Misplaced Pages

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by O.Koslowski (talk | contribs) at 13:41, 27 August 2019 (Reverted edits by 2409:4060:2111:8A40:5A3E:8B9:1570:C02A (talk) (HG) (3.4.9)). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Noam Chomsky
Chomsky in 2017
Born	Avram Noam Chomsky (1928-12-07) December 7, 1928 (age 96) Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.
Spouses	Carol Doris Schatz ​ ​(m. 1949; died 2008)​ Valeria Wasserman ​(m. 2014)​
Children	3, including Aviva
Awards	Guggenheim Fellowship (1971) Member of the National Academy of Sciences (1972) APA Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions to Psychology (1984) Orwell Award (1987, 1989) Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences (1988) Helmholtz Medal (1996) Benjamin Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science (1999) Sydney Peace Prize (2011)
Academic background
Education	University of Pennsylvania (BA, MA, PhD) Harvard Society of Fellows (1951–1955)
Thesis	Transformational Analysis (1955)
Influences	Academic J. L. Austin, William Chomsky, C. West Churchman, René Descartes, Galileo, Nelson Goodman, Morris Halle, Zellig Harris, Wilhelm von Humboldt, David Hume, Roman Jakobson, Immanuel Kant, George Armitage Miller, Pāṇini, Hilary Putnam, W. V. O. Quine, Bertrand Russell, Ferdinand de Saussure, Marcel-Paul Schützenberger, Alan Turing, Ludwig Wittgenstein Political Mikhail Bakunin, Alex Carey, William Chomsky, John Dewey, Zellig Harris, Wilhelm von Humboldt, David Hume, Karl Korsch, Peter Kropotkin, Karl Liebknecht, Rosa Luxemburg, John Locke, Dwight Macdonald, Karl Marx, Paul Mattick, John Stuart Mill, George Orwell, Anton Pannekoek, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Rudolf Rocker, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Bertrand Russell, Diego Abad de Santillán, Adam Smith
Academic work
Discipline	Linguistics, analytic philosophy, cognitive science, political criticism
Institutions	University of Arizona (2017–present) Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1955–present) Institute for Advanced Study (1958–1959)
Doctoral students	Mark Baker, Ray C. Dougherty, C.-T. James Huang, Ray Jackendoff, George Lakoff, Howard Lasnik, Robert Lees, James D. McCawley, Barbara Partee, Tanya Reinhart, John R. Ross
Influenced	In academia John Backus, Derek Bickerton, Julian C. Boyd, Daniel Dennett, Daniel Everett, Jerry Fodor, Gilbert Harman, Marc Hauser, Norbert Hornstein, Niels Kaj Jerne, Donald Knuth, Georges J. F. Köhler, Peter Ludlow, Colin McGinn, César Milstein, Steven Pinker, John Searle, Neil Smith, Crispin Wright In politics Michael Albert, Julian Assange, Bono, Jean Bricmont, Hugo Chávez, Clinton Fernandes, Norman Finkelstein, Robert Fisk, Amy Goodman, Stephen Jay Gould, Glenn Greenwald, Christopher Hitchens, Naomi Klein, Michael Moore, John Nichols, Ann Nocenti, John Pilger, Harold Pinter, Arundhati Roy, Edward Said, Aaron Swartz
Website	https://chomsky.info
Signature

Avram Noam Chomsky (born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, historian, social critic, and political activist. Sometimes called "the father of modern linguistics", Chomsky is also a major figure in analytic philosophy and one of the founders of the field of cognitive science. He holds a joint appointment as Institute Professor Emeritus at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and laureate professor at the University of Arizona, and is the author of more than 100 books on topics such as linguistics, war, politics, and mass media. Ideologically, he aligns with anarcho-syndicalism and libertarian socialism.

Born to working-class Ashkenazi Jewish immigrants in Philadelphia, Chomsky developed an early interest in anarchism from alternative bookstores in New York City. At age 16 he began undergraduate studies at the University of Pennsylvania, and from 1951 to 1955 was a member of Harvard University's Society of Fellows, where he developed the theory of transformational grammar for which he earned his doctorate in 1955. That year he began teaching at MIT, and in 1957 emerged as a significant figure in linguistics with his landmark work Syntactic Structures, which played a major role in remodeling the study of language. From 1958 to 1959 Chomsky was a National Science Foundation fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study. He created or co-created the universal grammar theory, the generative grammar theory, the Chomsky hierarchy, and the minimalist program. Chomsky also played a pivotal role in the decline of behaviorism, and was particularly critical of the work of B. F. Skinner.

An outspoken opponent of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, which he saw as an act of American imperialism, in 1967 Chomsky rose to national attention for his antiwar essay "The Responsibility of Intellectuals". Associated with the New Left, he was arrested multiple times for his activism and placed on President Richard Nixon's Enemies List. While expanding his work in linguistics over subsequent decades, he also became involved in the linguistics wars. In collaboration with Edward S. Herman, Chomsky later articulated the propaganda model of media criticism in Manufacturing Consent and worked to expose the Indonesian occupation of East Timor. His defense of freedom of speech, including Holocaust denial, generated significant controversy in the Faurisson affair of the 1980s. Since retiring from MIT, he has continued his vocal political activism, including opposing the War on Terror and supporting the Occupy movement. Chomsky began teaching at the University of Arizona in 2017.

One of the most cited scholars alive, Chomsky has influenced a broad array of academic fields. He is widely recognized as having helped to spark the cognitive revolution, a paradigm shift in the human sciences that established a new cognitivistic framework for the study of language and the mind. In addition to his continued scholarship, he remains a leading critic of U.S. foreign policy, neoliberalism and contemporary state capitalism, the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and mainstream news media. His ideas have proven highly influential in the anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist movements, but have also drawn criticism, with some accusing Chomsky of anti-Americanism.

Life

Childhood: 1928–45

Avram Noam Chomsky was born on December 7, 1928, in the East Oak Lane neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. His parents, Ze'ev "William" Chomsky and Elsie Simonofsky, were immigrants of Ashkenazi Jewish descent. William had fled the Russian Empire in 1913 to escape conscription and worked in Baltimore sweatshops and Hebrew elementary schools before attending university. After moving to Philadelphia, William became principal of the Congregation Mikveh Israel religious school, and joining the Gratz College faculty in Philadelphia. He placed great emphasis on educating people so that they would be "well integrated, free and independent in their thinking, concerned about improving and enhancing the world, and eager to participate in making life more meaningful and worthwhile for all", a mission that shaped and was subsequently adopted by his son. Elsie was a teacher and activist born in Belarus. They met at Mikveh Israel, where they both worked.

Noam was the Chomskys' first child. His younger brother, David Eli Chomsky, was born five years later, in 1934. The brothers were close, though David was more easygoing while Noam could be very competitive. Chomsky and his brother were raised Jewish, being taught Hebrew and regularly discussing the political theories of Zionism; the family was particularly influenced by the Left Zionist writings of Ahad Ha'am. Chomsky faced antisemitism as a child, particularly from Philadelphia's Irish and German communities.

Chomsky attended the independent, Deweyite Oak Lane Country Day School and Philadelphia's Central High School, where he excelled academically and joined various clubs and societies, but was troubled by the school's hierarchical and regimented teaching methods. He also attended Hebrew High School at Gratz College, where his father taught.

Chomsky has described his parents as "normal Roosevelt Democrats" with center-left politics, but other relatives involved in the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union exposed him to socialism and far-left politics. He was substantially influenced by his uncle and the Jewish leftists who frequented his New York City newspaper stand to debate current affairs. Chomsky frequented left-wing and anarchist bookstores when visiting his uncle in the city, voraciously reading political literature. He wrote his first article at age 10 on the spread of fascism following the fall of Barcelona during the Spanish Civil War and, from the age of 12 or 13, identified with anarchist politics. He later described his discovery of anarchism as "a lucky accident" that made him critical of Stalinism and other forms of Marxism–Leninism.

University: 1945–55

In 1945, aged 16, Chomsky began a general program of study at the University of Pennsylvania, where he explored philosophy, logic, and languages and developed a primary interest in learning Arabic. Living at home, he funded his undergraduate degree by teaching Hebrew. Frustrated with his experiences at the university, he considered dropping out and moving to a kibbutz in Mandatory Palestine, but his intellectual curiosity was reawakened through conversations with the Russian-born linguist Zellig Harris, whom he first met in a political circle in 1947. Harris introduced Chomsky to the field of theoretical linguistics and convinced him to major in the subject. Chomsky's BA honors thesis, "Morphophonemics of Modern Hebrew", applied Harris's methods to the language. Chomsky revised this thesis for his MA, which he received from the University of Pennsylvania in 1951; it was subsequently published as a book. He also developed his interest in philosophy while at university, in particular under the tutelage of Nelson Goodman.

From 1951 to 1955 Chomsky was a member of the Society of Fellows at Harvard University, where he undertook research on what became his doctoral dissertation. Having been encouraged by Goodman to apply, Chomsky was attracted to Harvard in part because the philosopher Willard Van Orman Quine was based there. Both Quine and a visiting philosopher, J. L. Austin of the University of Oxford, strongly influenced Chomsky. In 1952 Chomsky published his first academic article, Systems of Syntactic Analysis, which appeared not in a journal of linguistics but in The Journal of Symbolic Logic. Highly critical of the established behaviorist currents in linguistics, in 1954 he presented his ideas at lectures at the University of Chicago and Yale University. He had not been registered as a student at Pennsylvania for four years, but in 1955 he submitted a thesis setting out his ideas on transformational grammar; he was awarded a Doctor of Philosophy degree for it, and it was privately distributed among specialists on microfilm before being published in 1975 as part of The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory. Harvard professor George Armitage Miller was impressed by Chomsky's thesis and collaborated with him on several technical papers in mathematical linguistics. Chomsky's doctorate exempted him from compulsory military service, which was otherwise due to begin in 1955.

In 1947 Chomsky began a romantic relationship with Carol Doris Schatz, whom he had known since early childhood. They married in 1949. After Chomsky was made a Fellow at Harvard, the couple moved to the Allston area of Boston and remained there until 1965, when they relocated to the suburb of Lexington. In 1953 the couple took a Harvard travel grant to Europe, from the United Kingdom through France and Switzerland into Italy. On that trip they also spent six weeks in Israel at Hashomer Hatzair's HaZore'a kibbutz. Despite enjoying himself, Chomsky was appalled by the country's Jewish nationalism, anti-Arab racism and, within the kibbutz's leftist community, pro-Stalinism.

On visits to New York City, Chomsky continued to frequent the office of the Yiddish anarchist journal Fraye Arbeter Shtime and became enamored with the ideas of Rudolf Rocker, a contributor whose work introduced Chomsky to the link between anarchism and classical liberalism. Chomsky also read other political thinkers: the anarchists Mikhail Bakunin and Diego Abad de Santillán, democratic socialists George Orwell, Bertrand Russell, and Dwight Macdonald, and works by Marxists Karl Liebknecht, Karl Korsch, and Rosa Luxemburg. His readings convinced him of the desirability of an anarcho-syndicalist society, and he became fascinated by the anarcho-syndicalist communes set up during the Spanish Civil War, as documented in Orwell's Homage to Catalonia (1938). He read the leftist journal Politics, which furthered his interest in anarchism, and the council communist periodical Living Marxism, though he rejected the orthodoxy of its editor, Paul Mattick. He was also greatly interested in the Marlenite ideas of the Leninist League of the United States, an anti-Stalinist Marxist–Leninist group, sharing their view that the Second World War was orchestrated by Western capitalists and the Soviet Union's "state capitalists" to crush Europe's proletariat.

Early career: 1955–66

Chomsky befriended two linguists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Morris Halle and Roman Jakobson, the latter of whom secured him an assistant professor position there in 1955. At MIT Chomsky spent half his time on a mechanical translation project and half teaching a course on linguistics and philosophy. He described MIT as "a pretty free and open place, open to experimentation and without rigid requirements. It was just perfect for someone of my idiosyncratic interests and work." In 1957 MIT promoted him to the position of associate professor, and from 1957 to 1958 he was also employed by Columbia University as a visiting professor. The Chomskys had their first child that same year, a daughter named Aviva. He also published his first book on linguistics, Syntactic Structures, a work that radically opposed the dominant Harris–Bloomfield trend in the field. Responses to Chomsky's ideas ranged from indifference to hostility, and his work proved divisive and caused "significant upheaval" in the discipline. The linguist John Lyons later asserted that Syntactic Structures "revolutionized the scientific study of language". From 1958 to 1959 Chomsky was a National Science Foundation fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey.

In 1959 Chomsky published a review of B. F. Skinner's 1957 book Verbal Behavior in the academic journal Language, in which he argued against Skinner's view of language as learned behavior. The review argued that Skinner ignored the role of human creativity in linguistics and helped to establish Chomsky as an intellectual. With Halle, Chomsky proceeded to found MIT's graduate program in linguistics. In 1961 he was awarded tenure, becoming a full professor in the Department of Modern Languages and Linguistics. Chomsky went on to be appointed plenary speaker at the Ninth International Congress of Linguists, held in 1962 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, which established him as the de facto spokesperson of American linguistics. Between 1963 and 1965 he consulted on a military-sponsored project "to establish natural language as an operational language for command and control"; Barbara Partee, a collaborator on this project and then-student of Chomsky, has said this research was justified to the military on the basis that "in the event of a nuclear war, the generals would be underground with some computers trying to manage things, and that it would probably be easier to teach computers to understand English than to teach the generals to program."

Chomsky continued to publish his linguistic ideas throughout the decade, including in Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965), Topics in the Theory of Generative Grammar (1966), and Cartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought (1966). Along with Halle, he also edited the Studies in Language series of books for Harper and Row. As he began to accrue significant academic recognition and honors for his work, Chomsky lectured at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1966. His Beckman lectures at Berkeley were assembled and published as Language and Mind in 1968. Despite his growing stature, an intellectual falling-out between Chomsky and some of his early colleagues and doctoral students—including Paul Postal, John "Haj" Ross, George Lakoff, and James D. McCawley—triggered a series of academic debates that came to be known as the "Linguistics Wars", although they revolved largely around philosophical issues rather than linguistics proper.

Antiwar activism and dissent: 1967–75

t does not require very far-reaching, specialized knowledge to perceive that the United States was invading South Vietnam. And, in fact, to take apart the system of illusions and deception which functions to prevent understanding of contemporary reality not a task that requires extraordinary skill or understanding. It requires the kind of normal skepticism and willingness to apply one's analytical skills that almost all people have and that they can exercise.

