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Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War
Part of the Russian Civil War
Allied troops parading in Vladivostok, 1918
Date 1918–1925 Location Former Russian Empire, Mongolia Result Bolshevik victory
Belligerents
Russian SFSR  Far Eastern Republic Latvian SSR Ukrainian SSR Commune of Estonia Mongolian People's Party	White movement  Czechoslovakia  United Kingdom  Canada  Australia India  South Africa  United States France Japan Greece Estonia Serbia Italy Poland Romania  China
Commanders and leaders
Vladimir Lenin Leon Trotsky Mikhail Tukhachevsky Fedor Raskolnikov Joseph Stalin Dmitry Zhloba Pavel Dybenko	Alexander Kolchak Evgeny Miller Radola Gajda Jan Syrový William S. Graves George Evans Stewart Edmund Ironside Yui Mitsue
Strength
	Czechoslovakia 50,000 troops France 600 troops  Greece 23,000 troops  United States 11,000 troops Estonia 11,300 troops  Japan 70,000 troops  Italy 2,500 troops  Serbia 2,000 troops China 2,300 troops  Australia 150 troops  United Kingdom Unknown
Casualties and losses
2,000 killed 1 river gunboat, several barges and 810+ guns captured by Romanians	Czechoslovakia: 4,112 killed  United States: 279 killed  United Kingdom: 359 killed 453 wounded 143 missing or captured 5,000 dead from combat and disease

The Allied intervention was a multi-national military expedition launched during the Russian Civil War in 1918. The stated goals were to help the Czechoslovak Legion, to secure supplies of munitions and armaments in Russian ports, and to re-establish the Eastern Front. After the Bolshevik government withdrew from World War I, the Allies militarily backed the anti-Soviet White forces in Russia. Allied efforts were hampered by divided objectives, war-weariness from the overall global conflict, and a lack of domestic support. These factors, together with the evacuation of the Czechoslovak Legion, compelled the Allies to withdraw from North Russia and Siberia in 1920, though Japanese forces occupied parts of Siberia until 1922 and the northern half of Sakhalin until 1925.

Prologue to the Allied intervention

Revolution

In 1917, Russia was in a state of political strife, and public support for World War I and the Tsar was dwindling. The country was on the brink of revolution. The February Revolution changed the course of the war; under intense political pressure, the Tsar abdicated and the Russian Provisional Government was formed, led initially by Georgy Lvov and later by Alexander Kerensky. The Provisional Government pledged to continue fighting the Germans on the Eastern Front.

The Allies had been shipping supplies to Russia since the beginning of the war in 1914 through the ports of Arkhangelsk, Murmansk, and Vladivostok. In 1917, the United States entered the war on the Allied side. US President Woodrow Wilson dropped his reservations about joining the war with the despotic Tsar as an ally, and the United States began providing economic and technical support to Kerensky's government.

The war became unpopular with the Russian populace. Political and social unrest increased, with the Marxist anti-war Bolshevik Party under Vladimir Lenin gaining widespread support. Large numbers of common soldiers either mutinied or deserted the Imperial Russian Army. During the June 18 offensive, the Russian Army was defeated by the German and Austro-Hungarian forces as a result of a counter-attack. This led to the collapse of the Eastern Front. The demoralised Russian Army was on the verge of mutiny and most soldiers had deserted the front lines. Kerensky replaced Aleksei Brusilov with Lavr Kornilov as Commander-in-Chief of the Army.

Kornilov attempted to set up a military dictatorship by staging a coup in late August 1917. He had the support of the British military attaché, Brigadier-General Alfred Knox, and Kerensky accused Knox of producing pro-Kornilov propaganda. Kerensky also claimed Lord Milner wrote him a letter expressing support for Kornilov. A British armoured car squadron commanded by Oliver Locker-Lampson and dressed in Russian uniforms participated in the failed coup. In 1917, the October Revolution led to the overthrow of Kerensky's provisional government, and the Bolsheviks assuming power.

Russia exits the war

Five months later, on March 3, the newly formed Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany, formally ending the war on the Eastern Front. This still however did not permit the redeployment of German soldiers to the Western Front, where the British and French armies were awaiting American reinforcements.

