-2006 time stamps.

These limitations have caused problems. For example, before 2005, DST in Israel varied each year and was skipped some years. Windows 95 used rules correct for 1995 only, causing problems in later years. In Windows 98, Microsoft marked Israel as not having DST, forcing Israeli users to shift their computer clocks manually twice a year. The 2005 Israeli Daylight Saving Law established predictable rules using the Jewish calendar but Windows zone files could not represent the rules' dates in a year-independent way. Partial workarounds, which mishandled older time stamps, included manually switching zone files every year and a Microsoft tool that switches zones automatically. In 2013, Israel standardized its daylight saving time according to the Gregorian calendar.

Microsoft Windows keeps the system real-time clock in local time. This causes several problems, including compatibility when multi booting with operating systems that set the clock to UTC, and double-adjusting the clock when multi booting different Windows versions, such as with a rescue boot disk. This approach is a problem even in Windows-only systems: there is no support for per-user timezone settings, only a single system-wide setting. In 2008 Microsoft hinted that future versions of Windows will partially support a Windows registry entry RealTimeIsUniversal that had been introduced many years earlier, when Windows NT supported RISC machines with UTC clocks, but had not been maintained. Since then at least two fixes related to this feature have been published by Microsoft.

The NTFS file system used by recent versions of Windows stores the file with a UTC time stamp, but displays it corrected to local—or seasonal—time. However, the FAT filesystem commonly used on removable devices stores only the local time. Consequently, when a file is copied from the hard disk onto separate media, its time will be set to the current local time. If the time adjustment is changed, the timestamps of the original file and the copy will be different. The same effect can be observed when compressing and uncompressing files with some file archivers. It is the NTFS file that changes seen time. This effect should be kept in mind when trying to determine if a file is a duplicate of another, although there are other methods of comparing files for equality (such as using a checksum algorithm).

Permanent daylight saving time

A move to "permanent daylight saving time" (staying on summer hours all year with no time shifts) is sometimes advocated, and has in fact been implemented in some jurisdictions such as Argentina, Chile, Iceland, Singapore, Uzbekistan and Belarus. Advocates cite the same advantages as normal DST without the problems associated with the twice yearly time shifts. However, many remain unconvinced of the benefits, citing the same problems and the relatively late sunrises, particularly in winter, that year-round DST entails. Russia switched to permanent DST from 2011 to 2014, but the move proved unpopular because of the late sunrises in winter, so the country switched permanently back to "standard" or "winter" time in 2014.

Xinjiang, China; Argentina; Chile; Iceland; Russia and other areas skew time zones westward, in effect observing DST year-round without complications from clock shifts. For example, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, is at 106°39′ W longitude, slightly west of center of the idealized Mountain Time Zone (105° W), but the time in Saskatchewan is Central Standard Time (90° W) year-round, so Saskatoon is always about 67 minutes ahead of mean solar time, thus effectively observing daylight saving time year-round. Conversely, northeast India and a few other areas skew time zones eastward, in effect observing negative DST. The United Kingdom and Ireland experimented with year-round DST from 1968 to 1971 but abandoned it because of its unpopularity, particularly in northern regions.

Western France, Spain, and other areas skew time zones and shift clocks, in effect observing DST in winter with an extra hour in summer. Nome, Alaska, is at 165°24′ W longitude, which is just west of center of the idealized Samoa Time Zone (165° W), but Nome observes Alaska Time (135° W) with DST, so it is slightly more than two hours ahead of the sun in winter and three in summer. Double daylight saving time has been used on occasion; for example, it was used in some European countries during and shortly after World War II when it was referred to as "Double Summer Time". See British Double Summer Time and Central European Midsummer Time for details.