Chomsky joined protests against U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War in 1962, speaking on the subject at small gatherings in churches and homes. His 1967 critique of U.S. involvement, "The Responsibility of Intellectuals", among other contributions to The New York Review of Books, debuted Chomsky as a public dissident. This essay and other political articles were collected and published in 1969 as part of Chomsky's first political book, American Power and the New Mandarins. He followed this with further political books, including At War with Asia (1971), The Backroom Boys (1973), For Reasons of State (1973), and Peace in the Middle East? (1975), published by Pantheon Books. These publications led to Chomsky's association with the American New Left movement, though he thought little of prominent New Left intellectuals Herbert Marcuse and Erich Fromm and preferred the company of activists to that of intellectuals. Chomsky remained largely ignored by the mainstream press throughout this period.

He also became involved in left-wing activism. Chomsky refused to pay half his taxes, publicly supported students who refused the draft, and was arrested while participating an antiwar teach-in outside the Pentagon. During this time, Chomsky co-founded the antiwar collective RESIST with Mitchell Goodman, Denise Levertov, William Sloane Coffin, and Dwight Macdonald. Although he questioned the objectives of the 1968 student protests, Chomsky gave many lectures to student activist groups and, with his colleague Louis Kampf, ran undergraduate courses on politics at MIT independently of the conservative-dominated political science department. When student activists campaigned to stop weapons and counterinsurgency research at MIT, Chomsky was sympathetic but felt that the research should remain under MIT's oversight and limited to systems of deterrence and defense. In 1970 he visited southeast Asia to lecture at Vietnam's Hanoi University of Science and Technology and toured war refugee camps in Laos. In 1973 he helped lead a committee commemorating the 50th anniversary of the War Resisters League.

External images
Chomsky participating in the anti-Vietnam War March on the Pentagon, October 21, 1967
Chomsky with other public figures
The protesters passing the Lincoln Memorial en route to the Pentagon

Because of his antiwar activism, Chomsky was arrested on multiple occasions and included on President Richard Nixon's master list of political opponents. Chomsky was aware of the potential repercussions of his civil disobedience and his wife began studying for her own doctorate in linguistics to support the family in the event of Chomsky's imprisonment or joblessness. Chomsky's scientific reputation insulated him from administrative action based on his beliefs.

His work in linguistics continued to gain international recognition as he received multiple honorary doctorates. He delivered public lectures at the University of Cambridge, Columbia University (Woodbridge Lectures), and Stanford University. His appearance in a 1971 debate with French continental philosopher Michel Foucault positioned Chomsky as a symbolic figurehead of analytic philosophy. He continued to publish extensively on linguistics, producing Studies on Semantics in Generative Grammar (1972), an enlarged edition of Language and Mind (1972), and Reflections on Language (1975). In 1974 Chomsky became a corresponding fellow of the British Academy.

Edward Herman and the Faurisson affair: 1976–80

In the late 1970s and 1980s, Chomsky's linguistic publications expanded and clarified his earlier work, addressing his critics and updating his grammatical theory. His political talks often generated considerable controversy, particularly when he criticized the Israeli government and military. In the early 1970s Chomsky began collaborating with Edward S. Herman, who had also published critiques of the U.S. war in Vietnam. Together they wrote Counter-Revolutionary Violence: Bloodbaths in Fact & Propaganda, a book that criticized U.S. military involvement in Southeast Asia and the mainstream media's failure to cover it. Warner Modular published it in 1973, but its parent company, disapproved of the book's contents and ordered all copies destroyed.

While mainstream publishing options proved elusive, Chomsky found support from Michael Albert's South End Press, an activist-oriented publishing company. In 1979, South End published Chomsky and Herman's revised Counter-Revolutionary Violence as the two-volume The Political Economy of Human Rights, which compares U.S. media reactions to the Cambodian genocide and the Indonesian occupation of East Timor. It argues that because Indonesia was a U.S. ally, U.S. media ignored the East Timorese situation while focusing on events in Cambodia, a U.S. enemy. Chomsky's response included two testimonials before the United Nations' Special Committee on Decolonization, successful encouragement for American media to cover the occupation, and meetings with refugees in Lisbon. The Marxist academic Steven Lukes publicly accused Chomsky of betraying his anarchist ideals and acting as an apologist for Cambodian leader Pol Pot. The controversy damaged Chomsky's reputation, and he maintains that his critics deliberately printed lies to defame him.

Chomsky had long publicly criticized Nazism, and totalitarianism more generally, but his commitment to freedom of speech led him to defend the right of French historian Robert Faurisson to advocate a position widely characterized as Holocaust denial. Without Chomsky's knowledge, his plea for Faurisson's freedom of speech was published as the preface to the latter's 1980 book Mémoire en défense contre ceux qui m'accusent de falsifier l'histoire. Chomsky was widely condemned for defending Faurisson, and France's mainstream press accused Chomsky of being a Holocaust denier himself, refusing to publish his rebuttals to their accusations. Critiquing Chomsky's position, sociologist Werner Cohn later published an analysis of the affair titled Partners in Hate: Noam Chomsky and the Holocaust Deniers. The Faurisson affair had a lasting, damaging effect on Chomsky's career, especially in France.

Critique of propaganda and international affairs: 1980–2001

External videos
Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media, a 1992 documentary exploring Chomsky's work of the same name and its impact

In 1985, during the Nicaraguan Contra War—in which the U.S. supported the contra militia against the Sandinista government—Chomsky traveled to Managua to meet with workers' organizations and refugees of the conflict, giving public lectures on politics and linguistics. Many of these lectures were published in 1987 as On Power and Ideology: The Managua Lectures. In 1983 he published The Fateful Triangle, which argued that the U.S. had continually used the Israeli–Palestinian conflict for its own ends. In 1988, Chomsky visited the Palestinian territories to witness the impact of Israeli occupation.

In 1988, Chomsky and Herman published Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media, in which they outlined their propaganda model for understanding mainstream media. They argued that even in countries without official censorship, the news is censored through four filters that have great impact on what stories are reported and how they are presented. The book was inspired by Alex Carey and adapted into a 1992 film. In 1989, Chomsky published Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies, in which he suggests that democratic citizens, to make a worthwhile democracy, undertake intellectual self-defense against the media and elite intellectual culture that seeks to control them. By the 1980s, Chomsky's students had become prominent linguists who, in turn, expanded and revised his linguistic theories.

In the 1990s, Chomsky embraced political activism to a greater degree than before. Retaining his commitment to the cause of East Timorese independence, in 1995 he visited Australia to talk on the issue at the behest of the East Timorese Relief Association and the National Council for East Timorese Resistance. The lectures he gave on the subject were published as Powers and Prospects in 1996. As a result of the international publicity Chomsky generated, his biographer Wolfgang Sperlich opined that he did more to aid the cause of East Timorese independence than anyone but the investigative journalist John Pilger. After East Timor attained independence from Indonesia in 1999, the Australian-led International Force for East Timor arrived as a peacekeeping force; Chomsky was critical of this, believing it was designed to secure Australian access to East Timor's oil and gas reserves under the Timor Gap Treaty.

Iraq war criticism and retirement from MIT: 2001–2017

After the September 11 attacks in 2001, Chomsky was widely interviewed; Seven Stories Press collated and published these interviews that October. Chomsky argued that the ensuing War on Terror was not a new development but a continuation of U.S. foreign policy and concomitant rhetoric since at least the Reagan era. He gave the D.T. Lakdawala Memorial Lecture in New Delhi in 2001, and in 2003 visited Cuba at the invitation of the Latin American Association of Social Scientists. Chomsky's 2003 Hegemony or Survival articulated what he called the United States' "imperial grand strategy" and critiqued the Iraq War and other aspects of the War on Terror. Chomsky toured internationally with greater regularity during this period.

Chomsky retired from MIT in 2002, but continued to conduct research and seminars on campus as an emeritus. That same year he visited Turkey to attend the trial of a publisher who had been accused of treason for printing one of Chomsky's books; Chomsky insisted on being a co-defendant and amid international media attention the Security Courts dropped the charge on the first day. During that trip Chomsky visited Kurdish areas of Turkey and spoke out in favor of the Kurds' human rights. A supporter of the World Social Forum, he attended its conferences in Brazil in both 2002 and 2003, also attending the Forum event in India.

Chomsky supported the Occupy movement, delivering talks at encampments and producing two works that chronicled its influence: Occupy (2012), a pamphlet, and Occupy: Reflections on Class War, Rebellion and Solidarity (2013). He attributed Occupy's growth to a perception that the Democratic Party had abandoned the interests of the white working class. In March 2014, Chomsky joined the advisory council of the Nuclear Age Peace Foundation, an organization that advocates the global abolition of nuclear weapons, as a senior fellow. The 2016 documentary Requiem for the American Dream summarizes his views on capitalism and economic inequality through a "75-minute teach-in".

University of Arizona: 2017–present

In 2017, Chomsky taught a short-term politics course at the University of Arizona in Tucson and was later hired as a part-time professor in the linguistics department there, with his duties including teaching and public seminars. His salary is covered by philanthropic donations. Chomsky signed the Declaration on the Common Language of the Croats, Serbs, Bosniaks and Montenegrins in 2018.

Linguistic theory

What started as purely linguistic research ... has led, through involvement in political causes and an identification with an older philosophic tradition, to no less than an attempt to formulate an overall theory of man. The roots of this are manifest in the linguistic theory ... The discovery of cognitive structures common to the human race but only to humans (species specific), leads quite easily to thinking of unalienable human attributes.

The basis of Chomsky's linguistic theory lies in biolinguistics, the linguistic school that holds that the principles underpinning the structure of language are biologically preset in the human mind and hence genetically inherited. As such he argues that all humans share the same underlying linguistic structure, irrespective of sociocultural differences. In adopting this position Chomsky rejects the radical behaviorist psychology of B. F. Skinner, who viewed behavior (including talking and thinking) as a completely learned product of the interactions between organisms and their environments. Accordingly, Chomsky argues that language is a unique evolutionary development of the human species and distinguished from modes of communication used by any other animal species. Chomsky's nativist, internalist view of language is consistent with the philosophical school of "rationalism" and contrasts with the anti-nativist, externalist view of language consistent with the philosophical school of "empiricism", which contends that all knowledge, including language, comes from external stimuli.

Universal grammar

Since the 1960s Chomsky has maintained that syntactic knowledge is at least partially inborn, implying that children need only learn certain language-specific features of their native languages. He bases his argument on observations about human language acquisition, noting that there is a "poverty of the stimulus"—enormous gap between the linguistic stimuli to which children are exposed and the rich linguistic competence they attain. For example, although children are exposed to only a very small and finite subset of the allowable syntactic variants within their first language, they somehow acquire the highly organized and systematic ability to understand and produce an infinite number of sentences, including ones that have never before been uttered, in that language. To explain this, Chomsky reasoned that the primary linguistic data must be supplemented by an innate linguistic capacity. Furthermore, while a human baby and a kitten are both capable of inductive reasoning, if they are exposed to exactly the same linguistic data, the human will always acquire the ability to understand and produce language, while the kitten will never acquire either ability. Chomsky labeled whatever relevant capacity the human has that the cat lacks the language acquisition device, and suggested that one of linguists' tasks should be to determine what that device is and what constraints it imposes on the range of possible human languages. The universal features that result from these constraints would constitute "universal grammar". Multiple scholars have challenged universal grammar on the grounds of the evolutionary infeasibility of its genetic basis for language, the lack of universal characteristics between languages, and the unproven link between innate/universal structures and the structures of specific languages.

Transformational grammar

Transformational grammar is a broad theory used to model, encode, and deduce a native speaker's linguistic capabilities. These models, or "formal grammars", show the abstract structures of a specific language as they may relate to structures in other languages. Chomsky developed transformational grammar in the mid-1950s, whereupon it became the dominant syntactic theory in linguistics for two decades. "Transformations" refers to syntactic relationships within language, e.g., being able to infer that the subject between two sentences is the same person. Chomsky's theory posits that language consists of both deep structures and surface structures. Surface structure "faces out" and is represented by spoken utterances, while deep structure "faces inward" and expresses the underlying relations between words and conceptual meaning. Transformational grammar is a generative grammar (which dictates that the syntax, or word order, of surface structures adheres to certain principles and parameters) that consists of a limited series of rules, expressed in mathematical notation, that transform deep structures into well-formed surface structures. The transformational grammar thus relates meaning and sound. Scholar Michael Tomasello has challenged Chomsky's theory as based in logic and not empiricism.

Based on this rule-based notation of grammars, Chomsky grouped natural languages into a series of four nested subsets and increasingly complex types, together known as the Chomsky hierarchy. This classification was and remains foundational to formal language theory, and relevant to theoretical computer science, especially programming language theory, compiler construction, and automata theory.

Following transformational grammar's heyday through the mid-1970s, a derivative government and binding theory became a dominant research framework through the early 1990s (and remains an influential theory) when linguists turned to a "minimalist" approach to grammar. This research focused on the principles and parameters framework, which explained children's ability to learn any language by filling open parameters (a set of universal grammar principles) that adapt as the child encounters linguistic data. The minimalist program, initiated by Chomsky, asks which minimal principles and parameters theory fits most elegantly, naturally, and simply. In an attempt to simplify language into a system that relates meaning and sound using the minimum possible faculties, Chomsky dispenses with concepts such as "deep structure" and "surface structure" and instead emphasizes the plasticity of the brain's neural circuits, with which come an infinite number of concepts, or "logical forms". When exposed to linguistic data, a hearer-speaker's brain proceeds to associate sound and meaning, and the rules of grammar we observe are in fact only the consequences, or side effects, of the way language works. Thus while much of Chomsky's prior research focused on the rules of language, he now focuses on the mechanisms the brain uses to generate these rules and regulate speech.

Political views

The second major area to which Chomsky has contributed—and surely the best known in terms of the number of people in his audience and the ease of understanding what he writes and says—is his work on sociopolitical analysis; political, social, and economic history; and critical assessment of current political circumstance. In Chomsky's view, although those in power might—and do—try to obscure their intentions and to defend their actions in ways that make them acceptable to citizens, it is easy for anyone who is willing to be critical and consider the facts to discern what they are up to.

Chomsky is a prominent political dissident. His political views have changed little since his childhood, when he was influenced by the emphasis on political activism that was ingrained in Jewish working-class tradition. He usually identifies as an anarcho-syndicalist or a libertarian socialist. He views these positions not as precise political theories but as ideals that he thinks best meet human needs: liberty, community, and freedom of association. Unlike some other socialists, such as Marxists, Chomsky believes that politics lies outside the remit of science, but he still roots his ideas about an ideal society in empirical data and empirically justified theories.

In Chomsky's view, the truth about political realities is systematically distorted or suppressed by an elite corporatocracy, which uses corporate media, advertising, and think tanks to promote its own propaganda. His work seeks to reveal such manipulations and the truth they obscure. Chomsky believes this web of falsehood can be broken by "common sense", critical thinking, and understanding the roles of self-interest and self-deception, and that intellectuals abdicate their moral responsibility to tell the truth about the world in fear of losing prestige and funding. He argues that, as such an intellectual, it is his duty to use his social privilege, resources, and training to aid popular democracy movements in their struggles.