The finalizing of the Russian exit removed whatever reservations the Allies had about overthrowing the Bolsheviks. According to William Henry Chamberlin, even before Brest-Litovsk, "Downing Street contemplated a protectorate over the Caucuses and the Quai d'Orsay over Crimea, Bessarabia and the Ukraine" and began negotiating deals for funding White generals to bring them into being. That March, preparations began for a coup against the Moscow government. Allied agents began making entreaties to Left Socialist Revolutionaries and disgruntled members of the Latvian Rifles.

Czechoslovak Legions

The Czechoslovak Legion was at times in control of most of the Trans-Siberian railway, all major cities in Siberia. The signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ensured that prisoners-of-war (POW) would be transferred to and from each country. Austro-Hungarian prisoners were of a number of various nationalities; some Czechoslovak POWs deserted to the Russian Army. Czechoslovaks had long desired to create their own independent state, and the Russians aided in establishing special Czechoslovak units (the Czechoslovak Legions) to fight the Central Powers.

In 1917, the Bolsheviks stated that if the Czechoslovak Legions remained neutral and agreed to leave Russia, they would be granted safe passage through Siberia en route to France via Vladivostok to fight with the Allied forces on the Western Front. The Czechoslovak Legions travelled via the Trans-Siberian Railway to Vladivostok. However, fighting between the Legions and the Bolsheviks erupted in May 1918.

Allied concerns

The Allies became concerned at the collapse of the Eastern front and the loss of their Tsarist ally to communism and there was also the question of the large quantities of supplies and equipment in Russian ports, which the Allies feared might be commandeered by the Germans. Also worrisome to the Allies was the April 1918 landing of a division of German troops in Finland, increasing speculation they might attempt to capture the Murmansk-Petrograd railway, and subsequently the strategic port of Murmansk and possibly Arkhangelsk. Other concerns regarded the potential destruction of the Czechoslovak Legions and the threat of Bolshevism, the nature of which worried many Allied governments. Meanwhile, Allied matériel in transit quickly accumulated in the warehouses in Arkhangelsk and Murmansk. Estonia had established a national army with the support of Finnish volunteers and were defending against the 7th Red Army's attack.

Faced with these events, the British and French governments decided upon an Allied military intervention in Russia. They had three objectives:

• prevent the German or Bolshevik capture of Allied material stockpiles in Arkhangelsk
• mount an attack helping the Czechoslovak Legions stranded on the Trans-Siberian Railway
• resurrect the Eastern Front by defeating the Bolshevik army with help from the Czechoslovak Legions and an expanded anti-Bolshevik force of local citizens and stop the spread of communism and the Bolshevik cause in Russia.

Severely short of troops to spare, the British and French requested that President Wilson provide American soldiers for the campaign. In July 1918, against the advice of the United States Department of War, Wilson agreed to the limited participation of 5,000 United States Army troops in the campaign. This force, which became known as the "American North Russia Expeditionary Force" (a.k.a. the Polar Bear Expedition) were sent to Arkhangelsk while another 8,000 soldiers, organised as the American Expeditionary Force Siberia, were shipped to Vladivostok from the Philippines and from Camp Fremont in California. That same month, the Canadian government agreed to the British government's request to command and provide most of the soldiers for a combined British Empire force, which also included Australian and Indian troops. Some of this force was the Canadian Siberian Expeditionary Force; another part was the North Russia Intervention. A Royal Navy squadron was sent to the Baltic under Rear-Admiral Edwyn Alexander-Sinclair. This force consisted of modern Template:Sclass2-s and Template:Sclass2-s. In December 1918, Sinclair sailed into Estonian and Latvian ports, sending in troops and supplies, and promising to attack the Bolsheviks "as far as my guns can reach". In January 1919, he was succeeded in command by Rear-Admiral Walter Cowan.

The Japanese, concerned about their northern border, sent the largest military force, numbering about 70,000. They desired the establishment of a buffer state in Siberia, and the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff viewed the situation in Russia as an opportunity for settling Japan's "northern problem". The Japanese government was also intensely hostile to communism.

The Italians created the special "Corpo di Spedizione" with Alpini troops sent from Italy and ex-POWs of Italian ethnicity from the former Austro-Hungarian army who were recruited to the Italian Legione Redenta. They were initially based in the Italian Concession in Tientsin and numbered about 2,500.

Romania, Greece, Poland, China, and Serbia also sent contingents in support of the intervention.