By country and region

• Daylight saving time by country
• Africa
• Asia
• Brazil
• Europe
• North and South America
• Oceania
• United States

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48. Brendan Cronin; Elizabeth Garnsey (October 20, 2009). "Daylight saving in GB; is there evidence in favour of clock time on GMT? (October 2009 revision)" (PDF). Dept. of Engineering, University of Cambridge. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
49. Matthew J. Kotchen; Laura E. Grant (2008). "Does daylight saving time save energy? evidence from a natural experiment in Indiana" (PDF). NBER Working Paper No. 14429. National Bureau of Economic Research. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Lay summary: Wall Street Journal, February 27, 2008.
50. ^ David B. Belzer; Stanton W. Hadley; Shih-Miao Chin (2008). "Impact of Extended Daylight Saving Time on national energy consumption: report to Congress, Energy Policy Act of 2005, Section 110" (PDF). US Dept. of Energy. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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54. Effect on those whose hours are set by the sun:
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59. Rick Kissell (March 20, 2007). "Daylight-saving dock ratings". Variety.
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61. Ben Arnoldy (March 7, 2007). "Latest computer glitch: daylight saving time". Christian Science Monitor.
62. Mark J. Kamstra; Lisa A. Kramer; Maurice D. Levi (2000). "Losing sleep at the market: the daylight saving anomaly". American Economic Review. 90 (4): 1005–1011. doi:10.1257/aer.90.4.1005.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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68. Douglas Coate; Sara Markowitz (2003). "The effects of daylight and daylight saving time on US pedestrian fatalities and motor vehicle occupant fatalities". Accident Analysis & Prevention. 36 (3): 351–357. doi:10.1016/S0001-4575(03)00015-0. PMID 15003579.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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71. Alex Vincent; Stanley Coren (1998). "Effects of daylight savings time on collision rates". New England Journal of Medicine (Full free text). 339 (16): 1167–1168. doi:10.1056/NEJM199810153391617. PMID 9776656.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Data supporting Coren's half of this exchange are in: Stanley Coren (1998). "Sleep deficit, fatal accidents, and the spring shift to daylight savings time". INABIS '98. {{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help)
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    • Mats Lambe; Peter Cummings (2000). "The shift to and from daylight savings time and motor vehicle crashes". Accident Analysis & Prevention. 32 (4): 609–611. doi:10.1016/S0001-4575(99)00088-3. PMID 10868764.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
73. Christopher M. Barnes; David T. Wagner (2009). "Changing to daylight saving time cuts into sleep and increases workplace injuries" (PDF). Journal of Applied Psychology. 94 (5): 1305–1317. doi:10.1037/a0015320. PMID 19702372.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
74. House Committee on Energy and Commerce, Subcommittee on Energy Conservation and Power (April 24, 1985). Daylight saving time. Serial No. 99-4. US GPO. p. 26.
75. Rachel Pain; Robert MacFarlane; Keith Turner; Sally Gill (2006). "'When, where, if, and but': qualifying GIS and the effect of streetlighting on crime and fear". Environment and Planning A. 38 (11): 2055–2074. doi:10.1068/a38391.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
76. Clock shifts as safety reminders:
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    • "CSPC and USFA encourage consumers to spring forward with fire safety in mind" (Press release). US Consumer Product Safety Commission; US Fire Administration. March 9, 2007.
    • "Get ready: set your clocks, check your stocks". American Public Health Association. February 24, 2009.
77. Debby Golonka (March 13, 2007). "Prevent household fires". Yahoo Health. Archived from the original on October 15, 2014. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
78. Sualeh Fatehi (2015). "Daylight Chart".
79. Michael Rosenberg; Lisa Wood (2010). "The power of policy to influence behaviour change: daylight saving and its effect on physical activity". Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health. 34 (1): 83–88. doi:10.1111/j.1753-6405.2010.00479.x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
80. A.V. Parisi; J. Turner; D.J. Turnbull; P. Schouten; N. Downs (2008). "Influence of summer daylight saving time on scattered erythemal solar ultraviolet exposures". Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology. 91 (1): 35–40. doi:10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2008.01.010. PMID 18321724.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
81. Henry Olders (2003). "Average sunrise time predicts depression prevalence". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 55 (2): 99–105. doi:10.1016/S0022-3999(02)00479-8. PMID 12932507.
82. Shari Roan (March 5, 2007). "Change in daylight saving time may affect moods". Los Angeles Times.
83. Tuuli A. Lahti; Sami Leppämäki; Jouko Lönnqvist; Timo Partonen (2008). "Transitions into and out of daylight saving time compromise sleep and the rest–activity cycles". BMC Physiology. 8: 3. doi:10.1186/1472-6793-8-3. PMC 2259373. PMID 18269740.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
84. DST and circadian rhythm:
    • Pablo Valdez; Candelaria Ramírez; Aída García (2003). "Adjustment of the sleep–wake cycle to small (1–2h) changes in schedule". Biological Rhythm Research. 34 (2): 145–155. doi:10.1076/brhm.34.2.145.14494.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