Although he has joined protest marches and organized activist groups, Chomsky's primary political outlets are education and publication. He offers a wide range of political writings as well as free lessons and lectures to encourage wider political consciousness. He is a member of the Industrial Workers of the World international union.

United States foreign policy

Chomsky has been a prominent critic of American imperialism; he believes that the basic principle of the foreign policy of the United States is the establishment of "open societies" that are economically and politically controlled by the United States and where U.S.-based businesses can prosper. He argues that the U.S. seeks to suppress any movements within these countries that are not compliant with U.S. interests and to ensure that U.S.-friendly governments are placed in power. When discussing current events, he emphasizes their place within a wider historical perspective. He believes that official, sanctioned historical accounts of U.S. and British extraterritorial operations have consistently whitewashed these nations' actions in order to present them as having benevolent motives in either spreading democracy or, in older instances, spreading Christianity; criticizing these accounts, he seeks to correct them. Prominent examples he regularly cites are the actions of the British Empire in India and Africa and the actions of the U.S. in Vietnam, the Philippines, Latin America, and the Middle East.

Chomsky's political work has centered heavily on criticizing the actions of the United States. He has said he focuses on the U.S. because the country has militarily and economically dominated the world during his lifetime and because its liberal democratic electoral system allows the citizenry to influence government policy. His hope is that, by spreading awareness of the impact U.S. foreign policies have on the populations affected by them, he can sway the populations of the U.S. and other countries into opposing the policies. He urges people to criticize their governments' motivations, decisions, and actions, to accept responsibility for their own thoughts and actions, and to apply the same standards to others as to themselves.

Chomsky has been critical of U.S. involvement in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, arguing that it has consistently blocked a peaceful settlement. Chomsky also criticizes the U.S.'s close ties with Saudi Arabia and involvement in Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen, highlighting that Saudi Arabia has "one of the most grotesque human rights records in the world".

Capitalism and socialism

In his youth, Chomsky developed a dislike of capitalism and the pursuit of material wealth. At the same time, he developed a disdain for authoritarian socialism, as represented by the Marxist–Leninist policies of the Soviet Union. Rather than accepting the common view among U.S. economists that a spectrum exists between total state ownership of the economy and total private ownership, he instead suggests that a spectrum should be understood between total democratic control of the economy and total autocratic control (whether state or private). He argues that Western capitalist countries are not really democratic, because, in his view, a truly democratic society is one in which all persons have a say in public economic policy. He has stated his opposition to ruling elites, among them institutions like the IMF, World Bank, and GATT.

Chomsky highlights that, since the 1970s, the U.S. has become increasingly economically unequal as a result of the repeal of various financial regulations and the rescinding of the Bretton Woods financial control agreement. He characterizes the U.S. as a de facto one-party state, viewing both the Republican Party and Democratic Party as manifestations of a single "Business Party" controlled by corporate and financial interests. Chomsky highlights that, within Western capitalist liberal democracies, at least 80% of the population has no control over economic decisions, which are instead in the hands of a management class and ultimately controlled by a small, wealthy elite.

Noting the entrenchment of such an economic system, Chomsky believes that change is possible through the organized cooperation of large numbers of people who understand the problem and know how they want to reorganize the economy more equitably. Acknowledging that corporate domination of media and government stifles any significant change to this system, he sees reason for optimism in historical examples such as the social rejection of slavery as immoral, the advances in women's rights, and the forcing of government to justify invasions. He views violent revolution to overthrow a government as a last resort to be avoided if possible, citing the example of historical revolutions where the population's welfare has worsened as a result of upheaval.

Chomsky sees libertarian socialist and anarcho-syndicalist ideas as the descendants of the classical liberal ideas of the Age of Enlightenment, arguing that his ideological position revolves around "nourishing the libertarian and creative character of the human being". He envisions an anarcho-syndicalist future with direct worker control of the means of production and government by workers' councils, who would select representatives to meet together at general assemblies. The point of this self-governance is to make each citizen, in Thomas Jefferson's words, "a direct participator in the government of affairs." He believes that there will be no need for political parties. By controlling their productive life, he believes that individuals can gain job satisfaction and a sense of fulfillment and purpose. He argues that unpleasant and unpopular jobs could be fully automated, carried out by workers who are specially remunerated, or shared among everyone.

Israeli–Palestinian conflict

Israel uses sophisticated attack jets and naval vessels to bomb densely-crowded refugee camps, schools, apartment blocks, mosques, and slums to attack a population that has no air force, no air defense, no navy, no heavy weapons, no artillery units, no mechanized armor, no command in control, no army… and calls it a war. It is not a war, it is murder.

Chomsky has written prolifically on the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, aiming to raise public awareness of it. He has long endorsed the left binationalist program in Israel and Palestine, seeking to create a democratic state in the Levant that is home to both Jews and Arabs. Nevertheless, given the realpolitik of the situation, he has also considered a two-state solution on the condition that the nation-states exist on equal terms. Chomsky was denied entry to the West Bank in 2010 because of his criticisms of Israel. He had been invited to deliver a lecture at Bir Zeit University and was to meet with Palestinian Prime Minister Salam Fayyad. An Israeli Foreign Ministry spokesman later said that Chomsky was denied entry by mistake.

News media and propaganda

External videos
Chomsky on propaganda and the manufacturing of consent, June 1, 2003

Chomsky's political writings have largely focused on ideology, social and political power, the media, and state policy. One of his best-known works, Manufacturing Consent, dissects the media's role in reinforcing and acquiescing to state policies across the political spectrum while marginalizing contrary perspectives. Chomsky asserts that this version of censorship, by government-guided "free market" forces, is subtler and harder to undermine than was the equivalent propaganda system in the Soviet Union. As he argues, the mainstream press is corporate-owned and thus reflects corporate priorities and interests. Acknowledging that many American journalists are dedicated and well-meaning, he argues that the mass media's choices of topics and issues, the unquestioned premises on which that coverage rests, and the range of opinions expressed are all constrained to reinforce the state's ideology: although mass media will criticize individual politicians and political parties, it will not undermine the wider state-corporate nexus of which it is a part. As evidence, he highlights that the U.S. mass media does not employ any socialist journalists or political commentators. He also points to examples of important news stories that the U.S. mainstream media has ignored because reporting on them would reflect badly upon the country, including the murder of Black Panther Fred Hampton with possible FBI involvement, the massacres in Nicaragua perpetrated by U.S.-funded contras, and the constant reporting on Israeli deaths without equivalent coverage of the far larger number of Palestinian deaths in that conflict. To remedy this situation, Chomsky calls for grassroots democratic control and involvement of the media.

Chomsky considers most conspiracy theories fruitless, distracting substitutes for thinking about policy formation in an institutional framework, where individual manipulation is secondary to broader social imperatives. While not dismissing them outright, he considers them unproductive to challenging power in a substantial way. In response to the labeling of his own ideas as a conspiracy theory, Chomsky has said that it is very rational for the media to manipulate information in order to sell it, like any other business. He asks whether General Motors would be accused of conspiracy if it deliberately selected what it used or discarded to sell its product.

Other disciplines

Chomsky has also been active in a number of philosophical fields, including philosophy of mind, philosophy of language, and philosophy of science. In these fields he is credited with ushering in the "cognitive revolution", a significant paradigm shift that rejected logical positivism, the prevailing philosophical methodology of the time, and reframed how philosophers think about language and the mind. Chomsky views the cognitive revolution as rooted in 17th-century rationalist ideals. His position—the idea that the mind contains inherent structures to understand language, perception, and thought—has more in common with rationalism (Enlightenment and Cartesian) than behaviorism. He named one of his key works Cartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought (1966).

Chomsky's famous 1971 debate on human nature with the French philosopher Michel Foucault was symbolic in positioning Chomsky as the prototypical analytic philosopher against Foucault, a stalwart of the continental tradition. It showed what appeared to be irreconcilable differences between two moral and intellectual luminaries of the 20th century. Foucault's position was that of critique, that human nature could not be conceived in terms foreign to present understanding, while Chomsky held that human nature contained universalities such as a common standard of moral justice as deduced through reason based on what rationally serves human necessity. Chomsky criticized postmodernism and French philosophy generally, arguing that the obscure language postmodern leftist philosophers use does little to aid the working classes. He has also debated analytic philosophers, including Tyler Burge, Donald Davidson, Michael Dummett, Saul Kripke, Thomas Nagel, Hilary Putnam, Willard Van Orman Quine, and John Searle.

Chomsky's contributions span intellectual and world history, including history of philosophy. Irony is a recurring characteristic of his writing, as he often implies that his readers know better, which can make them more engaged in the veracity of his claims.

Personal life

Chomsky endeavors to keep his family life, linguistic scholarship, and political activism strictly separate from one another, calling himself "scrupulous at keeping my politics out of the classroom". An intensely private person, he is uninterested in appearances and the fame his work has brought him. He also has little interest in modern art and music. McGilvray suggests that Chomsky was never motivated by a desire for fame, but impelled to tell what he perceived as the truth and a desire to aid others in doing so. Chomsky acknowledges that his income affords him a privileged life compared to the majority of the world's population; nevertheless, he characterizes himself as a "worker", albeit one who uses his intellect as his employable skill. He reads four or five newspapers daily; in the US, he subscribes to The Boston Globe, The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, Financial Times, and The Christian Science Monitor. Chomsky is non-religious, but has expressed approval of forms of religion such as liberation theology.

Chomsky has attracted controversy for calling established political and academic figures "corrupt", "fascist", and "fraudulent". His colleague Steven Pinker has said that he "portrays people who disagree with him as stupid or evil, using withering scorn in his rhetoric", and that this contributes to the extreme reactions he receives from critics. Chomsky avoids attending academic conferences, including left-oriented ones such as the Socialist Scholars Conference, preferring to speak to activist groups or hold university seminars for mass audiences. His approach to academic freedom has led him to support MIT academics whose actions he deplores; in 1969, when Chomsky heard that Walt Rostow, a major architect of the Vietnam war, wanted to return to work at MIT, Chomsky threatened "to protest publicly" if Rostow was denied a position at MIT. In 1989, when Pentagon adviser John Deutch applied to be president of MIT, Chomsky supported his candidacy. Later, when Deutch became head of the CIA, The New York Times quoted Chomsky as saying, "He has more honesty and integrity than anyone I've ever met. ... If somebody's got to be running the CIA, I'm glad it's him."

Chomsky was married to Carol (née Carol Doris Schatz) from 1949 until her death in 2008. They had three children together: Aviva (b. 1957), Diane (b. 1960), and Harry (b. 1967). In 2014, Chomsky married Valeria Wasserman.

Reception and influence

voice is heard in academia beyond linguistics and philosophy: from computer science to neuroscience, from anthropology to education, mathematics and literary criticism. If we include Chomsky's political activism then the boundaries become quite blurred, and it comes as no surprise that Chomsky is increasingly seen as enemy number one by those who inhabit that wide sphere of reactionary discourse and action.

Chomsky was a defining Western intellectual figure in the late 20th century, central to the field of linguistics and definitive in cognitive science, computer science, philosophy, and psychology. In addition to being known as the most important intellectual of his time, Chomsky carries a dual legacy as both a "leader in the field" of linguistics and "a figure of enlightenment and inspiration" for political dissenters. Despite his academic success, his political viewpoints and activism have resulted in his being distrusted by the mainstream media apparatus, and he is regarded as being "on the outer margin of acceptability". The reception of his work is intertwined with his public image as an anarchist, a gadfly, an historian, a Jew, a linguist, and a philosopher.

In academia

McGilvray observes that Chomsky inaugurated the "cognitive revolution" in linguistics, and that he is largely responsible for establishing the field as a formal, natural science, moving it away from the procedural form of structural linguistics dominant during the mid-20th century. As such, some have called Chomsky "the father of modern linguistics". Linguist John Lyons further remarked that within a few decades of publication, Chomskyan linguistics had become "the most dynamic and influential" school of thought in the field. By the 1970s his work had also come to exert a considerable influence on philosophy, and a Minnesota State University Moorhead poll ranked Syntactic Structures as the single most important work in cognitive science. In addition, his work in automata theory and the Chomsky hierarchy have become well known in computer science, and he is much cited in computational linguistics.

Chomsky's criticisms of behaviorism contributed substantially to the decline of behaviorist psychology; in addition, he is generally regarded as one of the primary founders of the field of cognitive science. Some arguments in evolutionary psychology are derived from his research results; Nim Chimpsky, a chimpanzee who was the subject of a study in animal language acquisition at Columbia University, was named after Chomsky in reference to his view of language acquisition as a uniquely human ability.

ACM Turing Award winner Donald Knuth credited Chomsky's work with helping him combine his interests in mathematics, linguistics, and computer science. IBM computer scientist John Backus, another Turing Award winner, used some of Chomsky's concepts to help him develop FORTRAN, the first widely-used high-level computer programming language. The laureates of the 1984 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine — Georges J. F. Köhler, César Milstein, and Niels Kaj Jerne — used Chomsky's generative model to explain the human immune system, equating "components of a generative grammar ... with various features of protein structures." Chomsky's theory of generative grammar has also influenced work in music theory and analysis.

An MIT press release stated that Chomsky was cited within the Arts and Humanities Citation Index more often than any other living scholar from 1980 to 1992. Chomsky was also extensively cited in the Social Sciences Citation Index and Science Citation Index during the same time period, with the librarian who conducted the research commenting that the statistics show that "he is very widely read across disciplines and that his work is used by researchers across disciplines ... it seems that you can't write a paper without citing Noam Chomsky." As a result of his influence, there are dueling camps of Chomskyan and non-Chomskyan linguistics, with the disputes between the two camps often acrimonious.

In politics

Chomsky's status as the "most-quoted living author" is credited to his political writings, which vastly outnumber his writings on linguistics. Chomsky biographer Wolfgang B. Sperlich characterizes him as "one of the most notable contemporary champions of the people"; journalist John Pilger has described him as a "genuine people's hero; an inspiration for struggles all over the world for that basic decency known as freedom. To a lot of people in the margins—activists and movements—he's unfailingly supportive." Arundhati Roy has called him "one of the greatest, most radical public thinkers of our time", and Edward Said thought him "one of the most significant challengers of unjust power and delusions". Fred Halliday has said that by the start of the 21st century Chomsky had become a "guru" for the world's anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist movements. The propaganda model of media criticism that he and Herman developed has been widely accepted in radical media critiques and adopted to some level in mainstream criticism of the media, also exerting a significant influence on the growth of alternative media, including radio, publishers, and the Internet, which in turn have helped to disseminate his work.

Sperlich also notes that Chomsky has been vilified by corporate interests, particularly in the mainstream press. University departments devoted to history and political science rarely include Chomsky's work on their undergraduate syllabi. Critics have argued that despite publishing widely on social and political issues, Chomsky has no formal expertise in these areas; he has responded that such issues are not as complex as many social scientists claim and that almost everyone is able to comprehend them regardless of whether they have been academically trained to do so. According to McGilvray, many of Chomsky's critics "do not bother quoting his work or quote out of context, distort, and create straw men that cannot be supported by Chomsky's text".