Coup attempts

Relations with the West had always been strained, both because of the Kornilov plot and the Bolsheviks' publishing of the Tsar's secret treaties, which implicated the Allies in the outbreak of World War I. With the Bolsheviks formally in control of the capital, the Allies nevertheless maintained talks to try and keep Russia in the war effort. The Communists embraced this as a way to explore trade negotiations, as well as the possibility of turning Germany into a socialist state. In January 1918, President Wilson adopted several ideas from the Soviets' Decree on Peace, including the abolition of secret treaties, for his own Fourteen Points program for post-war order. British diplomat Bruce Lockhart cultivated a relationship with several Soviet officials, including Leon Trotsky, and the latter approved the initial Allied military mission to secure the Eastern Front.

After the Russian exit from World War I however, the British SIS sponsored a coup plot in Moscow involving Bruce Lockhart and Sidney Reilly, which included plans to assassinate Lenin and other leaders. The conspiracy also featured an American agent, Xenophon Kalamatiano, and the White Russian Boris Savinkov. It was discovered by the Cheka, and the Bolsheviks raided the British Embassy and arrested Lockhart and Kalamatiano. In August 1918, Dora Kaplan shot Lenin twice with a pistol provided by Savinkov, nearly killing him. The Soviet regime claimed that Kaplan was part of "the Lockhart plot," while the Westerners dismissed the idea as propaganda. Savinkov, an associate of Winston Churchill and other British officials, also boasted of planning various attacks in the Left SR uprising. Numerous documents related to these activities remain classified and the relationship between the episodes remains controversial.

Russian Civil War

After the end of the war in Europe and the defeat of the Central Powers, the Allies openly supported the anti-Bolshevik White forces.

Foreign forces throughout Russia

Numbers of allied soldiers who were present in the indicated regions of Russia:

• 600 French and British troops landed in Arkhangelsk
• A number of British troops in Vladivostok.
• A number of Romanian troops in Bessarabia.
• 23,351 Greeks, who withdrew after three months (part of I Army Corps under Maj. Gen. Konstantinos Nider, comprising 2nd and 13th Infantry Divisions, in the Crimea, and around Odessa and Kherson)
• 13,000 Americans (in the Arkhangelsk and Vladivostok regions)
• 11,500 Estonians in northwestern Russia
• 2,500 Italians (in the Arkhangelsk region and Siberia)
• 2,300 Chinese (in the Vladivostok region)
• 150 Australians (mostly in the Arkhangelsk regions)
• 15,000 Japanese soldiers in the Eastern region
• 4,192 Canadians in Vladivostok, 600 Canadians in Arkhangelsk

Campaigns

Northern Russia

• British Army: 236th Infantry Brigade, 548th (Dundee) Army Troops Company, Royal Engineers, 2/10th Royal Scots, some Royal Dublin Fusiliers, 52 Bn Manchester Regt.)
• Royal Navy (plus a detachment of 53 U.S. Navy sailors – including Harold Gunnes – from the cruiser USS Olympia during August and September 1918 only)
• Royal Air Force (Fairey Campania and Sopwith Baby seaplanes along with a single Sopwith Camel fighter)
• French Army (21st Colonial Battalion)
• Canadian Field Artillery (67th and 68th Batteries of the 16th Brigade, Canadian Field Artillery)
• Slavo-British Allied Legion (also known as SBAL, anti-Bolshevik forces, included Dyer's Battalion, British-trained and led)
• White Russian Army (previously the army of Alexander Kerensky's provisional Russian government, anti-Bolshevik, led by General Evgenii Miller)
• U.S. Army, American North Russia Expeditionary Force (also known as Polar Bear Expedition, 310th Engineers, 339th Infantry, 337th Field Hospital, and 337th Ambulance Company)
• U.S. Army, 167th and 168th Railroad Companies (sent to Murmansk to operate the Murmansk to Petrograd line)
• Miscellaneous Allied troops from Poland, Serbia and Italy
• British North Russian Relief Force (arrived in late May 1919 to cover the withdrawal of US and Allied troops)

Northwestern Russia

Although the Estonian Army had attained control over its country, the opposing 7th and Estonian Red Armies were still active. The Estonian High Command decided to push their defense lines across the border into Russia in support of the White Russian Northern Corps. They went on offensive at Narva, catching the Soviets by surprise and destroying their 6th Division. The attack was supported along the Gulf of Finland's coast by Royal Navy and the Estonian Navy and marines. With the front approaching, the garrison of the Krasnaya Gorka fort mutinied. But the 7th Red Army received reinforcements and counterattacked, pushing the White Russians back, until the front was stabilised with the support from the Estonian 1st Division at the Luga and Saba Rivers.