    • Thomas Kantermann; Myriam Juda; Martha Merrow; Till Roenneberg (2007). "The human circadian clock's seasonal adjustment is disrupted by daylight saving time". Current Biology. 17 (22): 1996–2000. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2007.10.025. PMID 17964164. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |laydate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysource= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysummary= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
85. Michael Berk; Seetal Dodd; Karen Hallam; Lesley Berk; John Gleeson; Margaret Henry (2008). "Small shifts in diurnal rhythms are associated with an increase in suicide: the effect of daylight saving". Sleep and Biological Rhythms. 6 (1): 22–25. doi:10.1111/j.1479-8425.2007.00331.x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
86. Imre Janszky; Rickard Ljung (2008). "Shifts to and from daylight saving time and incidence of myocardial infarction". New England Journal of Medicine. 359 (18): 1966–1968. doi:10.1056/NEJMc0807104. PMID 18971502. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |laydate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysource= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysummary= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
87. Nataliya Shirinskikh, translator (March 16, 2005). "Kazakhstan canceled shifting to the 'summer' and 'winter' time". Kazakhstan Today. {{cite news}}: |author= has generic name (help)
88. "Russian clocks stay on summertime". BBC News.
89. Int Panis, L; Beckx, C (2007). "TRUCKS DRIVING AT NIGHT AND THEIR EFFECT ON LOCAL AIR POLLUTION". European Transport Conference.
90. Joey Crandall (October 24, 2003). "Daylight saving time ends Sunday". Record–Courier. Archived from the original on February 29, 2012. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
91. Paul McDougall (March 1, 2007). "PG&E says patching meters for an early daylight-saving time will cost $38 million". InformationWeek.
92. "Daylight saving time: rationale and original idea". 2008. ... Lord Balfour came forward with a unique concern: 'Supposing some unfortunate lady was confined with twins ...'
93. Peter G. Neumann (1994). "Computer date and time problems". Computer-Related Risks. Addison–Wesley. ISBN 0-201-55805-X. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
94. Daniel G. Schultz (March 29, 2007). "Unpredictable events in medical equipment due to new daylight saving time change". Center for Devices and Radiological Health, Food and Drug Administration.
95. Stephen Tong; Joseph Williams (2007). "Are you prepared for daylight saving time in 2007?". IT Professional. 9 (1): 36–41. doi:10.1109/MITP.2007.2. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |title.= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
96. Jesse Ruderman (November 1, 2006). "Continuous daylight saving time".
97. "Proposal for a finer adjustment of summer time (daylight saving time)". September 28, 2011.
98. Albert E. Waugh (1973). Sundials: Their Theory and Construction. Dover. ISBN 0-486-22947-5.
99. Leith Holloway (1992). "Atmospheric sun protection factor on clear days: its observed dependence on solar zenith angle and its relevance to the shadow guideline for sun protection". Photochemistry and Photobiology. 56 (2): 229–34. doi:10.1111/j.1751-1097.1992.tb02151.x. PMID 1502267.
100. Seize the Daylight. p. xv.
101. Daylight saving time and its variants:
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     • Joseph P. Pickett et al., editors, ed. (2000). "daylight-saving time". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-82517-2. or daylight-savings time {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help); External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
     • "daylight saving time". Merriam–Webster's Online Dictionary. called also daylight saving, daylight savings, daylight savings time, daylight time {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
     • Oxford Dictionaries "also daylight savings time"
     • "15 U.S.C. § 260a notes". Retrieved May 9, 2007. Congressional Findings; Expansion of Daylight Saving Time
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103. Steve Lohr (March 5, 2007). "Time change a 'mini-Y2K' in tech terms". New York Times.
104. A. Gut; L. Miclea; Sz. Enyedi; M. Abrudean; I. Hoka (2006). "Database globalization in enterprise applications". 2006 IEEE International Conference on Automation, Quality and Testing, Robotics. pp. 356–359. {{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
105. Ron Bean (November 2000). "The Clock Mini-HOWTO".
106. Raymond Chen (November 2000). "Why does Windows keep your BIOS clock on local time?".
107. Paul Eggert; Arthur David Olson (June 30, 2008). "Sources for time zone and daylight saving time data".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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109. "Other environment variables". IEEE Std 1003.1–2004. The Open Group. 2004. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
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114. "Knesset votes to extend Daylight Saving Time". jpost.com. July 8, 2013. Retrieved July 8, 2013.
115. Markus Kuhn (February 10, 2009). "IBM PC Real Time Clock should run in UT". Computer Laboratory, University of Cambridge.
116. Microsoft. "You cannot change system time if RealTimeIsUniversal registry entry is enabled in Windows".
117. Microsoft. "High CPU usage during DST changeover in Windows Server 2008, Windows 7, or Windows Server 2008 R2".
118. "Chile keeps Daylight time". January 28, 2015.
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125. Ned Rozell (March 28, 1996). "Alaskans double their daylight savings".

