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Decline of Buddhism in India, the land of it's birth occurred for many varied reasons even as it countinued to flourish beyond the Indian frontiers. Buddhism had been established in the area of ancient Magadha and Kosala and during 1500 years it spread from there across the Indian sub-continent and beyond as the major belief system of the region. Buddhism as a religion flourished within a century of the death of Gautama Buddha, especially in northern and central India. The Mauryan Emperor Ashoka, during the third century BC, and other subsequent monarchs also played a major part in the prolestyzation of Buddhism in Asia through religious ambassadors.
Chinese scholars; such as Faxian, Xuanzang, I-ching, Hui-sheng and Sung-Yun; travelling through the region between the 5th to 8th century began to speak of a decline of the Buddhist sangha, especially in the wake of the White Hun invasion. It did not recover after the fall of the Pala dynasty in the 12th century and the later sacking of monastaries by Muslim conquerors. At the beginning of the 20th century Buddhism was virtually extinct but is undergoing a contemporary revival by a movement of mass conversion by the untouchables of the Hindu caste system (dalits), pioneered by B.R. Ambedkar.
The Sunga & Kanva Period
Following the Mauryan's, the first Sunga king, Pusyamitra is frequently linked by neo-Buddhists with the persecution of Buddhists and a resurgence of Hinduism. There is some doubt as to wether he actually actively persecuted Buddhists but a persistent neo-Buddhist tradition holds him as having taking steps to check the spread of Buddhism as "the number one enemy of the sons of the Sakya's and a most cruel persecutor of the religion". The Divyavadana ascribes to him the razing of stupas and viharas built by Asoka, the placing of a bounty of 100 dinaras upon the heads of Buddhist monks (Shramanas) and describes him as one who wanted to undo the work of Asoka. This account has however been described as "exaggerated". The Sungas were zealous propagators of Hinduism and their lack of royal patronage was also a setback to Buddhism resulting in the splintering of Buddhism into many forces; such as Saravastivadins, Mahasargikas, Sthaviravadha, and Yogacara; resulting in a diversion of opinions and interpretations that led to a conflict between warring schools shortly after the fall of the Mauryans. Later Sunga kings were seen as more amenable to Buddhism.
This period has been described as one of political and spiritual competition with Hinduism in the gangetic plains and one in which Buddhism flourished in the realms of the Bactrian Kings.
However, what the neo-Buddhists never mention is the the Sunga Empire actually suppoorted. An example is given by them building the stupa at Baharut.
Neo-Buddhists often accuse the Brahmin of having attacked Buddhism when Asoka himself was converted by the Brahmin Buddhists Shri Radhasvami and Shri Manjushri.
Gupta's
Buddhism and saw a brief revival under the Guptas. By the 4th to 5th century Buddhism was already in decline in northern India, even as it was achieving multiple successes in Central Asia and along the Silk Road as far as China. It countinued to prosper in Gandhara under the buddhist Turki-Shahis. Buddhisms spread was driven by powerful monarchs who adopted and supported it, lacking political support it began to decline.
Philosophical divergence with Adi Shankara
In 9th century A.D. the Buddhist philosophers started to lose ground with the Hindu Saint Adi Shankara. Shankaracharya debated with Buddhist monks and raised issues with Buddhist philosophy.The rejection of the notion of Atman and yet the endorsement of rebirth, could not be explained by the Buddhists. The resurgence of Hinduism with the ideas of Shankaracharya led to reduction of royal patronage of the Buddhist monks. As political patronage failed it came under increasing pressure by Hinduism and the revival movements of Adi Shankara. Shakyamuni Buddha eventually came to be interpreted as a manifestation of the Hindu god Vishnu.
White Huns
Central Asian and North Western Indian Buddhism weakened in the 6th century following the White Hun invasion who followed their own religions such as Tengri, Nestorian Christianity and Manichean. Their King Mihirkula who ruled from 515 BC supressed Buddhism destroying monastaries as far as modern-day Allahabad before his son reversed the policy. Subsequently the replacement of Buddhist royal lines with Hindu royals and the rise of Rajput dynasties further pressured the official sanction of Buddhism.
Xuanzang's Report
Xuanzang reports in his travels across India during the 7th century that Buddhism was popular in Andhra, Dhanyakataka, and Dravida which today roughly correspond to the modern day Indian states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. He also reports deserted stupas in the area around modern day Nepal and the persecution of Buddhists by Ssanka in the Kingdom of Gouda. Xuanzang compliments the patronage of Harshavardana during this same period while noting in his travels that in various regions Buddhism was giving way to Jainism and Hinduism.
Harsha
In the North and west after Harshavardana's kingdom the rise of many small kingdoms. This led to the rise of the martial Rajputs clans across the gangetic plains and marked the end of Buddhist ruling clans along with a sharp decline in royal patronage until a revival under the Pala Empire in the Bengal region. Subsequently the replacement of Buddhist royal lines with Hindu royals and the rise of Rajput dynasties further pressured the official sanction of Buddhism.