The Estonian Pskov offensive commenced simultaneously on 13 May 1919. Its Petseri Battle Group destroyed the Estonian Red Army, captured the town on 25 May, and cleared the territory between Estonia and the Velikaya River. A few days later, the Northern Corps forces arrived in Pskov. On 19 June 1919, the Estonian Commander-in-Chief Johan Laidoner rescinded his command over the White Russians, and they were renamed the Northwestern Army. Shortly afterward, General Nikolai N. Yudenich took command of the troops.

The Northwestern Army launched operation White Sword, a major effort to capture Petrograd on 9 October, with arms provided by Britain and France, and the operational support by the Estonian Army, Estonian Navy, and the Royal Navy. The Estonian and British forces made a joint land and naval attack against Krasnaya Gorka, while the Estonian 2nd Division attempted to throw the 10th Red Division across the Velikaya, and the 3rd Division attacked toward Pytalovo and Ostrov. The Northwestern Army approached to within 16 km (10 mi) of Petrograd, but the Red Army repulsed them back to the Narva River. Distrustful of the White Russians, the Estonian High Command disarmed and interned the remains of the Northwestern Army that retreated behind the state border.

Southern Russia and Ukraine

On 18 December 1918, a month after the armistice, the French occupied Odessa. This began the intervention in southern Russia (later Ukraine) which was to aid and supply General Denikin's White Army forces, the Volunteer Army, fighting the Bolsheviks there. The campaign involved French, Polish, and Greek troops. By April 1919, they were withdrawn before the defeat of the White Army's march against Moscow. General Wrangel reorganized his army in the Crimea; however, with the deteriorating situation, he and his soldiers fled Russia aboard Allied ships on 14 November 1920.

Bessarabia

After the Bolshevik forces of the Rumcherod attacked the region of Bessarabia, the Romanian government of Ion I. C. Brătianu decided to intervene, and on January 26 [O.S. January 13] 1918, the 11th Infantry Division under General Ernest Broșteanu entered Chișinău. The Bolshevik troops retreated to Tighina, and after a battle retreated further beyond the Dniester. The battle of Tighina was one of the two significant engagements of the 1918 Bessarabian Campaign. It lasted for five days, between 20 and 25 January, and ended in a Romanian victory, albeit with significant Romanian casualties (141 dead). Romanian troops captured 800 guns.

The second important battle was fought at Vâlcov, between 27 January and 3 February. The actions of Bolshevik warships (including three Donetsk-class gunboats), managed to delay the Romanians for several days, but the ships had to retreat on 3 February due to no longer being able to adjust and correct their aiming, after Romanian artillery destroyed the shore-based Bolshevik artillery observation posts. Later that day, Romanian troops occupied Vâlcov. The Romanians captured the Bolinder-class river gunboat K-2 (255 tons, 2 x 152 mm Canet guns) as well as several more barges armed with a total of eight 152 mm Obuchov guns.

Siberia

The joint Allied intervention began in August 1918. The Japanese entered through Vladivostok and points along the China–Russia border with more than 70,000 troops eventually being deployed. The Japanese were joined by British and later American, Canadian, French, and Italian troops. Elements of the Czechoslovak Legion that had reached Vladivostok, greeted the allied forces. The Americans deployed the 27th Infantry and 31st Infantry regiments out of the Philippines, plus elements of the 12th, 13th and 62nd Infantry Regiments out of Camp Fremont.

The Japanese were expected to send only around 7,000 troops for the expedition, but by the end of their involvement in Siberia had deployed 70,000. The deployment of such a large force for a rescue operation made the Allies wary of Japanese intentions. On September 5, the Japanese linked up with the vanguard of the Czech Legion, a few days later the British, Italian and French contingents joined the Czechs in an effort to re-establish the Eastern Front beyond the Urals; as a result the European allies trekked westward. The Canadians largely remained in Vladivostok for the duration. The Japanese, with their own objectives in mind, refused to proceed west of Lake Baikal. The Americans, suspicious of Japanese intentions, also stayed behind to keep an eye on them. By November, the Japanese occupied all ports and major towns in the Russian Maritime Provinces and Siberia east of the city of Chita.