Chomsky's far-reaching criticisms of U.S. foreign policy and the legitimacy of U.S. power have raised controversy. A document obtained pursuant to a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request from the U.S. government revealed that the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) monitored his activities and for years denied doing so. The CIA also destroyed its files on Chomsky at some point, possibly in violation of federal law. He has often received undercover police protection at MIT and when speaking on the Middle East, but has refused uniformed police protection. German newspaper Der Spiegel described Chomsky as "the Ayatollah of anti-American hatred", while conservative commentator David Horowitz called him "the most devious, the most dishonest and ... the most treacherous intellect in America", whose work is infused with "anti-American dementia" and evidences his "pathological hatred of his own country". Writing in Commentary magazine, the journalist Jonathan Kay described Chomsky as "a hard-boiled anti-American monomaniac who simply refuses to believe anything that any American leader says".

Chomsky's criticism of Israel has led to his being called a traitor to the Jewish people and an anti-Semite. Criticizing Chomsky's defense of the right of individuals to engage in Holocaust denial on the grounds that freedom of speech must be extended to all viewpoints, Werner Cohn called Chomsky "the most important patron" of the neo-Nazi movement. The Anti-Defamation League (ADL), which has been accused of monitoring Chomsky's activities, called him a Holocaust denier, describing him as a "dupe of intellectual pride so overweening that he is incapable of making distinctions between totalitarian and democratic societies, between oppressors and victims". In turn, Chomsky has claimed that the ADL is dominated by "Stalinist types" who oppose democracy in Israel. The lawyer Alan Dershowitz has called Chomsky a "false prophet of the left"; Chomsky called Dershowitz "a complete liar" who is on "a crazed jihad, dedicating much of his life to trying to destroy my reputation". In early 2016 President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan of Turkey publicly rebuked Chomsky after he signed an open letter condemning Erdoğan for his anti-Kurdish repression and double standards on terrorism. Chomsky accused Erdoğan of hypocrisy, noting that Erdoğan supports al-Qaeda's Syrian affiliate, the al-Nusra Front.

Academic achievements, awards, and honors

In 1970, the London Times named Chomsky one of the "makers of the twentieth century". He was voted the world's leading public intellectual in The 2005 Global Intellectuals Poll jointly conducted by American magazine Foreign Policy and British magazine Prospect. New Statesman readers listed Chomsky among the world's foremost heroes in 2006.

In the United States he is a Member of the National Academy of Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Linguistic Society of America, the American Philosophical Association, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Abroad he is a corresponding fellow of the British Academy, an honorary member of the British Psychological Society, a member of the Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina, and a foreign member of the Department of Social Sciences of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. He received a 1971 Guggenheim Fellowship, the 1984 American Psychological Association Award for Distinguished Contributions to Psychology, the 1988 Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences, the 1996 Helmholtz Medal, the 1999 Benjamin Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science, the 2010 Erich Fromm Prize, and the British Academy's 2014 Neil and Saras Smith Medal for Linguistics. He is also a two-time winner of the NCTE George Orwell Award for Distinguished Contribution to Honesty and Clarity in Public Language (1987 and 1989). He has also received the Rabindranath Tagore Centenary Award from The Asiatic Society.

Chomsky received the 2004 Carl-von-Ossietzky Prize from the city of Oldenburg, Germany, to acknowledge his body of work as a political analyst and media critic. He received an honorary fellowship in 2005 from the Literary and Historical Society of University College Dublin. He received the 2008 President's Medal from the Literary and Debating Society of the National University of Ireland, Galway. Since 2009, he has been an honorary member of International Association of Professional Translators and Interpreters (IAPTI). He received the University of Wisconsin's A.E. Havens Center's Award for Lifetime Contribution to Critical Scholarship and was inducted into IEEE Intelligent Systems' AI's Hall of Fame for "significant contributions to the field of AI and intelligent systems." Chomsky has an Erdős number of four.

For his work in human rights, peace, and social criticism, Chomsky received the 2011 Sydney Peace Prize, the 2017 Seán MacBride Peace Prize and the Dorothy Eldridge Peacemaker Award.

Chomsky has received honorary doctorates from institutions including the University of London and the University of Chicago (1967), Loyola University Chicago and Swarthmore College (1970), Bard College (1971), Delhi University (1972), and the University of Massachusetts (1973) among others. His public lectures have included the 1969 John Locke Lectures, 1975 Whidden Lectures, 1977 Huizinga Lecture, and 1988 Massey Lectures, among others.

Various tributes to Chomsky have been dedicated over the years. He is the eponym for a species of bee and a building complex at the Indian university Jamia Millia Islamia. Actor Viggo Mortensen and avant-garde guitarist Buckethead dedicated their 2003 album Pandemoniumfromamerica to Chomsky.

Selected bibliography

See also

• American philosophy
• The Anti-Chomsky Reader
• Mike Cooley
• Chomsky (surname)
• Knowledge worker
• List of linguists
• List of peace activists
• List of pioneers in computer science

Notes

1. English: /noʊm ˈtʃɒmski/
   Hebrew: ['noam 'χomski]
2. ^
   • Fox 1998: "Mr. Chomsky ... is the father of modern linguistics and remains the field's most influential practitioner."
   • Tymoczko & Henle 2004, p. 101: "As the founder of modern linguistics, Noam Chomsky, observed, each of the following sequences of words is nonsense ..."
   • Tanenhaus 2016: "At 87, Noam Chomsky, the founder of modern linguistics, remains a vital presence in American intellectual life."
3. • Macintyre 2010
   • Burris 2013: "Noam Chomsky has built his entire reputation as a political dissident on his command of the facts."
   • McNeill 2014: " often dubbed one of the world's most important intellectuals and its leading public dissident..."

Citations

1. ^ Chomsky 1991, p. 50.
2. Sperlich 2006, pp. 44–45.
3. Slife 1993, p. 115.
4. Barsky 1997, p. 58. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
5. Antony & Hornstein 2003, p. 295.
6. Chomsky 2016.
7. Harbord 1994, p. 487.
8. ^ Barsky 2007, p. 107.
9. Smith 2004, p. 185.
10. ^ Amid the Philosophers.
11. Persson & LaFollette 2013.
12. Prickett 2002, p. 234.
13. Searle 1972.
14. ^ Adams 2003.
15. Gould 1981.
16. Keller 2007.
17. Swartz 2006.
18. Lyons 1978, p. xv; Barsky 1997, p. 9 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); McGilvray 2014, p. 3.
19. ^ Barsky 1997, pp. 9–10 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 11.
20. Barsky 1997, p. 9. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
21. Barsky 1997, p. 11. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
22. Feinberg 1999, p. 3.
23. ^ Barsky 1997, pp. 11–13 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 11.
24. Barsky 1997, pp. 11–13. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
25. Barsky 1997, p. 15. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
26. Lyons 1978, p. xv; Barsky 1997, pp. 15–17 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 12; McGilvray 2014, p. 3.
27. Lyons 1978, p. xv; Barsky 1997, pp. 21–22 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 14; McGilvray 2014, p. 4.
28. ^ Lyons 1978, p. xv; Barsky 1997, pp. 15–17 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help).
29. Barsky 1997, p. 14 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, pp. 11, 14–15.
30. Barsky 1997, p. 23 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, pp. 12, 14–15, 67; McGilvray 2014, p. 4.
31. Barsky 1997, p. 23. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
32. Lyons 1978, p. xv; Barsky 1997, pp. 15–17 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 13; McGilvray 2014, p. 3.
33. Barsky 1997, pp. 17–19. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
34. Barsky 1997, pp. 17–19 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, pp. 16, 18.
35. Barsky 1997, p. 47 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 16.
36. Barsky 1997, p. 47. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
37. Sperlich 2006, p. 17.
38. Barsky 1997, pp. 48–51 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, pp. 18–19, 31.
39. Barsky 1997, pp. 51–52 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 32.
40. Barsky 1997, pp. 51–52 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 33.
41. Sperlich 2006, p. 33.
42. Lyons 1978, p. xv; Barsky 1997, p. 79 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 20.
43. ^ Sperlich 2006, p. 34.
44. Sperlich 2006, pp. 33–34.
45. Barsky 1997, p. 81. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
46. Barsky 1997, pp. 83–85 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 36; McGilvray 2014, pp. 4–5.
47. Sperlich 2006, p. 38.
48. Sperlich 2006, p. 36.
49. Barsky 1997, pp. 13, 48, 51–52 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, pp. 18–19.
50. Sperlich 2006, p. 20.
51. Sperlich 2006, pp. 20–21.
52. Barsky 1997, p. 82 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, pp. 20–21.
53. Barsky 1997, p. 24 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 13.
54. Barsky 1997, pp. 24–25. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
55. Barsky 1997, p. 26. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
56. Barsky 1997, pp. 34–35. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
57. Barsky 1997, p. 36. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
58. Barsky 1997, pp. 43–44. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
59. Lyons 1978, p. xv; Barsky 1997, pp. 86–87 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, pp. 38–40.
60. Barsky 1997, p. 87. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
61. Lyons 1978, p. xvi; Barsky 1997, p. 91 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help).
62. Barsky 1997, p. 91 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 22.
63. Barsky 1997, pp. 88–91 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 40; McGilvray 2014, p. 5.
64. Barsky 1997, pp. 88–91. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
65. Lyons 1978, p. 1.
66. Lyons 1978, p. xvi; Barsky 1997, p. 84 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help).
67. Lyons 1978, p. 6; Barsky 1997, pp. 96–99 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 41; McGilvray 2014, p. 5.
68. MacCorquodale 1970, pp. 83–99.
69. Barsky 1997, p. 119. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
70. Barsky 1997, pp. 101–102, 119 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 23.
71. Barsky 1997, p. 102. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
72. Knight 2018.
73. Barsky 1997, p. 103. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
74. Barsky 1997, p. 104. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
75. Lyons 1978, p. xvi; Barsky 1997, p. 120 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help).
76. Barsky 1997, p. 122. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
77. Sperlich 2006, pp. 60–61.
78. Barsky 1997, p. 114. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
79. Sperlich 2006, p. 78.
80. Barsky 1997, pp. 120, 122 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 83.
81. Lyons 1978, p. xvii; Barsky 1997, pp. 123 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 83.
82. Lyons 1978, pp. xvi–xvii; Barsky 1997, p. 163 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 87.
83. Lyons 1978, p. 5; Barsky 1997, p. 123 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help).
84. Barsky 1997, pp. 134–135. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
85. Barsky 1997, pp. 162–163. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
86. Lyons 1978, p. 5; Barsky 1997, pp. 127–129 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help).
87. Lyons 1978, p. 5; Barsky 1997, pp. 127–129 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, pp. 80–81.
88. Barsky 1997, pp. 121–122, 131. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
89. Barsky 1997, p. 121 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 78.
90. Barsky 1997, pp. 121–122, 140–141 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Albert 2006, p. 98; Knight 2016, p. 34.
91. Barsky 1997, p. 153 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, pp. 24–25, 84–85.
92. Barsky 1997, p. 124 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 80.
93. Barsky 1997, pp. 123–124 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 22.
94. ^ Barsky 1997, p. 143. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
95. ^ Lyons 1978, pp. xv–xvi; Barsky 1997, pp. 120, 143 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help).
96. ^ Barsky 1997, p. 156. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
97. ^ Greif 2015, pp. 312–313.
98. ^ Sperlich 2006, p. 51.
99. Barsky 1997, p. 175. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
100. Barsky 1997, pp. 167, 170. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
101. Barsky 1997, p. 157. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
102. Barsky 1997, pp. 160–162 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 86.
103. Sperlich 2006, p. 85.
104. Barsky 1997, p. 187 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 86.
105. Barsky 1997, p. 187. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
106. Sperlich 2006, p. 103.
107. Lukes 1980.
108. Barsky 1997, pp. 187–189. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
109. Barsky 1997, p. 190. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
110. Barsky 1997, pp. 179–180 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 61.
111. Barsky 1997, p. 185 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 61.
112. Barsky 1997, p. 184. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
113. Barsky 1997, p. 78. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
114. Barsky 1997, p. 185. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
115. Birnbaum 2010; Aeschimann 2010.
116. Sperlich 2006, pp. 91, 92.
117. Sperlich 2006, p. 91.
118. Sperlich 2006, p. 99; McGilvray 2014, p. 13.
119. Sperlich 2006, p. 98.
120. Barsky 1997, pp. 160, 202 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, pp. 127–134.
121. Sperlich 2006, p. 136.
122. Sperlich 2006, pp. 138–139.
123. Sperlich 2006, p. 53.
124. Barsky 1997, p. 214. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
125. ^ Sperlich 2006, p. 104.
126. Sperlich 2006, p. 107.
127. Sperlich 2006, pp. 109–110.
128. Sperlich 2006, pp. 110–111.
129. Sperlich 2006, p. 143.
130. The Hindu 2001.
131. ^ Sperlich 2006, p. 120.
132. Sperlich 2006, pp. 114–118.
133. Weidenfeld 2017.
134. ^ Sperlich 2006, p. 10.
135. ^ Sperlich 2006, p. 25.
136. Sperlich 2006, pp. 112–113, 120.
137. Younge & Hogue 2012.
138. NAPF 2014.
139. Ferguson.
140. Gold 2016.
141. Harwood 2016.
142. Ortiz 2017.
143. Mace.
144. Vučić 2018.
145. Bobanović 2018.
146. ^ Baughman et al. 1998.
147. Lyons 1978, p. 4; McGilvray 2014, pp. 2–3.
148. Lyons 1978, p. 7.
149. Lyons 1978, p. 6; McGilvray 2014, pp. 2–3.
150. ^ Brain From Top To Bottom.
151. McGilvray 2014, p. 11.
152. Dovey 2015.
153. Chomsky.
154. Thornbury 2006, p. 234.
155. O'Grady 2015.
156. Christiansen & Chater 2010, p. 489; Ruiter & Levinson 2010, p. 518.
157. Evans & Levinson 2009, p. 429; Tomasello 2009, p. 470.
158. Tomasello 2003, p. 284.
159. ^ Harlow 2010, p. 752.
160. Harlow 2010, pp. 752–753.
161. Harlow 2010, p. 753.
162. ^ Szabó 2010.
163. Tomasello 1995, p. 131.
164. Butterfield, Ngondi & Kerr 2016.
165. Knuth 2002.
166. Davis, Weyuker & Sigal 1994, p. 327.
167. ^ Hornstein 2003.
168. Fox 1998.
169. McGilvray 2014, p. 12.
170. Barsky 1997, p. 95 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); McGilvray 2014, p. 4.
171. Sperlich 2006, p. 77.
172. Sperlich 2006, p. 14; McGilvray 2014, pp. 17, 158.
173. McGilvray 2014, p. 17.
174. Sperlich 2006, p. 74; McGilvray 2014, p. 16.
175. McGilvray 2014, p. 222.
176. Sperlich 2006, p. 8; McGilvray 2014, p. 158.
177. Sperlich 2006, p. 74; McGilvray 2014, pp. 12–13.
178. ^ McGilvray 2014, p. 159.
179. ^ McGilvray 2014, p. 161.
180. McGilvray 2014, p. 158.
181. Sperlich 2006, p. 71.
182. IWoW biographies.
183. Milne 2009.
184. Sperlich 2006, p. 92.
185. ^ McGilvray 2014, p. 160.
186. ^ McGilvray 2014, p. 13.
187. McGilvray 2014, pp. 14, 160.
188. McGilvray 2014, p. 18.
189. Democracy Now! 2016.
190. Sperlich 2006, p. 15.
191. Barsky 1997, p. 168 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 16.
192. McGilvray 2014, pp. 164–165.
193. McGilvray 2014, p. 169.
194. McGilvray 2014, p. 170.
195. Barsky 1997, p. 211. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
196. ^ McGilvray 2014, p. 14.
197. McGilvray 2014, pp. 14–15.
198. ^ McGilvray 2014, p. 15.
199. Sperlich 2006, p. 89; McGilvray 2014, p. 189.
200. Barsky 1997, p. 95. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
201. McGilvray 2014, p. 199.
202. McGilvray 2014, p. 210.
203. McGilvray 2014, p. 200.
204. McGilvray 2014, pp. 197, 202.
205. McGilvray 2014, pp. 201–202.
206. Glaser 2012.
207. Gendzier 2017, p. 314.
208. Barsky 1997, p. 170 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, pp. 76–77; McGilvray 2014, p. 159.
209. Sperlich 2006, p. 97; McGilvray 2014, p. 159.
210. Pilkington 2010.
211. Bronner 2010.
212. Al Jazeera 2010.
213. Democracy Now! 2010.
214. Kalman 2014.
215. Rai 1995, p. 20.
216. Rai 1995, pp. 37–38.
217. McGilvray 2014, p. 179.
218. McGilvray 2014, p. 178.
219. McGilvray 2014, p. 189.
220. McGilvray 2014, p. 177.
221. McGilvray 2014, pp. 179–182.
222. McGilvray 2014, p. 184.
223. Rai 1995, p. 70.
224. Rai 1995, p. 42.
225. ^ McGilvray 2014, p. 19.
226. ^ Friesen 2017, p. 46.
227. Greif 2015, p. 313.
228. Greif 2015, p. 315.
229. Barsky 1997, pp. 192–195 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 53.
230. Otero 2003, p. 416.
231. McGilvray 2014, p. 162.
232. Barsky 1997, p. 158 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Sperlich 2006, p. 19.
233. Barsky 1997, p. 121. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
234. ^ Sperlich 2006, p. 7.
235. Barsky 1997, p. 116. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
236. Barsky 1997, pp. 206–207. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
237. McGilvray 2014, p. 230.
238. Sperlich 2006, p. 9.
239. ^ McGilvray 2014, p. 6.
240. Sperlich 2006, p. 121.
241. Sperlich 2006, p. 69.
242. Barsky 1997, p. 199. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
243. ^ Jaggi 2001.
244. Barsky 1997, p. 169. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
245. Barsky 1997, pp. 140–141 sfnm error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help); Chomsky 1996, pp. 135–136; Weiner 1995.
246. Sperlich 2006, p. 22.
247. Democracy Now! 2015.
248. Sperlich 2006, p. 60.
249. ^ Knight 2016, p. 2.
250. Flint 1995.
251. Barsky 1997, p. 191. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
252. Sperlich 2006, p. 24.
253. McGilvray 2014, p. 5.
254. McGilvray 2014, p. 9.
255. McGilvray 2014, pp. 9–10.
256. Lyons 1978, p. 2.
257. Sperlich 2006, p. 42.
258. MSUM Cognitive Sciences.
259. Sperlich 2006, p. 39.
260. Sipser 1997.
261. Knuth at Stanford University 2003.
262. Graham 2019.
263. Harris 2010.
264. Massey University 1996.
265. Radick 2007, p. 320.
266. Knuth 2003, p. 1.
267. Fulton 2007.
268. Nobel Lecture 1984.
269. Jerne 1984.
270. Baroni & Callegari 1982, pp. 201–218.
271. Steedman 1984, pp. 52–77.
272. Rohrmeier 2007, pp. 97–100.
273. MIT 1992.
274. Boden 2006, p. 593.
275. Boden 2006, p. 592.
276. Sperlich 2006, p. 114.
277. Sperlich 2006, p. 129.
278. Sperlich 2006, p. 142.
279. Barsky 1997, pp. 153–154. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
280. Hudson 2013.
281. Rabbani 2012.
282. Horowitz 2001.
283. Kay 2011.
284. ^ Sperlich 2006, p. 100.
285. Cohn 1995, p. 37.
286. Winstanley 2013.
287. ^ Sperlich 2006, p. 101.
288. Barsky 1997, p. 170. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
289. Barsky 1997, pp. 170–171. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBarsky1997 (help)
290. ^ Weaver 2016.
291. Sengupta 2015.
292. Foreign Policy 2005.
293. Cowley 2006.
294. ^ Contemporary Authors Online 2016.
295. SASA foreign membership 2003.
296. ^ MIT Linguistics Program 2002.
297. Deutsche Presse-Agentur 2010.
298. British Academy 2014.
299. Soundings 2002.
300. Inventio Musikverlag.
301. Soundtracksforthem: Interview 2005.
302. Desmond Tutu to speak to Litndeb 2009.
303. Honorary Members of IAPTI.
304. UoW–M 2010.
305. Digital Journal 2011.
306. Erdös Number at Oakland Univ 2017.
307. Huxley 2011.
308. IPB 2017.
309. Pensoft (bee).
310. JMI 2007.
311. Viggo Mortensen's Spoken Word & Music CDs.