Vaishnavites
In the 9th CE the Vaishnavas identified the Buddha as an avatāra of the Hindu god Vishnu – which contradicted basic Buddhist understandings about the nature of a Buddha and of nirvāna. Shakyamuni Buddha was often revered as one of the gods, and eventually came to be interpreted as a manifestation of the Hindu god Vishnu
Buddhism in Southern India
In the south of India while there was no overt persecution of Buddhists at least two Pallava rulers Simhavarma and Trilochana are known to have destroyed Buddhist stupas and have had Hindu temples built over them. Furthermore a vigorous Hindu revival which incorporated in Vaishnavite Hinduism the concept of Buddha as the 9th incarnation of Vishnu led to a sharp decline of Buddhism.
Muslim contact in Sindh
When Muhammad bin Qasim led the invasion of Sindh he actually found ready help among the Buddhists in his campaign against their Hindu overlord the Raja Dahir. Beyond the direct political effects, these invasions also impeded commercial ties to the west, weakening the merchant classes who tended to sponsor Buddhism .
By the 10th century Mahmud of Ghazni defeated the Hindu-Shahis effectively removing Hindu influence and ending Buddhist self-governance across Central Asia and the Punjab region. He demolished both stupas and temples during his raids across north-western India but left those within his domains and Afghanistan alone even as al-Biruni recorded Buddha as the prophet "Burxan".
Pala's
In the east under the Palas in Bengal, Mahayana Buddhism flourished and spread to Bhutan and Sikkim. The Palas created many temples and a distinctive school of Buddhist art. Mahayana Buddhism flourished under the Palas, between the 8th and the 12th century before it collapsed at the hands of the attacking Sena dynasty.
Ghurid Invasion
In 1200 Muhammad Khilji, one of Qutb-ud-Din's generals, destroyed monasteries fortified by the Sena armies such as Vikramshila, and sacked the great Buddhist university of Nalanda in 1193. His march across Northern India was a major milestone in the sudden decline of Buddhism in the gangetic plains as he devastated the last vestiges of Buddhist political prowess and resistance by laying waste their fortified monasteries.
The Mongols
In 1215 Genghis Khan conquered Afghanistan and ravaged the land indiscriminately, in 1227 after his death his conquest was divided and Chagatai established the Chagatai Khanate and his son Arghun made Buddhism the state religion during which time he came down harshly on Islam and demolished mosques to build many stupas. He was succeeded by his brother, and then his son Ghazan who converted to Islam and in 1295 who changed the state religion and after his reign and the splitting of the Chagatai Khanate little mention of Buddhism or the stupas built by the Mongols can be found in Afghanistan and Central Asia can be found in Afghanistan and central asia.
Sufis and Bhakti's
After the Mongol invasions of Islamic lands across Central Asia, many Sufis also found themselves fleeing towards India and around the environs of Bengal. Here their influence, caste attitudes towards Buddhists, previous familiarity with converting Buddhists, a lack of Buddhist political power, Hinduism's revival movements such as Advaita and the rise of the syncretic bhakti movement, all contributed to a significant realignment of beliefs relegating Buddhism in India to the peripheries.
Ideological and financial causes
By the 4th to 5th century Buddhism was in relative decline in northern India. In India it found ideological opposition for its monastic system. Hinduism, in this period witnessed a resurgent movement under Adi Shankara.
While the exact cause of the decline of Buddhism in India is disputed, it is known that the mingling of Hindu and Buddhist societies in India and the rise of Hindu Vedanta movements began to compete against Buddhism. Many believe that Hinduism's adaptation to Buddhism resulted in Buddhism's rapid decline while others point to the aggressive attitudes adopted by various Hindu kings. Particularly important were Hinduism's revival movements such as the adoption of the Buddha into the Hindu pantheon, Advaita Vedanta and the Bhakti movement, both of which showed the influence of Buddhist thought. Buddhism's influence on Bhakti movement in particular emphasized more Buddhist concepts of spiritual merit rather than caste as well as the Mahayana Buddhist concepts of love and self sacrifice. Mahayana Buddhist schools at the common level was far more devotional. Some scholars believe that the influence of Bhakti was synergistic with oppressive caste and social situations, in that Bhakti made conversion to Hinduism a more comfortable alternative for oppressed Buddhists.
Indians included Buddhism as part of Hinduism when it came to the Buddha and various figures of veneration. Shakyamuni Buddha was often revered as one of the gods, and eventually came to be venerated as Shakyamuni Buddha, the ninth avatar of Vishnu.
Buddhist monasteries were well-funded and life within was relatively easy. To avoid unwanted members, many monasteries became selective about whom they admitted, in some cases based on social class. This further cut off the sangha from Indian society.
Advent of Islam and revival of Hinduism
When Islam arrived in India, it sought conversion from, not assimilation to or integration with, the already present religions. However, the new Muslim rulers left in place the Brahmin-controlled caste system that reinforced Hindu social norms . Under Sufi influence, the pressures of caste and with no political support structure left in place to resist social mores many converted to Islam in the Bengal region. However, the destruction of many monasteries and stupas resulted in the Buddhist order being almost entirely eradicated, because most of the tradition was kept up by monks, not lay-people.