The Allies lent their support to White Russian elements from the summer of 1918. There were tensions between the two anti-Bolshevik factions; the White Russian government led by Admiral Alexander Kolchak and the Cossacks led by Grigory Semyonov and Ivan Kalmykov which also hampered efforts.

All Allied forces were evacuated by 1920, apart from the Japanese who stayed until 1922.

Caucasus

In 1917, Dunsterforce, an Allied military mission of under 1,000 Australian, British, and Canadian troops (drawn from the Mesopotamian and Western Fronts), accompanied by armoured cars, deployed from Hamadan some 350 km (220 mi) across Qajar Persia. It was named after its commander General Lionel Dunsterville. Its mission was to gather information, train and command local forces, and prevent the spread of German propaganda.

Later on, Dunsterville was told to take and protect the Baku oil fields. The force was initially delayed by 3,000 Russian Bolshevik troops at Enzeli but then proceeded by ship to the port of Baku on the Caspian Sea. This was the primary target for the advancing Turkish forces and Dunsterforce endured a short, brutal siege in September 1918 before being forced to withdraw.

However, having been defeated in World War I, Turkey had to withdraw its forces from the borders of Azerbaijan in the middle of November 1918. Headed by General William Thomson, the British troops of 5,000 soldiers arrived in Baku on November 17, and martial law was implemented on the capital of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic until "the civil power would be strong enough to release the forces from the responsibility to maintain the public order".

Trans-Caspian Campaign

The first instance of allied mediation occurred on 11 August 1918, when General Malleson intervened in support of the Ashkhabad Executive Committee, who had ousted the Tashkent Soviet Bolsheviks from the western end of the Trans-Caspian Railway in July 1918. Malleson had been authorised to intervene with Empire and British troops, in what would be referred to as the Malleson Mission. He sent the Machine Gun Section of the 19th Punjabi Rifles to Baýramaly located on the Trans-Caspian Railway. After combat at Merv, they were joined by the rest of the regiment. There was further action at Kaka on 28 August, 11 and 18 September. They were reinforced on 25 September by two squadrons of the 28th Light Cavalry. Fighting alongside Trans-Caspian troops, they subsequently fought at Arman Sagad (between 9 and 11 October) and Dushak (14 October).

By 1 November, they had re-occupied Merv and on instructions of the British government, halted their advance and took up defensive positions at Bairam Ali. The Trans-Caspian forces continued to attack the Bolsheviks to the north. After the Trans-Caspian forces were routed at Uch Aji, their commander Colonel Knollys sent the 28th Cavalry to their support at Annenkovo. In January 1919, one company of the 19th Punjabi Rifles was sent to reinforce the position at Annenkovo, where a second battle took place on 16 January. The British Government decided on 21 January to withdraw the force, and the last troops left for Persia on 5 April.

Allied withdrawal

The Allies withdrew in 1920. The Japanese stayed in the Maritime Provinces of the Russian Far East until 1922 and in northern Sakhalin until 1925, when the Red Army's military success forced Japan's withdrawal from Russia.

Historical assessment

Historical assessment of the intervention has been universally negative. William Henry Chamberlin wrote that the consequences of the expedition "were to poison East-West relations forever after, to contribute significantly to the origins of World War II and the later Cold War, and to fix patterns of suspicion and hatred on both sides which even today threaten worse catastrophes in time to come." Some modern historians hold that "The immediate effect of the intervention was to prolong a bloody civil war, thereby costing thousands of additional lives and wreaking enormous destruction on an already battered society." The British Secretary of State for War Winston Churchill authorised the use of chemical weapons in Russia.

See also

• Arthur Percy Sullivan
• Australian contribution to the Allied Intervention in Russia 1918–1919
• British Campaign in the Baltic 1918-19
• Canadian Siberian Expeditionary Force
• Cold War
• Eight-Nation Alliance
• Italian Legione Redenta
• Polar Bear Expedition