Sources

• Adams, Tim (November 30, 2003). "Noam Chomsky: Thorn in America's side". the Guardian. Retrieved May 8, 2016. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Aeschimann, Eric (May 31, 2010). "Chomsky s'est exposé, il est donc une cible désignée". Libération (in French). Retrieved June 8, 2010. Chomsky a été violemment blessé du fait qu'une partie des intellectuels français aient pu le croire en accord avec Faurisson, en contradiction avec tous ses engagements et toute sa vie. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Albert, Michael (2006). Remembering Tomorrow: From the politics of opposition to what we are for. Seven Stories Press. pp. 97–99. ISBN 978-1583227428. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Antony, Louise M.; Hornstein, Norbert, eds. (2003). Chomsky and His Critics. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. p. 295. ISBN 978-0-631-20021-5. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• "Archbishop Desmond Tutu to speak to Litndeb". January 9, 2009. Archived from the original on May 11, 2011. Retrieved May 10, 2016.
• "Author, activist Noam Chomsky to receive award". University of Wisconsin–Madison. March 29, 2010. Retrieved May 10, 2016.
• Baroni, M.; Callegari, L., eds. (1982). Musical grammars and computer analysis. Firenze: Leo S. Olschki Editore. pp. 201–218. ISBN 978-8822232298. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Barsky, Robert F. (1997). Noam Chomsky: A Life of Dissent. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-02418-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Barsky, Robert F. (2007). The Chomsky Effect: A Radical Works Beyond the Ivory Tower. MIT Press. p. 107. ISBN 9780262026246. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Baughman, Judith S.; Bondi, Victor; Layman, Richard; McConnell, Tandy; Tompkins, Vincent, eds. (December 16, 1998). "Noam Chomsky". American Decades. Detroit, MI: Gale. ISBN 978-8822232298 – via Gale.
• Birnbaum, Jean (June 3, 2010). "Chomsky à Paris: chronique d'un malentendu". Le Monde (in French). Retrieved June 8, 2010. Le pays de Descartes ignore largement ce rationaliste, la patrie des Lumières se dérobe à ce militant de l'émancipation. Il le sait, et c'est pourquoi il n'y avait pas mis les pieds depuis un quart de siècle. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Bobanović, Paula (April 14, 2018). "Chomsky: Hrvati, Srbi i Bošnjaci govore isti jezik" [Chomsky: Croats, Serbs and Bosniaks Speak the Same Language]. Express.hr (in Serbo-Croatian). Zagreb. Archived from the original on August 7, 2018. Retrieved July 9, 2018. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
• Boden, Margaret A. (2006). Mind As Machine: a History of Cognitive Science. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199241446. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• "British Academy announces 2014 prize and medal winners". British Academy. July 24, 2014. Retrieved July 30, 2017.
• Bronner, Ethan (May 17, 2010). "Israel Roiled After Chomsky Barred From West Bank". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved May 4, 2016. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Burris, Greg (August 11, 2013). "What the Chomsky-Žižek debate tells us about Snowden's NSA revelations". The Guardian. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Butterfield, Andrew; Ngondi, Gerard Ekembe; Kerr, Anne, eds. (2016). "Chomsky hierarchy". A Dictionary of Computer Science. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-968897-5. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• "Chomsky". inventio-musikverlag.de. Retrieved May 11, 2016.
• "Chomsky Amid the Philosophers". University of East Anglia. Retrieved January 8, 2014.
• "Chomsky is Citation Champ". MIT. April 15, 1992. Retrieved September 3, 2007.
• Chomsky, Noam. "The 'Chomskyan Era' (excerpted from The Architecture of Language)". Chomsky.info. Retrieved January 3, 2017. {{cite web}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Chomsky, Noam (1991). Kasher, Asa (ed.). Linguistics and Cognitive Science: Problems and Mysteries. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 50. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Chomsky, Noam (1996). Class Warfare: Interviews with David Barsamian. Pluto Press. pp. 135–136. ISBN 978-0745311371. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Chomsky, Noam (May 18, 2016). "Is the US Ready for Socialism? An Interview With Noam Chomsky". Truthout. Interviewed by C.J. Polychroniou. Retrieved July 19, 2019. {{cite web}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help) also available, in part, on chomsky.info.
• "Chomsky: Saudi Arabia is the "Center of Radical Islamic Extremism" Now Spreading Among Sunni Muslims". Democracy Now!. May 17, 2016.
• Christiansen, Morten H.; Chater, Nick (October 2010). "Language as shaped by the brain". Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 31 (5): 489–509. doi:10.1017/S0140525X08004998. ISSN 1469-1825. PMID 18826669. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Cohn, Werner (1995) . Partners in Hate: Noam Chomsky and the Holocaust Deniers. Cambridge, MA: Avukah Press. ISBN 978-0-9645897-0-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Cowley, Jason (May 22, 2006). "New Statesman – Heroes of our time – the top 50". New Statesman. Archived from the original on December 27, 2006. Retrieved December 9, 2015. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
• Davis, Martin; Weyuker, Elaine J.; Sigal, Ron (1994). Computability, complexity, and languages: fundamentals of theoretical computer science (2nd ed.). Boston: Academic Press, Harcourt, Brace. p. 327. ISBN 978-0-12-206382-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• "Denied Entry: Israel Blocks Noam Chomsky from Entering West Bank to Deliver Speech". Democracy Now!. May 17, 2010. Retrieved May 4, 2016.
• Dovey, Dana (December 7, 2015). "Noam Chomsky's Theory Of Universal Grammar Is Right; It's Hardwired Into Our Brains". Medical Daily. Retrieved August 4, 2017. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• "The Erdös Number Project". Oakland University. November 21, 2017. Retrieved December 18, 2017.
• "Erich-Fromm-Preis: Noam Chomsky in Stuttgart geehrt". Stuttgarter Zeitung (in German). Deutsche Presse-Agentur. March 23, 2010. Retrieved August 22, 2019.
• Evans, Nicholas; Levinson, Stephen C. (October 2009). "The myth of language universals: Language diversity and its importance for cognitive science". Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 32 (5): 429–448. doi:10.1017/S0140525X0999094X. ISSN 1469-1825. PMID 19857320. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Feinberg, Harriet (February 1999). "Elsie Chomsky: A Life in Jewish Education" (PDF). Cambridge, Mass.: Brandeis University. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 11, 2008. Retrieved January 10, 2019. {{cite web}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
• Ferguson, Joe. "Tickets on sale for Tucson talk on nuclear war with Noam Chomsky, Daniel Ellsberg". Arizona Daily Star. Retrieved July 27, 2018. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Flint, Anthony (November 19, 1995). "Divided Legacy". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on September 26, 2007. Retrieved September 4, 2007. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
• Fox, Margalit (December 5, 1998). "A Changed Noam Chomsky Simplifies". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved February 22, 2016. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Friesen, Norm (December 10, 2017). The Textbook and the Lecture: Education in the Age of New Media. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-1421424347. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Fulton, Scott M., III (March 20, 2007). "John W. Backus (1924–2007)". BetaNews. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Gendzier, Irene (2017). "15: Noam Chomsky and the Question of Palestine/Israel: Bearing Witness". In McGilvray, James (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Chomsky (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 314–329. ISBN 978-1316738757. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Glaser, John (November 18, 2012). "It is not a war. It is murder". antiwar.com. Archived from the original on November 8, 2017. Retrieved June 13, 2019. {{cite web}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
• Gold, Daniel M. (January 28, 2016). "Review: Noam Chomsky Focuses on Financial Inequality in 'Requiem for the American Dream'". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved June 1, 2016. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Gould, S. J. (1981). Official Transcript for Gould's deposition in McLean v. Arkansas. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Graham, George (2019). "Behaviorism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2019 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Greif, Mark (2015). The Age of the Crisis of Man: Thought and Fiction in America, 1933–1973. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-14639-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Harbord, Shaun (1994). "Extracts form 'An historian's appraisal of the political writings of Noam Chomsky'". In Otero, Carlos Peregrín (ed.). Noam Chomsky: Critical Assessments, Volumes 2–3. Taylor & Francis. p. 487. ISBN 978-0-415-10694-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Harlow, S. J. (2010). "Transformational Grammar: Evolution". In Barber, Alex; Stainton, Robert J. (eds.). Concise Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Language and Linguistics. Elsevier. pp. 752–770. ISBN 978-0-08-096501-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Harris, R. Allen (2010). "Chomsky's other Revolution". In Kibbee, Douglas A. (ed.). Chomskyan (R)evolutions. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 237–265. ISBN 978-90-272-1169-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Harwood, Lori (November 21, 2016). "Noam Chomsky to Teach Politics Course In Spring". UA News. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• "Honorary Members of IAPTI". International Association of Professional Translators and Interpreters. Retrieved December 26, 2016.
• "Honors & Awards". Soundings. Fall 2002. Retrieved May 12, 2016.
• Hornstein, Norbert (2003). "Minimalist Program". International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513977-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Horowitz, David (September 26, 2001). "The Sick Mind of Noam Chomsky". Salon. Archived from the original on May 6, 2013. {{cite web}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
• Hudson, John (August 13, 2013). "Exclusive: After Multiple Denials, CIA Admits to Snooping on Noam Chomsky". Foreign Policy. Retrieved December 7, 2016. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Huxley, John (June 2, 2011). "Sydney Peace Prize goes to Chomsky". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved December 23, 2015. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• "IEEE Computer Society Magazine Honors Artificial Intelligence Leaders". Digital Journal. August 24, 2011.
• "Interview: Noam Chomsky Speaks Out On Education and Power". Soundtracksforthem. September 20, 2005. Archived from the original on May 13, 2011. Retrieved May 10, 2016. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
• "Israel: Chomsky ban 'big mistake'". Al Jazeera. May 20, 2010. Retrieved May 4, 2016.
• "IWW Biography". Industrial Workers of the World. Archived from the original on March 17, 2016. Retrieved May 9, 2016. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
• Jaggi, Maya (January 20, 2001). "Conscience of a nation". The Guardian. Archived from the original on January 11, 2015. Retrieved May 11, 2016. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• "Jamia Millia Islamia named a complex honoring Noam Chomsky". Jamia Millia Islamia. May 3, 2007. Retrieved May 3, 2007.
• Jerne, Niels K. (December 8, 1984). "The Generative Grammar of the Immune System" (PDF). Science. 229 (4718): 1057–1059. Bibcode:1985Sci...229.1057J. doi:10.1126/science.4035345. PMID 4035345. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 3, 2019. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
• Kalman, Matthew (January 19, 2014). "Palestinians Divided Over Boycott of Israeli Universities". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Kay, Jonathan (May 12, 2011). "The Monomania of an Anti-American Prophet". Commentary. Archived from the original on January 7, 2016. {{cite magazine}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
• Keller, Katherine (November 12, 2007). "Writer, Creator, Journalist, and Uppity Woman: Ann Nocenti". Sequential Tart. {{cite web}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Knight, Chris (2016). Decoding Chomsky: Science and Revolutionary Politics. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300228762. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Knight, Chris (March 12, 2018). "When the Pentagon Looked to Chomsky's Linguistics for their Weapons Systems". 3 Quarks Daily. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Knuth, Donald (2002). "Preface". Selected Papers on Computer Languages. Center for the Study of Language and Information. ISBN 978-1-57586-381-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Knuth, Donald E. (2003). "Preface: a mathematical theory of language in which I could use a computer programmer's intuition". Selected Papers on Computer Languages. p. 1. ISBN 1-57586-382-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Knuth: Selected Papers on Computer Languages. Stanford University. 2003. ISBN 1575863812.
• "Lecture 6: Evolutionary Psychology, Problem Solving, and 'Machiavellian' Intelligence". School of Psychology, Massey University. 1996. Archived from the original on January 17, 2007. Retrieved September 4, 2007.
• "Let me introduce myself – leafcutter bee Megachile chomskyi from Texas". Pensoft. Retrieved May 10, 2016.
• Lukes, Steven (November 7, 1980). "Chomsky's betrayal of truths" (PDF). The Times Higher Education Supplement (THES). Archived from the original (PDF) on April 12, 2019. Retrieved March 7, 2018 – via libcom.org. {{cite magazine}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)(facsimile copy of Lukes's THES article, together with some of the correspondence it provoked, including from Ralph Miliband, Ken Coates and others, with Chomsky's response)