After the Mongol invasions of Islamic lands across Central Asia, many Sufis also found themselves fleeing towards India and around the environs of Bengal. Here their influence, previous familiarity with converting Buddhists and lack of Buddhist political power contributed to a significant realignment of beliefs relegating Buddhism in India to the peripheries.
Survival of Buddhism in India
At the beginning of the modern era, Buddhism was very nearly extinct in mainstream Indian society. Some tribal peoples living in the territory of modern India did continue to practice Buddhism. In Bengal, the Bauls still practice a syncretic form of Hinduism that was strongly influenced by Buddhism. There is also evidence of small communities of Indian Theravada Buddhists existing continuously in Bengal in the area of Chittagong up to the present.
Buddhism continued to prosper in the nearby countries of Nepal, Tibet and Burma, as well as in more distant locations, such as China and Japan.
Buddhist institutions flourished in eastern India right until the Islamic invasion. Buddhism still survives among the Barua, a community of Bengali/Magadh descent that migrated to Chittagong region. Indian Buddhism also survives among Newars of Nepal.
In Orissa, Mahima Dharma, a derivative of Buddhism, survived until 18th century.
The Hindu Kayasthas, a community of scribes in North India, had been a supporter of Buddhism since the early period. They continued to support Buddhism until about 12th-13th century in some regions.
Buddhism survived in Kashmir valley until 13-14th century, perhaps slightly longer in the nearby Swat Valley. In Ladakh region, adjacent to Kashmir valley, Tibetan Buddhism survives. Tibetan Buddhism must have been popular in Kashmir at one time, as we learn from Rajatarangini of Kalhana.
In Tamilnadu and Kerala, Buddhism survived until 15-16th century. At Nagapattinam, in Tamil Nadu, Buddhist idols were cast and inscribed until this time, and the ruins of the Chudamani Vihara stood until they were destroyed by the Jesuits in 1867 . In south in some pockets, it may have survived even longer. The worship of Dharma Shasta may be a relic of Buddhism in Kerala.
Revival
main article: Neo-Buddhism
In recent times, Buddhism has seen a revival in India, partially because of the more liberal laws concerning religion, and also because of the presence of Tibetan Buddhists. Additionally, many people who had felt oppression from the caste system in various parts of India turned to Buddhism, led initially by B. R. Ambedkar in 1956.
Decline of Buddhism in India: Chronology
- 515 Huna king Mihirkula destroys Buddhist institutions
- 680 Tibetans join Shahis against the Umayyad forces in Bactria
- 715 Arab general Qutaiba retook Bactria from the Shahis and destroys Nava Vihara
- 735 Barmakids converts from Buddhism in Bactria
- 750-1150 Mahasiddhas promote tantrika Budhism
- 788-820 Adi Shankara debates against Buddhists, advocating Advaita
- 879 Hindu Shahis retook Kabul and Nagarahara. Hinduism and Buddhism flourish
- 913 - 942 reign of Nasr II, Buddhist statues still made in Samarkand
- 1114-1154 Gahadvala Govindchandra constructs viharas in North India
- 1193 Nalanda destroyed by Khilji forces
- 1200 Vikramshila and Odantapuri destroyed by Khilji forces
- 1295 Arghun's son Ghazan succeeded to the Khanate throne and destroyed the new Buddhist monasteries
- 1389-1413 Sikandar Butshikan destroys the great Buddhas of Kashmir.
- 16th cent Buddhism still flourishes at Nagapattinam in Tamilnadu
- 19th cent. Baruas and Newars remain as the last of the Indian Buddhists
- 1891 Anagarika Dharmapala visits India, Buddhism reemerges in India
- 1923 Rahul Sankrityayan becomes a Bhikkhu
- 1956 Ambedkar becomes a Buddhist, founding the neo-Buddhist movement.
Notes
- Promsak, pg.14
- ^ Merriam-Webster, pg. 155-157
- Gautama Buddha was held to be from the tribe of the Saka's and his title Sakyamuni means "sage of the Sakas".
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
Sarvastivadawas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Ashok, pg 91-93
- Brahmin Contribution to Other Religiions
References
- Promsak Jermsawatdi, "Thai Art with Indian influence", 2003, Abhinav Publications, ISBN 8170170907
- Wendy Doniger, "Merriam-Webster Encyclopedia of World Religions", 1999, Merriam-Webster, ISBN 0877790442
- Charles (EDT) Willemen, Bart Dessein, Collett Cox, "Sarvastivada Buddhist Scholastism", 1998, Brill Academic Publishers
- Ashok Kumar Anand, "Buddhism in India", 1996, Gyan Books, ISBN 8121205069
See also
- History of Buddhism
- History of India
- Buddhism in Kashmir
- Religion in India
- Islamic invasion of India
External links
- Koenraad Elst on allegations of "Hindu iconoclasm": Pushyamitra, Bodh-Gaya, Harsha of Kashmir, ,
- Reformation Movement in the Buddhist Sangha of Bangladesh (1856-1971)
- Berzin Archives
- Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Ancient India by Bodhisattva Dr. B. R. Ambedkar
- Devastation and Downfall of Buddhism in India extracted from Buddhist Pilgrimage, by Bro Chan Khoon San