Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent

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The Decline of Buddhism in India, in the land of its birth occurred for a variety of reasons, and happened even as it continued to flourish beyond the frontiers of India. Buddhism had been established in the area of ancient Magadha and Kosala by Gautama Buddha in the 6th century BC, in what is now modern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Over 1500 years, it spread from these regions across the India and beyond as the major belief system. Buddhism as a religion flourished within a century of the death of Gautama Buddha, especially in northern and central India. The Mauryan Emperor Ashoka, during the third century BC, and other subsequent monarchs also played a major part in the prolestyzation of Buddhism in Asia through religious ambassadors. Chinese scholars travelling throughout the region between the 5th to 8th century speak of a decline of the Buddhist sangha, especially in the wake of the White Hun invasion. It did not recover after the fall of the Pala dynasty in the 12th century and the later destruction of monasteries by Muslim conquerors. Buddhism was virtually extinct by the end of the 19th century. In recent times, Buddhism has seen a revival in India due to the influence of Anagarika Dharmapala, Tenzin Gyatso and the Dalit Buddhist movement.

Buddhism under various governments

The Sungas

Following the Mauryans, Pusyamitra, is frequently linked with the persecution of Buddhists and a resurgence of Hinduism that forced Buddhism outwards to Kashmir, Gandhara and Bactria. .

"Then King Pusyamitra equipped a fourfold army, and intending to destroy the Buddhist religion, he went to the Kukkutarama. (...) Pusyamitra therefore destroyed the sangharama, killed the monks there, and departed.

After some time, he arrived in Sakala, and proclaimed that he would give a hundred dinara reward to whomever brought him the head of a Buddhist monk" Ashokavadana, 133, trans. John Strong.

The persecution of Buddhists by Pushyamitra Sunga has been met with some doubt from historians.

Historians point out the first accounts appear two centuries after Pusyamitra's reign in Asokâvadâna and the Divyâvadâna. Archaeological evidence confirm that Pushyamitra allowed and patronized the construction of monasteries and Buddhist universities in his domains, as well as the still-existent stupa of Sanchi. Following Ashoka’s sponsorship of Buddhism, it is possible that Buddhist institutions fell on harder times under the Sungas but no evidence of persecution has been noted in historical documents. It is much more likely that the Asokavadana legend is a Buddhist version of Pusyamitra's attack of the Mauryas, and reflects the fact that, with the declining influence of Buddhism in the Imperial court, Buddhist monuments and institutions would receive less attention. Etienne Lamotte observes: “To judge from the documents, Pushyamitra must be acquitted through lack of proof.”

The period however, has been described as one of political and spiritual competition with Hinduism in the gangetic plains and one in which Buddhism flourished in the realms of the Bactrian kings.

Guptas

Buddhism and saw a brief revival under the Guptas. By the 4th to 5th century Buddhism was already in decline in northern India, even as it was achieving multiple successes in Central Asia and along the Silk Road as far as China. It continued to prosper in Gandhara under the Shahi kingdom.

White Huns

Central Asian and North Western Indian Buddhism weakened in the 6th century following the White Hun invasion who followed their own religions such as Tengri, Nestorian Christianity and Manichean. Their King Mihirakula who ruled from 515 BC suppressed Buddhism destroying monasteries as far as modern-day Allahabad before his son reversed the policy.

Harsha

In the North and west after Harshavardana's kingdom the rise of many small kingdoms. This led to the rise of the martial Rajputs clans across the gangetic plains and marked the end of Buddhist ruling clans along with a sharp decline in royal patronage until a revival under the Pala Empire in the Bengal region. Subsequently the replacement of Buddhist royal lines with Hindu royals and the rise of martial Rajput dynasties further pressured Buddhism.

Muhammad bin Qasim

In AD 711, Muhammad bin Quasim attacked the southern shores of Sindh. Muhammad Bin Quasim is linked with Islamic persecution of Buddhists. Quasim destroyed a Buddhist holy site and built a mosque in it's place.

It was claimed that the Buddhists helped bin Qasim in conquering parts of India. Al-Baladhuri recorded that two "Samanis" went to Qasim to negiotiate for peace, however he also recorded that it was the inhabitants of Nirum who sent the priests to Qasim.