• Lyons, John (1978). Noam Chomsky (revised ed.). Harmondsworth: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-004370-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• MacCorquodale, Kenneth (January 1970). "On Chomsky's review of Skinner's Verbal Behavior". Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 13 (1): 83–99. doi:10.1901/jeab.1970.13-83. ISSN 0022-5002. PMC 1333660. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Mace, Mikayla. "Linguist Noam Chomsky joins University of Arizona faculty". Arizona Daily Star. Retrieved July 27, 2018. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Macintyre, Donald (May 17, 2010). "Chomsky refused entry into West Bank". The Independent. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• McGilvray, James (2014). Chomsky: Language, Mind, Politics (second ed.). Cambridge: Polity. ISBN 978-0-7456-4989-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• McNeill, David (February 22, 2014). "Noam Chomsky: Truth to power". The Japan Times. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Milne, Seumas (November 7, 2009). "'US foreign policy is straight out of the mafia'". The Guardian. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Morris, Derrick (2013). "Language Theory". Concise Encyclopedia of Software Engineering. Elsevier Science. p. 189. ISBN 978-1-4832-8684-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• "Noam Chomsky". MIT Linguistics Program. 2002. Retrieved January 3, 2017 – via chomsky.info.
• "Noam Chomsky". Contemporary Authors Online. Biography in Context. Detroit, MI: Gale. 2016.
• "Noam Chomsky Joins NAPF Advisory Council". Nuclear Age Peace Foundation. March 1, 2014. Retrieved July 27, 2018.
• "Noam Chomsky on Life & Love: Still Going at 86, Renowned Dissident is Newly Married". Democracy Now!. March 3, 2015. Retrieved May 11, 2016.
• "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine: Lecture". Nobel Foundation. December 8, 1984. Archived from the original on July 3, 2019. Retrieved June 29, 2019. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
• O'Grady, Cathleen (June 8, 2015). "MIT claims to have found a "language universal" that ties all languages together". Ars Technica. doi:10.1073/pnas.1502134112. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• "The one hundred most influential works in cognitive science". Center for Cognitive Sciences, Minnesota State University. Retrieved November 29, 2015.
• Ortiz, Aimee (August 28, 2017). "Chomsky joins University of Arizona faculty". The Boston Globe. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Otero, Carlos Peregrín (2003). "Editor's notes to Selection 4 ("Perspectives on language and mind")". Chomsky on Democracy & Education. By Chomsky, Noam. Otero, Carlos Peregrín (ed.). Psychology Press. p. 416. ISBN 978-0415926324. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Persson, Ingmar; LaFollette, Hugh, eds. (2013). The Blackwell Guide to Ethical Theory (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-51426-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Pilkington, Ed (May 16, 2010). "Noam Chomsky barred by Israelis from lecturing in Palestinian West Bank". The Guardian. Retrieved May 4, 2016. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• "Press release: Séan MacBride Peace Prize 2017" (PDF). Berlin: International Peace Bureau. September 6, 2017. Retrieved December 9, 2017.
• Prickett, Stephen (2002). Narrative, Religion and Science: Fundamentalism Versus Irony, 1700–1999. Cambridge University Press. p. 234. ISBN 978-0-521-00983-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• "Prospect/FP Top 100 Public Intellectuals Results". Foreign Policy. October 15, 2005. Archived from the original on October 25, 2005. Retrieved November 30, 2015.
• Rabbani, Mouin (2012). "Reflections on a Lifetime of Engagement with Zionism, the Palestine Question, and American Empire: An Interview with Noam Chomsky". Journal of Palestine Studies. 41 (3): 92–120. doi:10.1525/jps.2012.XLI.3.92. Archived from the original on August 3, 2012. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
• Radick, Gregory (2007). The Simian Tongue: The Long Debate about Animal Language. University of Chicago Press. p. 320. ISBN 978-0226702247. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Rai, Milan (1995). Chomsky's Politics. Verso. ISBN 978-1-85984-011-5. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Rohrmeier, Martin (2007). Spyridis, Georgaki; Kouroupetroglou, Anagnostopoulou (eds.). "A generative grammar approach to diatonic harmonic structure" (PDF). Proceedings of the 4th Sound and Music Computing Conference: 97–100. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Ruiter, J. P. de; Levinson, Stephen C. (October 2010). "A biological infrastructure for communication underlies the cultural evolution of languages". Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 31 (5): 518. doi:10.1017/S0140525X08005086. ISSN 1469-1825. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• "SASA Member". Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. October 30, 2003. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
• Searle, John R. (June 29, 1972). "A Special Supplement: Chomsky's Revolution in Linguistics". The New York Review of Books. {{cite magazine}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Sengupta, Kim (May 12, 2015). "Turkey and Saudi Arabia alarm the West by backing Islamist extremists the Americans had bombed in Syria". The Independent. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Sipser, Michael (1997). Introduction to the Theory of Computation. PWS Publishing. ISBN 978-0-534-94728-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Slife, Brent D. (1993). Time and Psychological Explanation: The Spectacle of Spain's Tourist Boom and the Reinvention of Difference. SUNY Press. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-7914-1469-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Smith, Neil (2004). Chomsky: Ideas and Ideals. Cambridge University Press. p. 185. ISBN 9780521546881. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Sperlich, Wolfgang B. (2006). Noam Chomsky. Reaktion Books. pp. 44–45. ISBN 978-1-86189-269-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Steedman, Mark J. (October 1, 1984). "A Generative Grammar for Jazz Chord Sequences". Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal. 2 (1): 52–77. doi:10.2307/40285282. JSTOR 40285282. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Swartz, Aaron (May 15, 2006). "The Book That Changed My Life". Raw Thought. Retrieved January 8, 2014. {{cite web}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Szabó, Zoltán Gendler (2010). "Chomsky, Noam Avram (1928–)". In Shook, John R. (ed.). The Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-19-975466-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Tanenhaus, Sam (October 31, 2016). "Noam Chomsky and the Bicycle Theory". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved October 31, 2016. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Thornbury, Scott (2006). An A–Z of ELT (Methodology). Oxford: Macmillan Education. p. 234. ISBN 978-1405070638. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Tomasello, Michael (January 1, 1995). "Language is not an instinct". Cognitive Development. 10 (1): 131–156. doi:10.1016/0885-2014(95)90021-7. ISSN 0885-2014. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Tomasello, Michael (2003). Constructing a Language: A Usage-Based Theory of Language Acquisition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01030-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Tomasello, Michael (October 2009). "Universal grammar is dead". Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 32 (5): 470–471. doi:10.1017/S0140525X09990744. ISSN 1469-1825. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• "Tool Module: Chomsky's Universal Grammar". The Brain From Top To Bottom. McGill University. Retrieved December 24, 2015.
• Tymoczko, Tom; Henle, Jim (April 8, 2004). Sweet Reason: A Field Guide to Modern Logic. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-387-98930-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• "U.S., Britain ignored 'culture of terrorism': Chomsky". The Hindu. November 4, 2001. Retrieved March 21, 2016.
• "Viggo Mortensen's Spoken Word & Music CDs". Archived from the original on December 15, 2010. Retrieved May 10, 2016. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
• Vučić, Nikola (March 27, 2018). "Noam Chomsky potpisao Deklaraciju o zajedničkom jeziku" [Noam Chomsky Has Signed the Declaration on the Common Language] (in Serbo-Croatian). Sarajevo: N1. Archived from the original on May 1, 2018. Retrieved June 6, 2018. {{cite web}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
• Weaver, Matthew (January 14, 2016). "Chomsky hits back at Erdoğan, accusing him of double standards on terrorism". The Guardian. Retrieved January 14, 2016. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Weidenfeld, Lisa (August 29, 2017). "Noam Chomsky Is Leaving MIT for the University of Arizona". Boston Magazine. Retrieved June 10, 2019. Chomsky has been at MIT since 1955, and retired in 2002. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Weiner, Tim (December 10, 1995). "The C.I.A.'s most Important Mission: Itself". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Winstanley, Asa (May 17, 2013). "Secret files reveal Anti-Defamation League spied on Noam Chomsky". The Electronic Intifada. Retrieved May 17, 2013. {{cite web}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Younge, Gary; Hogue, Kat Keene (July 6, 2012). "Noam Chomsky: 'The Occupy movement just lit a spark' – video". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved April 22, 2016. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Further reading

• "American Socrates". Truthdig (Interview). Interviewed by Chris Hedges. June 15, 2014.
• Barsky, Robert F. (July 19, 1997). "Presentation by Robert F. Barsky on Noam Chomsky: A Life of Dissent". C-SPAN.
• Changeux, Jean-Pierre; Courrége, Philippe; Danchin, Antoine (1973). "A Theory of the Epigenesis of Neuronal Networks by Selective Stabilization of Synapses". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 70 (10): 2974–2978. Bibcode:1973PNAS...70.2974C. doi:10.1073/pnas.70.10.2974. PMC 427150. PMID 4517949.
• Chomsky, Noam (1959). "Reviews: Verbal behavior by B. F. Skinner". Language. 35 (1): 26–58. doi:10.2307/411334. JSTOR 411334.
• Chomsky, Noam (2008–2009). "Human nature and the origins of language" (PDF). Radical Anthropology (2): 19–23.
• Chomsky, Noam (January 9, 2014). "A Brief History of Anarchism". In These Times.
• Chomsky, Noam (February 13, 2015a). "The World of Our Grandchildren". Jacobin. Interviewed by David Barsamian.
• Chomsky, Noam (October 24, 2015b). Noam Chomsky: Electing the President of An Empire. teleSUR English. Interviewed by Abby Martin – via YouTube.
• Everett, Daniel L. (2008). Don't Sleep, There Are Snakes: Life and Language in the Amazonian Jungle. New York: Pantheon Books. ISBN 978-0-375-42502-8.
• Farndale, Nigel. "Noam Chomsky interview". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved May 15, 2016.
• Fox, Margalit (December 20, 2008). "Carol Chomsky, 78, Linguist and Educator, Dies". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved December 10, 2015.
• Gardner, R. A.; Gardner, B. T. (1969). "Teaching Sign Language to a Chimpanzee" (PDF). Science. 165 (3894): 664–672. Bibcode:1969Sci...165..664G. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.384.4164. doi:10.1126/science.165.3894.664. JSTOR 1727877. PMID 5793972.
• Gardner, R. A.; Gardner, B. T.; Van Cantfort, Thomas E. (1989). Teaching Sign Language to Chimpanzees. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-88706-965-9. Archived from the original on July 21, 2014. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
• "IWW Interview with Noam Chomsky: Worker Occupations And The Future Of Radical Labor". IWW. October 9, 2009.
• Katz, Yarden (November 1, 2012). "Noam Chomsky on Where Artificial Intelligence Went Wrong". The Atlantic.
• Laurence, Stephen (2003). "Is Linguistics a Branch of Psychology?" (PDF). In Barker, A. (ed.). Epistemology of Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 69–106. ISBN 978-0199250585.
• Lehmann, Christian (1982). "On some current views of the language universal". In Radden, Günter; Dirven, René (eds.). Issues in the Theory of Universal Grammar. Tübingen: Gunter Narr. pp. 75–94. ISBN 978-3-87808-565-2.
• Lent, John A.; Amazeen, Michelle A., eds. (August 5, 2015). "Noam Chomsky". Key Thinkers in Critical Communication Scholarship: From the Pioneers to the Next Generation. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1–12. ISBN 978-1-137-46342-5. {{cite book}}: |archive-date= requires |archive-url= (help)
• Lim, Ee-Peng (2011). "AI's Hall of Fame: Computational Linguistics and Cognitive Science". IEEE Intelligent Systems. 26 (4): 12. doi:10.1109/MIS.2011.64.
• McDonald, Alyssa (September 2010). "The NS Interview: Noam Chomsky". New Statesman.
• Miles, H. Lyn White (1990). "The cognitive foundations for reference in a signing orangutan". In Gibson, Kathleen Rita; Packer, Sue Taylor (eds.). "Language" and intelligence in monkeys and apes: Comparative developmental perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 511–539. ISBN 978-0-521-38028-7.
• Mitchell, Peter R.; Schoeffel, John, eds. (2002). Understanding Power: The Indispensable Chomsky. New York: New Press. ISBN 978-1565847033. OCLC 46936001.
• Nishida, T. (1968). "The social group of wild chimpanzees in the Mahali Mountains" (PDF). Primates. 9 (3): 167–224. doi:10.1007/BF01730971. hdl:2433/213162.
• Patel, Aniruddh D. (2008). Music, Language, and the Brain. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512375-3.
• Patterson, Francine; Linden, Eugene (1981). The Education of Koko. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-046101-9.
• Plooij, F. X. (1978). "Some basic traits of language in wild chimpanzees?". In Lock, A. (ed.). Action, Gesture and Symbol: The Emergence of Language. London: Academic Press. pp. 111–131. ISBN 978-0-12-454050-7.
• Poole, Geoffrey (2005). "Noam Chomsky". In Routledge, Christopher; Chapman, Siobhan (eds.). Key Thinkers in Linguistics and the Philosophy of Language. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 53–59. ISBN 978-0-7486-1757-9.
• Posner, Richard A. (2003). Public Intellectuals: A Study of Decline (Revised ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01246-2.
• Premack, D. (1985). "'Gavagai!' or the future history of the animal language controversy". Cognition. 19 (3): 207–296. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(85)90036-8. PMID 4017517.
• Savage-Rumbaugh, S.; Rumbaugh, D. M.; McDonald, K. (1985). "Language learning in two species of apes". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 9 (4): 653–665. doi:10.1016/0149-7634(85)90012-0.
• Savage-Rumbaugh, S.; McDonald, K.; Sevcik, R. A.; Hopkins, W. D.; Rubert, E. (1986). "Spontaneous Symbol Acquisition and Communicative Use By Pygmy Chimpanzees (Pan paniscus)" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 115 (3): 211–235. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.115.3.211.
• Shalom, Stephen. "Review of Noam Chomsky: A Life of Dissent, by Robert F. Barsky". New Politics. No. 23. Retrieved October 7, 2016.
• Tattersall, Ian (August 18, 2016). "At the Birth of Language". The New York Review of Books. Vol. LXIII, no. 13. pp. 27–28, a review of Berwick, Robert C.; Chomsky, Noam. Why Only Us: Language and Evolution. MIT Press.
• Terrace, Herbert S. (1987). Nim: A Chimpanzee who Learned Sign Language. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-06341-8.