References

1. Scientia Militaria, South African Journal of Military Studies, Vol 15, Nr 4, 1985, pp. 46-48. Accessed January 24, 2016.
2. Warfare and Armed Conflicts – A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–2000 2nd Ed. Clodfelter, Michael 2002 ISBN 978-0-7864-1204-4 pp. 384–85
3. The Army Council. General Annual Report of the British Army 1912–1919. Parliamentary Paper 1921, XX, Cmd.1193., PartIV p. 62–72
4. ^ Beyer, pp. 152–53.
5. Intervention and the War by Richard Ullman, Princeton University Press, 1961, pp. 11–13
6. Keith Neilson, Strategy and Supply (RLE The First World War): The Anglo-Russian Alliance (Routledge, 2014), p. 282-290
7. Michael Hughes, INSIDE THE ENIGMA: British Officials in Russia, 1900-39 (Bloomsbury, 2006), p. 111-114
8. ^ Jeffery T. Richelson, A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century (Oxford University Press, 1997)
9. ^ Mike Thomson "Did Britain try to assassinate Lenin?" BBC News, Radio 4, March 19, 2011
10. ^ William Henry Chamberlin,"Between Two Foes" in Russia's Iron Age
11. Ronald E. Ringer, Excel Higher School Certificate Modern History (Pascal Press, 2006), p. 112
12. ^ Jaan Maide (1933). Ülevaade Eesti vabadussõjast 1918—1920 (Estonian War of Independence 1918—1920: Overview) (in Estonian). Tallinn: Estonian Defence League.
13. Moore, Joel R.; Mead, Harry H.; Jahns, Lewis E. (2003). The History of the American Expedition Fighting the Bolsheviki. Nashville, Tenn.: The Battery Press. pp. 47–50. ISBN 089839323X.
14. ^ E.M. Halliday, When Hell Froze Over (New York City, NY, ibooks, inc., 2000), p. 44
15. ^ Robert L. Willett, Russian Sideshow, pp. 166–167, 170
16. ^ Humphreys, The Way of the Heavenly Sword: The Japanese Army in the 1920s, p. 25
17. Sowers, Steven W. "Legacy of 1917 and 1918". Michigan State University. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |dead-url= (help)
18. Jonathan Smele, The Russian Revolution and Civil War 1917-1921: An Annotated Bibliography, p. 277-278
19. Chris Wrigley, Winston Churchill: A Biographical Companion (ABC CLIO p. 300
20. Evan Mawdsley, "Russian Civil War", Pegasus
21. Olson, John Stuart; Pappas, Lee Brigance; Pappas, Nicholas Charles (1994). An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empires. Greenwood Publishing. p. 273.
22. ^ A History of Russia, 7th Edition, Nichlas V. Riasanovsky & Mark D. Steinberg, Oxford University Press, 2005.
23. Joana Breidenbach (2005). Pál Nyíri, Joana Breidenbach, ed. China inside out: contemporary Chinese nationalism and transnationalism (illustrated ed.). Central European University Press. p. 90. ISBN 963-7326-14-6. Retrieved 18 March 2012. "At the end of the year 1918, after the Russian Revolution, the Chinese merchants in the Russian Far East demanded the Chinese government to send troops for their protection, and Chinese troops were sent to Vladivostok to protect the Chinese community: about 1600 soldiers and 700 support personnel." As well, there were reports of Canadian soldiers fighting Kettites, Chinese Communists (perhaps left-wing adventurers), in the Murmansk area (as recorded in war diary of E.H. Cope, North Russia Expeditionary Force, Provincial Archives of Alberta, 68.101/3).
24. Grey, Jeffrey (October 1985). "A 'Pathetic Sideshow': Australians and the Russian Intervention, 1918–19". Journal of the Australian War Memorial. Canberra: Australian War Memorial. 7. ISSN 0729-6274
25. Moffat, Ian C. D. "Forgotten Battlefields - Canadians in Siberia 1918 - 1919". Canadian Military Journal. Department of National Defence. Retrieved 8 April 2017.
26. British Military Aviation in 1918 - Part 2 Royal Air Force Museum
27. ^ Traksmaa, August: Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu, page 141. Olion, 1992, ISBN 5-450-01325-6
28. Traksmaa, August: Lühike vabadussõja ajalugu, page 142. Olion, 1992, ISBN 5-450-01325-6
29. ^ Estonian War of Independence 1918–1920. Jyri Kork (Ed.). Esto, Baltimore, 1988 (Reprint from Estonian War of Independence 1918–1920. Historical Committee for the War of Independence, Tallinn, 1938)
30. Fletcher, William A. (1976). "The British navy in the Baltic, 1918-1920: Its contribution to the independence of the Baltic nations". Journal of Baltic Studies. 7 (2): 134–144. doi:10.1080/01629777600000141.
31. Template:Gr icon The Campaign in the Ukraine Archived March 9, 2008, at the Wayback Machine, at sansimera.gr
32. Ion Nistor, Istoria Basarabiei, page 284. Humanitas, 1991. ISBN 973-28-0283-9
33. Stanescu Marin, Armata română şi unirea Basarabiei şi Bucovinei cu România: 1917-1918, pp. 105-107 (in Romanian)
34. Stanescu Marin, Armata română şi unirea Basarabiei şi Bucovinei cu România: 1917-1918, pp. 115-118 (in Romanian)
35. Adrian Storea, Gheorghe Băjenaru, Artileria română în date și imagini (Romanian artillery in data and pictures), p. 107 (in Romanian)
36. Siegfried Breyer, Soviet Warship Development: 1917-1937, p. 98
37. Navypedia: "BOLINDER" type small landing ships and barges (1916)
38. British Military Operations 1919-1939 Archived 2013-05-24 at the Wayback Machine Graham Watson, April 28, 2002
39. Paper Heritage - 1919 Railway-related issues of the Czech Army in Siberia
40. Willett, Robert L. (2003). Russian Sideshow. Washington: Brassey's. pp. 166–167. ISBN 1574884298.
41. ^ Humphreys, Leonard A. (1995). The Way of the Heavenly Sword: The Japanese Army in the 1920s. Stanford University Press. p. 26. ISBN 0804723753.
42. Audrey L. Altstadt The Azerbaijani Turks: power and identity under Russian rule Hoover Press, 1992, ISBN 978-0-8179-9182-1
43. Operations in Trans-Caspia Archived 2009-04-02 at the Wayback Machine, Behind the Lines, accessed 23 September 2009
44. James W. Loewen, Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong (The New Press, 2007), p. 17
45. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/booknews/10346568/Winston-Churchill-authorised-use-of-chemical-weapons.html
46. https://www.theguardian.com/world/shortcuts/2013/sep/01/winston-churchill-shocking-use-chemical-weapons