Further reading

• Ian R. Bartky (2007). One Time Fits All: The Campaigns for Global Uniformity. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-5642-6.
• Ian R. Bartky; Elizabeth Harrison (1979). "Standard and daylight-saving time". Scientific American. 240 (5): 46–53. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0579-46. ISSN 0036-8733.
• Michael Downing (2005). Spring Forward: The Annual Madness of Daylight Saving Time. Shoemaker & Hoard. ISBN 1-59376-053-1.
• David Prerau (2005). Seize the Daylight: The Curious and Contentious Story of Daylight Saving Time. Thunder's Mouth Press. ISBN 1-56025-655-9. The British version, focusing on the UK, is Saving the Daylight: Why We Put the Clocks Forward. Granta Books. ISBN 1-86207-796-7.

External links

2. Part 2

• "Legal Time 2015", Telecommunications Standardization Bureau of the ITU
• Information about the Current Daylight Saving Time (DST) Rules, U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology
• Sources for time zone and daylight saving time data

v t e Time measurement and standards
Chronometry Orders of magnitude Metrology
International standards	Coordinated Universal Time offset UT ΔT DUT1 International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service ISO 31-1 ISO 8601 International Atomic Time 12-hour clock 24-hour clock Barycentric Coordinate Time Barycentric Dynamical Time Civil time Daylight saving time Geocentric Coordinate Time International Date Line IERS Reference Meridian Leap second Solar time Terrestrial Time Time zone 180th meridian
Obsolete standards	Ephemeris time Greenwich Mean Time Prime meridian
Time in physics	Absolute space and time Spacetime Chronon Continuous signal Coordinate time Cosmological decade Discrete time and continuous time Proper time Theory of relativity Time dilation Gravitational time dilation Time domain Time-translation symmetry T-symmetry
Horology	Clock Astrarium Atomic clock Complication History of timekeeping devices Hourglass Marine chronometer Marine sandglass Radio clock Watch stopwatch Water clock Sundial Dialing scales Equation of time History of sundials Sundial markup schema
Calendar	Gregorian Hebrew Hindu Holocene Islamic (lunar Hijri) Julian Solar Hijri Astronomical Dominical letter Epact Equinox Intercalation Julian day Leap year Lunar Lunisolar Solar Solstice Tropical year Weekday determination Weekday names
Archaeology and geology	Chronological dating Geologic time scale International Commission on Stratigraphy
Astronomical chronology	Galactic year Nuclear timescale Precession Sidereal time
Other units of time	Instant Flick Shake Jiffy Second Minute Moment Hour Day Week Fortnight Month Year Olympiad Lustrum Decade Century Saeculum Millennium
Related topics	Chronology Duration music Mental chronometry Decimal time Metric time System time Time metrology Time value of money Timekeeper

• Daylight saving time