External links

• Online books
• Resources in your library
• Resources in other libraries

• Online books
• Resources in your library
• Resources in other libraries

• Official website
• Noam Chomsky at MIT
• Noam Chomsky University of Arizona homepage
• Noam Chomsky at Zmag
• Appearances on C-SPAN
• Libcom's "Noam Chomsky – Reading Guide"
• List of appearances on Democracy Now!
• List of appearances on The Real News
• Noam Chomsky at IMDb
• Noam Chomsky: Knowledge and Power. Al Jazeera English, October 2015 (video, 47 mins) – documentary about the life and work of Chomsky
• Demonstration at Faneuil Hall to protest indictment of the Berrigan brothers: Noam Chomsky speaking with Vern Countryman and George Wald at left and Howard Zinn at the far right, January 1971 (Photo: Jeff Albertson Photograph Collection (PH 57)), Special Collections and University Archives, Library of the University of Massachusetts: Amherst.

Articles related to Noam Chomsky

v t e Massachusetts Institute of Technology Academics School of Architecture and Planning Engineering Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences Science Sloan School of Management Schwarzman College of Computing Department of Biology Brain and Cognitive Sciences Economics Mathematics Physics Health Sciences and Technology Research Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab Broad Institute Center for Bits and Atoms Information Systems Research International Studies Theoretical Physics Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory Institute for Medical Engineering and Science Koch Institute Laboratory for Electromagnetic and Electronic Systems Information and Decision Systems Lincoln Laboratory Massachusetts Green High Performance Computing Center McGovern Institute Media Lab MIT Libraries Nuclear Research Reactor Picower Institute Plasma Science and Fusion Center Research Laboratory of Electronics Senseable City Lab Whitehead Institute People Alumni Faculty Institute Professors Presidents William Barton Rogers Culture Brass Rat Caltech rivalry Hacks Lemelson–MIT Prize List Visual Arts Center MIT $100K MIT Press MIT Technology Review MIT Science Fiction Society Mystery Hunt Project Athena Smoot Student Information Processing Board Tech Model Railroad Club Tech Squares The Tech Traditions and activities Campus Building 20 Chapel Dormitories Fraternities and sororities Green Building Infinite Corridor Killian Court Kresge Auditorium Libraries MIT Museum Police Stata Center Sean Collier Memorial Wiesner Building History History of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology MIT Solar House #1 Round Hill Athletics Engineers Tech Dinghy Notable projects MIT App Inventor MIT OpenCourseWare MITx Scratch v t e Analytic philosophy Related articles Areas of focus Metaphysics Epistemology Language Mathematics Science Turns Aretaic Linguistic Performative Logic Classical Deviant Mathematical Non-classical Paraconsistent Philosophical Predicate Theories Anti-realism Causal theory of reference Descriptivism Emotivism Feminism Functionalism Logical atomism Logical positivism Marxism Neurophilosophy Ordinary language Pragmatism Quietism Scientific structuralism Sense data Analytic theology Analytical Thomism Concepts Analysis (paradox of analysis) Analytic–synthetic distinction Counterfactual Natural kind Reflective equilibrium Supervenience Modality Actualism Necessity Possibility Possible world Realism Rigid designator Philosophers Noam Chomsky Keith Donnellan Gottlob Frege Edmund Gettier Jaakko Hintikka Giuseppe Peano Russ Shafer-Landau Ernest Sosa Barry Stroud Australian realism David Malet Armstrong David Chalmers J. L. Mackie Peter Singer J. J. C. Smart Cambridge Arif Ahmed Charlie Broad Casimir Lewy Norman Malcolm G. E. Moore Graham Priest Bertrand Russell Frank P. Ramsey Ludwig Wittgenstein Oxford G. E. M. Anscombe J. L. Austin Michael Dummett Antony Flew Philippa Foot Peter Geach Paul Grice R. M. Hare Alasdair MacIntyre Derek Parfit Gilbert Ryle John Searle P. F. Strawson Richard Swinburne Charles Taylor Bernard Williams Timothy Williamson Logical positivists A. J. Ayer Ernest Nagel Berlin Circle Carl Gustav Hempel Hans Reichenbach Vienna Circle Rudolf Carnap Hans Hahn Otto Neurath Moritz Schlick Friedrich Waismann Harvard Roderick Chisholm Donald Davidson Daniel Dennett Nelson Goodman Christine Korsgaard Thomas Nagel Robert Nozick Hilary Putnam W. V. O. Quine John Rawls Notre Dame Robert Audi Peter van Inwagen Pittsburgh School Robert Brandom Patricia Churchland Paul Churchland Adolf Grünbaum John McDowell Ruth Millikan Alexander Pruss Nicholas Rescher Wilfrid Sellars Bas van Fraassen Pragmatism Susan Haack Nicholas Rescher Morton White Princeton Alonzo Church Jerry Fodor Kurt Gödel David Lewis Jaegwon Kim Saul Kripke Richard Rorty Nathan Salmon Michael Walzer Quietism James F. Conant Alice Crary Cora Diamond Reformed Alvin Plantinga William Lane Craig Nicholas Wolterstorff Science Paul Feyerabend Thomas Kuhn Karl Popper Stanford School Nancy Cartwright John Dupré Peter Galison Ian Hacking Patrick Suppes Lwow-Warsaw Jan Łukasiewicz Alfred Tarski Category Index v t e Communication studies History Outline Topics and terminology Biocommunication Broadcasting Communication Computer-mediated communication Conversation History of communication Information Intercultural Interpersonal Intrapersonal Journalism Mass media Meaning Media Media ecology Meta-communication Models of communication New media Nonverbal communication Nonviolent communication Propaganda Public relations Reading Speech Symbol list Telecommunications Text and conversation theory Writing Subfields Closed-loop Communication design Communication theory Communicology Crisis Climate Cross-cultural Developmental Discourse analysis Environmental Global Health International Mass Media studies Mediated cross-border Organizational Political Risk Science Technical Visual Scholars Adorno Barthes Bateson Benjamin Burke Castells Chomsky Craig Ellul Fisher Flusser Gasset Gerbner Goffman Habermas Horkheimer Huxley Innis Jakobson Janis Johnson Kincaid Lippman Luhmann Marcuse McLuhan Mead Morgan Ong Packard Peirce Postman Quebral Richards Rogers Schramm Shannon Tankard Tannen Wertheimer Category v t e Anarchism Concepts Anarchy Anarchist Black Cross Anarchist criminology Anationalism Anti-authoritarianism Anti-capitalism Anti-militarism Affinity group Autonomous social center Black bloc Classless society Class struggle Consensus decision-making Conscientious objector Critique of work Decentralization Deep ecology Direct action Free love Freethought Horizontalidad Individualism Law Mutual aid Participatory politics Permanent autonomous zone Prefigurative politics Proletarian internationalism Propaganda of the deed Refusal of work Revolution Rewilding Sabotage Security culture Self-ownership Social ecology Sociocracy Somatherapy Spontaneous order Squatting Temporary autonomous zone Union of egoists Voluntary association Workers' council Issues Animal rights Capitalism Education Love and sex Nationalism Religion Violence Schools of thought Classical Individualist Egoist Illegalist Naturist Philosophical Mutualist Social Collectivist Communist Magonist Post-classical Feminist Green Primitivist Social ecology Independence Insurrectionary Pacifist Religious Christian Buddhist Jewish Without adjectives Contemporary Black Free-market Postcolonial Post-anarchist Post-left Queer Types of federation Affinity group Anarcho-syndicalism Platformism Synthesis anarchism Union of egoists Economics Communization Cooperative Cost the limit of price Decentralized planned economy Free association General strike Gift economy Give-away shop Labour voucher Market socialism Mutual bank Mutual credit Social ownership Wage slavery Workers' self-management Culture A las Barricadas Anarchist bookfair Anarcho-punk Arts DIY ethic Escuela Moderna Films Freeganism Infoshop Independent Media Center The Internationale Jewish anarchism Lifestylism May Day "No gods, no masters" Popular education "Property is theft!" Radical cheerleading Radical environmentalism Self-managed social center Symbolism History French Revolution Revolutions of 1848 Spanish Regional Federation of the IWA Paris Commune Hague Congress Cantonal rebellion Haymarket affair International Conference of Rome Trial of the Thirty International Conference of Rome Ferrer movement Strandzha Commune Congress of Amsterdam Tragic Week High Treason Incident Manifesto of the Sixteen German Revolution of 1918–1919 Bavarian Soviet Republic 1919 United States bombings Biennio Rosso Kronstadt rebellion Makhnovshchina Amakasu Incident Alt Llobregat insurrection Anarchist insurrection of January 1933 Anarchist insurrection of December 1933 Spanish Revolution of 1936 Barcelona May Days Red inverted triangle Labadie Collection Provo May 1968 Kate Sharpley Library Carnival Against Capital 1999 Seattle WTO protests Really Really Free Market Occupy movement People Alston Armand Ba Bakunin Berkman Bonanno Bookchin Bourdin Chomsky Cleyre Day Durruti Ellul Ervin Faure Fauset MacDonald Ferrer Feyerabend Giovanni Godwin Goldman González Prada Graeber Guillaume He-Yin Kanno Kōtoku Kropotkin Landauer Liu Magón Makhno Maksimov Malatesta Mett Michel Most Parsons Pi i Margall Pouget Proudhon Raichō Reclus Rocker Santillán Spooner Stirner Thoreau Tolstoy Tucker Volin Ward Warren Yarchuk Zerzan Lists Anarcho-punk bands Books Fictional characters Films Jewish anarchists Musicians Periodicals By region Africa Albania Algeria Andorra Argentina Armenia Australia Austria Azerbaijan Bangladesh Belarus Belgium Bolivia Bosnia and Herzegovina Brazil Bulgaria Canada Chile China Colombia Costa Rica Croatia Cuba Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Dominican Republic East Timor Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Estonia Finland France French Guiana Georgia Germany Greece Guatemala Hong Kong Hungary Iceland India Indonesia Iran Ireland Israel Italy Japan Korea Latvia Malaysia Mexico Monaco Mongolia Morocco Netherlands New Zealand Nicaragua Nigeria Norway Panama Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Puerto Rico Romania Russia Serbia Singapore South Africa Spain Sweden Switzerland Syria Taiwan Tunisia Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom United States Uruguay Venezuela Vietnam Related topics Anti-corporatism Anti-consumerism Anti-fascism Anti-globalization Anti-statism Anti-war movement Autarchism Autonomism Communism Definition of anarchism and libertarianism Dual Power Labour movement Left communism Left-libertarianism Libertarianism Libertarian socialism Marxism Relationship between Friedrich Nietzsche and Max Stirner Situationist International Socialism Spontaneous order Anarchism portal Category Outline v t e Socialism History - Outline Schools of thought 21st century Agrarian Communist Democratic Ethical Feminist Green Guild Labourism Syndicalism Liberal Market Marxian Nationalist Reformist Revolutionary Scientific Social democracy Utopian Fourierism Icarianism Owenism Saint-Simonianism Technocracy Libertarian (from below) Anarchism Collectivist Communist Free-market Left-wing laissez-faire Left-wing market Green Individualist Insurrectionary Magonism Mutualism Neozapatismo Platformism Communalism Social Syndicalist Left-libertarianism Libertarian Marxism Left communism Council communism Luxemburgism Mao-Spontex Trotskyism Pabloism Posadism Orthodox Third camp Authoritarian (from above) Barracks Nechayevism Blanquism Bolshevism Leninism Marxism–Leninism Brezhnevism Castroism Ceaușism Guevarism Ho Chi Minh Thought Hoxhaism Husakism Juche Kadarism Khrushchevism Maoism Dengism Maoism–Third Worldism Marxism–Leninism–Maoism Marxism–Leninism–Maoism–Gonzalo Thought Marxism–Leninism–Maoism–Prachanda Path Xi Jinping Thought Stalinism Neo-Stalinism National Tkachevism State Lassallism Religious Buddhist Christian anarchism communism Islamic Jewish Regional variants African African-Caribbean Arab Bolivarian Chinese Communist Nationalist Chiangist European Eurocommunism Indian Israeli Indonesian Melanesian Mexican Soviet In one country Real Sri Lankan Third World Yugoslav Key topics and issues Anarchist economics Anti-revisionism Criticism of capitalism Criticism of socialism Critique of political economy Critique of work Class struggle Democracy Dictatorship of the proletariat Egalitarianism Equal liberty Equality of opportunity Equality of outcome History of anarchism History of communism History of socialism History of social democracy Impossibilism "The Internationale" Internationalism State-owned enterprise Land reform Left-wing politics Mixed economy Mode of production Nanosocialism Nationalization Planned economy Post-capitalism Proletarian revolution Reformism Revisionism Socialisation of production Socialist economics Socialist market economy Socialist state State capitalism Trade union Welfare