Further reading

• Carley, Michael Jabara. "Allied Intervention and the Russian Civil War, 1917-1922," International History Review 11#4 (1989), pp. 689–700 in JSTOR. Historiography
• Foglesong, David S. "Policies Toward Russia and Intervention in the Russian Revolution." in Ross A. Kennedy ed., A Companion to Woodrow Wilson (2013): 386-405.
• Humphreys, Leonard A. (1996). The Way of the Heavenly Sword: The Japanese Army in the 1920s. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2375-3.
• Isitt, Benjamin (2010). From Victoria to Vladivostok: Canada's Siberian Expedition, 1917-19. University of British Columbia Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-1802-5. Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
• Isitt, Benjamin (2006). "Mutiny from Victoria to Vladivostok, December 1918". Canadian Historical Review. 87 (2). University of Toronto Press: 223–264. Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
• Long, John W. "American Intervention in Russia: The North Russian Expedition, 1918–19." Diplomatic History 6.1 (1982): 45-68.
• Moffat, Ian C.D. The Allied Intervention in Russia, 1918-1920: The Diplomacy of Chaos (2015) excerpt
• Moore, Perry. Stamping Out the Virus: Allied Intervention in the Russian Civil War 1918-1920 (2002)
• Richard, Carl J. "'The Shadow of a Plan': The Rationale Behind Wilson's 1918 Siberian Intervention." Historian 49.1 (1986): 64-84. Historiography
• Silverlight, John. The Victors' Dilemma: Allied Intervention in the Russian Civil War, 1917-1920 (1970)
• Trani, Eugene P. "Woodrow Wilson and the decision to intervene in Russia: a reconsideration." Journal of Modern History 48.3 (1976): 440-461. in JSTOR
• Unterberger, Betty Miller. "Woodrow Wilson and the Bolsheviks: The “Acid Test” of Soviet–American Relations." Diplomatic History 11.2 (1987): 71-90.
• Willett, Robert L. (2003). Russian Sideshow: America's Undeclared War, 1918–1920. Washington D.C: Brassey's. ISBN 1-57488-429-8.

External links

• Beyer, Rick (2003). The Greatest Stories Never Told. A&E Television Networks / The History Channel. ISBN 0-06-001401-6.

• Presidency of Woodrow Wilson
• 20th-century military history of the United States
• Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War
• 20th-century military history of the United Kingdom
• History of the Royal Marines
• Campaigns and theatres of World War I
• Greater Romania
• Naval battles involving Romania
• Foreign intervention