state Workers' council Concepts Adhocracy Anarchist economics Basic income Calculation in kind Common ownership Cooperative ownership Decentralized planning Direct democracy Economic democracy Economic planning Equal opportunity Free association of producers Industrial democracy Labor-time calculation Labour voucher Organizational self-management Production for use Public ownership Social dividend Socialist mode of production Technocracy Workplace democracy People 16th c. Tommaso Campanella Thomas More 18th c. Gracchus Babeuf Victor d'Hupay Gabriel Bonnot de Mably Sylvain Maréchal Étienne-Gabriel Morelly 19th c. Stephen Pearl Andrews Mikhail Bakunin John Goodwyn Barmby Enrico Barone August Bebel Edward Bellamy Eduard Bernstein Louis Blanc Louis Auguste Blanqui Philippe Buchez Georg Büchner Philippe Buonarroti Francisco Largo Caballero Étienne Cabet Edward Carpenter Nikolay Chernyshevsky James Connolly Victor Prosper Considerant Claire Démar Théodore Dézamy W. E. B. Du Bois Prosper Enfantin Friedrich Engels Charles Fourier Emma Goldman William Batchelder Greene Charles Hall Alexander Herzen Thomas Hodgskin Jean Jaurès Mother Jones Karl Kautsky Peter Kropotkin Paul Lafargue Ferdinand Lassalle Pyotr Lavrov Alexandre Ledru-Rollin Pierre Leroux Helen Macfarlane Errico Malatesta Karl Marx Louise Michel Nikolay Mikhaylovsky William Morris Robert Owen Antonie Pannekoek Giovanni Pascoli Constantin Pecqueur Georgi Plekhanov Pierre-Joseph Proudhon Luis Emilio Recabarren Henri de Saint-Simon Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin George Sand Friedrich Wilhelm Schulz Eugène Sue Lysander Spooner Fred M. Taylor William Thompson Pyotr Tkachev Benjamin Tucker Suzanne Voilquin Alfred Russel Wallace Josiah Warren Wilhelm Weitling Oscar Wilde 20th c. Tariq Ali Salvador Allende Inejirō Asanuma Hafez al-Assad Clement Attlee Aung San Deng Xiaoping Jiang Zemin Henri Barbusse Jyoti Basu Simone de Beauvoir Walter Benjamin Tony Benn Léon Blum Grace Lee Boggs Murray Bookchin Bertolt Brecht Aristide Briand Nikolai Bukharin Cornelius Castoriadis Noam Chomsky M. N. Roy G. D. H. Cole Jeremy Corbyn Marcel Déat Guy Debord Eugene V. Debs John Dewey Alexander Dubček Albert Einstein Faiz Ahmad Faiz Muammar Gaddafi Einar Gerhardsen Mikhail Gorbachev Maxim Gorky Antonio Gramsci Safdar Hashmi Eric Hobsbawm Saddam Hussein Dolores Ibárruri Pablo Iglesias Posse Jayaprakash Narayan Russell Jacoby Kim Jong-il Kim Il Sung Martin Luther King Jr. Alexandra Kollontai James Larkin E. M. S. Namboodiripad Jack Layton Henri Lefebvre Claude Lefort Vladimir Lenin György Lukács Rosa Luxemburg Lu Xun Alasdair MacIntyre Nestor Makhno Nelson Mandela José Carlos Mariátegui Adrien Marquet Mao Dun Salama Moussa François Mitterrand Imre Nagy Gamal Abdel Nasser Jawaharlal Nehru Ernst Niekisch Ne Win George Orwell Sylvia Pankhurst Fred Paterson Karl Polanyi Pierre Renaudel B. T. Ranadive Bertrand Russell Gaetano Salvemini Bernie Sanders Jean-Paul Sartre Arthur Scargill Léopold Sédar Senghor George Bernard Shaw Sukarno Sun Yat-sen R. H. Tawney E. P. Thompson Ernst Toller Leon Trotsky Ram Manohar Lohia H. G. Wells Cornel West Clara Zetkin Howard Zinn J. Posadas 21st c. Pedro Castillo Hugo Chávez Bob Crow Hu Jintao Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu Kim Jong Un Lula da Silva Evo Morales Yanis Varoufakis Xi Jinping Vaush Organizations International socialist organizations Socialist parties See also Anarchism Communism Economic calculation problem Marxist philosophy New Left Old Left Socialism by country Socialist calculation debate Categories Socialism WikiProject Socialism portal Communism portal Organized Labour portal v t e Recipients of the Orwell Award 1975–1999 1975: David Wise 1976: Hugh Rank 1977: Walter Pincus 1978: Sissela Bok 1979: Erving Goffman 1980: Sheila Harty 1981: Dwight Bolinger 1982: Stephen Hilgartner, Richard C. Bell, and Rory O'Connor 1983: Haig Bosmajian 1984: Ted Koppel 1985: Torben Vestergaard and Kim Schroder 1986: Neil Postman 1987: Noam Chomsky 1988: Donald Barlett and James B. Steele 1989: Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky 1990: Charlotte Baecher, Consumers Union 1991: David A. Kessler 1992: Donald L. Barlett and James Steele 1993: Eric Alterman 1994: Garry Trudeau 1995: Lies of Our Times 1996: William D. Lutz 1997: Gertrude Himmelfarb 1998: Juliet Schor 1998: Scott Adams 1999: Norman Solomon 2000–present 2000: Alfie Kohn 2001: Sheldon Rampton and John Stauber 2002: Bill Press 2004: Seymour Hersh and Arundhati Roy 2005: Jon Stewart and The Daily Show cast 2006: Steven H. Miles 2007: Ted Gup 2008: Charlie Savage 2009: Amy Goodman 2010: Michael Pollan 2011: F.S. Michaels 2012: Peter Zuckerman and Amanda Padoan 2013: Paul L. Thomas 2014: The Onion 2015: Anthony Cody 2016: David Greenberg 2017: Richard Sobel 2018: Katie Watson 2019: Michael P. Lynch 2020: April Baker-Bell 2021: Kristin Kobes Du Mez 2022: David Chrisinger 2023: Kisha Porcher and Shamaine Bertrand 2024: Jessica Lander National Council of Teachers of English George Orwell v t e Sydney Peace Prize laureates Muhammad Yunus (1998) Desmond Tutu (1999) Xanana Gusmão (2000) William Deane (2001) Mary Robinson (2002) Hanan Ashrawi (2003) Arundhati Roy (2004) Olara Otunnu (2005) Irene Khan (2006) Hans Blix (2007) Pat Dodson (2008) John Pilger (2009) Vandana Shiva (2010) Noam Chomsky (2011) Sekai Holland (2012) Cynthia Maung (2013) Julian Burnside (2014) George Gittoes (2015) Naomi Klein (2016) Black Lives Matter (2017) Joseph Stiglitz (2018) #MeToo Movement (2019) Midnight Oil (2020) Uluru Statement from the Heart (2021–22) Nazanin Boniadi (2023) v t e Social philosophy Concepts Agency Anomie Convention Cosmopolitanism Customs Cultural heritage Culturalism Inter Mono Multi Culture Counter Familialism History Honour Human nature Identity Formation Ideology Institutions Invisible hand Loyalty Modernity Morality Public Mores National character Natural law Reification Ressentiment Rights Sittlichkeit Social alienation Social norms Spontaneous order Stewardship Traditions Values Family Volksgeist Worldview Schools Budapest School Catholic social teaching Distributism Communitarianism Confucianism Conservatism Social Frankfurt School Personalism Philosophers Ancient Augustine Cicero Confucius Lactantius Laozi Mencius Mozi Origen Philo Plato Polybius Tertullian Thucydides Xunzi Medieval Alpharabius Aquinas Avempace Bruni Dante Gelasius Ibn Khaldun Maimonides Muhammad Photios Plethon Ibn Tufayl Early modern Calvin Erasmus Guicciardini Locke Luther Milton Montaigne Müntzer 18th and 19th centuries Arnold Bentham Bonald Burke Carlyle Comte Condorcet Emerson Engels Fichte Fourier Franklin Hegel Helvétius Herder Hume Jefferson Kant Kierkegaard Le Bon Le Play Marx Mill Nietzsche Owen Renan Rousseau Royce Ruskin Smith Spencer de Staël Stirner Taine Thoreau Tocqueville Vico Vivekananda Voltaire 20th and 21st centuries Adorno Agamben Arendt Aron Badiou Baudrillard Bauman Benoist Berlin Butler Camus de Beauvoir Debord Deleuze Dewey Du Bois Durkheim Eco Evola Foucault Fromm Gandhi Gehlen Gentile Gramsci Guénon Habermas Han Heidegger Hoppe Irigaray Kirk Kołakowski Kropotkin Land Lasch MacIntyre Marcuse Maritain Negri Niebuhr Nussbaum Oakeshott Ortega Pareto Polanyi Radhakrishnan Röpke Santayana Scruton Shariati Simmel Skinner Sombart Sowell Spengler Taylor Voegelin Walzer Weber Weil Zinn Žižek Works De Officiis (44 BC) Oration on the Dignity of Man (1486) A Vindication of Natural Society (1756) Democracy in America (1835–1840) Civilization and Its Discontents (1930) The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction (1935) The Second Sex (1949) One-Dimensional Man (1964) The Society of the Spectacle (1967) The History of Sexuality (1976) The Culture of Narcissism (1979) A Conflict of Visions (1987) The Closing of the American Mind (1987) Gender Trouble (1990) The Malaise of Modernity (1991) Intellectuals and Society (2010) See also Agnotology Axiology Critical theory Cultural criticism Cultural pessimism Ethics Historism Historicism Humanities Philosophy of culture Philosophy of education Philosophy of history Political philosophy Social criticism Social science Social theory Sociology Category v t e Psychology History Philosophy Portal Psychologist Basic psychology Abnormal Affective neuroscience Affective science Behavioral genetics Behavioral neuroscience Behaviorism Cognitive/Cognitivism Cognitive neuroscience Social Comparative Cross-cultural Cultural Developmental Differential Ecological Evolutionary Experimental Gestalt Intelligence Mathematical Moral Neuropsychology Perception Personality Psycholinguistics Psychophysiology Quantitative Social Theoretical Applied psychology Anomalistic Applied behavior analysis Assessment Clinical Coaching Community Consumer Counseling Critical Educational Ergonomics Feminist Forensic Health Humanistic Industrial and organizational Legal Media Medical Military Music Occupational health Pastoral Political Positive Psychometrics Psychotherapy Religion School Sport and exercise Suicidology Systems Traffic Methodologies Animal testing Archival research Behavior epigenetics Case study Content analysis Experiments Human subject research Interviews Neuroimaging Observation Psychophysics Qualitative research Quantitative research Self-report inventory Statistical surveys Concepts Behavior Behavioral engineering Behavioral genetics Behavioral neuroscience Cognition Competence Consciousness Consumer behavior Emotions Feelings Human factors and ergonomics Intelligence Mind Psychology of religion Psychometrics Terror management theory Psychologists Wilhelm Wundt William James Ivan Pavlov Sigmund Freud Edward Thorndike Carl Jung John B. Watson Clark L. Hull Kurt Lewin Jean Piaget Gordon Allport J. P. Guilford Carl Rogers Erik Erikson B. F. Skinner Donald O. Hebb Ernest Hilgard Harry Harlow Raymond Cattell Abraham Maslow Neal E. Miller Jerome Bruner Donald T. Campbell Hans Eysenck Herbert A. Simon David McClelland Leon Festinger George A. Miller Richard Lazarus Stanley Schachter Robert Zajonc Albert Bandura Roger Brown Endel Tulving Lawrence Kohlberg Noam Chomsky Ulric Neisser Jerome Kagan Walter Mischel Elliot Aronson Daniel Kahneman Paul Ekman Michael Posner Amos Tversky Bruce McEwen Larry Squire Richard E. Nisbett Martin Seligman Ed Diener Shelley E. Taylor John Anderson Ronald C. Kessler Joseph E. LeDoux Richard Davidson Susan Fiske Roy Baumeister Lists Counseling topics Disciplines Organizations Outline Psychologists Psychotherapies Research methods Schools of thought Timeline Topics Wiktionary definition Wiktionary category Wikisource Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikinews Wikibooks

• Anarchism
• Linguistics
• Philosophy
• Socialism

• Noam Chomsky
• 1928 births
• 20th-century American philosophers
• 20th-century linguists
• 21st-century American philosophers
• 21st-century linguists
• American anarchists
• American anti–Iraq War activists
• American anti–Vietnam War activists
• American media critics
• American people of Belarusian-Jewish descent
• American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent
• American philosophers
• American political activists
• American social commentators
• American socialists
• American tax resisters
• Analytic philosophers
• Anarcho-syndicalists
• Anti-corporate activists
• Anti-imperialism
• Central High School (Philadelphia) alumni
• Cognitive scientists
• Communication scholars
• Contemporary philosophers
• Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy
• Critics of Marxism
• Critics of neoconservatism
• Critics of postmodernism
• Developmental psycholinguists
• Dissidents
• Fellows of the Cognitive Science Society
• Fellows of the Linguistic Society of America
• Fellows of the Royal Society of Canada
• Gratz College
• Guggenheim Fellows
• Industrial Workers of the World members
• Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars
• Jewish anarchists
• Jewish anti-Zionism in the United States
• Jewish socialists
• Kyoto laureates in Basic Sciences
• Libertarian socialists
• Linguists from the United States
• Living people
• Massachusetts Institute of Technology faculty
• Massachusetts socialists
• Members of the Democratic Socialists of America
• Members of the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina
• Members of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts
• Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
• New Left
• Non-interventionism
• Occupy movement in the United States
• Philosophers from Pennsylvania
• Philosophers of language
• Philosophers of mind
• Philosophers of science
• Propaganda theorists
• Rationalists
• Recipients of the Neil and Saras Smith Medal for Linguistics
• Scientists from Philadelphia
• Signatories of the Declaration on the Common Language
• Social critics
• Syntacticians
• University of Pennsylvania alumni
• Writers about activism and social change