Muhammad bin Qasim also demolished temples and monasteries, e.g. he built at Nirun a mosque on the site of the temple of Budh.

Mahmud of Ghazni

By the 10th century Mahmud of Ghazni defeated the Hindu-Shahis effectively removing Hindu influence and ending Buddhist self-governance across Central Asia and the Punjab region. He demolished both stupas and temples during his numerous campaigns across north-western India but left those within his domains and Afghanistan alone even as al-Biruni recorded Buddha as the prophet "Burxan".

Mahmud of Ghazni is said to have been an iconoclast. Hindu and Buddhist statues, shrines and temples were looted and destroyed and many Buddhists had to take refuge in Tibet.

Muhammad of Ghor

Muhammad attacked the north-western regions of the Indian subcontinent many times. Gujarat later fell to Muhammad Ghori's armies in 1197. Muhammad of Ghor's armies destroyed many Buddhist structures, including the great Buddhist university of Nalanda.

Pala's

In the east under the Palas in Bengal, Mahayana Buddhism flourished and spread to Bhutan and Sikkim. The Palas created many temples and a distinctive school of Buddhist art. Mahayana Buddhism flourished under the Palas, between the 8th and the 12th century before it collapsed at the hands of the attacking Sena dynasty.

Ghurid Invasion

In 1200 Muhammad Khilji, one of Qutb-ud-Din's generals, destroyed monasteries fortified by the Sena armies such as Vikramshila. Many monuments of ancient Indian civilization were destroyed by the invading armies, including Buddhist santuaries near Benares. Buddhist monks who escaped the massacre fled to Nepal, Tibet and South India.

The Mongols

In 1215 Genghis Khan conquered Afghanistan. In 1227 after his death his conquest was divided and Chagatai established the Chagatai Khanate and his son Arghun made Buddhism the state religion during which time he came down harshly on Islam and demolished mosques to build many stupas. He was succeeded by his brother, and then his son Ghazan who converted to Islam and in 1295 who changed the state religion and after his reign and the splitting of the Chagatai Khanate little mention of Buddhism or the stupas built by the Mongols can be found in Afghanistan and Central Asia can be found in Afghanistan and central asia.

Timur (Tamarlane)

Timur was a 14th-century warlord of Turco-Mongol descent , conqueror of much of Western and central Asia, and founder of the Timurid Empire.

Timur destroyed Buddhist establishments and raided areas in which Buddhism had flourished.

Mughals

Mughal rule also contributed to the decline of Buddhism. India's new iconoclastic monarchs destroyed many Hindu temples and Buddhist shrines alike, or converted many sacred Hindu places into muslim shrines and mosques. Mughal rulers like Aurangzeb destroyed Buddhist temples and monasteries and replaced them with Islamic mosques.

Aurangzeb imposed on the newly ordained dhimmis Jizya that his predecessor Akbar had abolished during his reign. The ruler's aim was to curb the infidels and demonstrate the distinction between the Darul Islam (The land of Islam) and the Darul Harb (the land of warfare and infidels). With that decision he bought warfare to the Darul Harb to emphasise on the distinction.

Ideological and financial causes

Financial reasons

Buddhist monasteries were well-funded and life within was relatively easy. To avoid unwanted members, many monasteries became selective about whom they admitted, in some cases based on social class. This further cut off the sangha from Indian society.

Xuanzang's Report

Xuanzang reports in his travels across India during the 7th century that Buddhism was popular in Andhra, Dhanyakataka, and Dravida which today roughly correspond to the modern day Indian states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. He also reports numerous ruined and deserted stupas in the conquered Buddhist regions such as by the regions around modern day Nepal, as well as the persecution of Buddhists by Ssanka in the Kingdom of Gouda. Xuanzang compliments the patronage of Harshavardana during this same period while noting in his travels that in various regions Buddhism was giving way to Jainism and Hinduism.

Philosophical divergence with Adi Shankara

In 9th century A.D. the Buddhist philosophers started to lose ground with the Hindu Saint Adi Shankara. Shankaracharya debated with Buddhist monks and raised issues with Buddhist philosophy. The rejection of the notion of Atman and yet the endorsement of rebirth, could not be explained by the Buddhists. The resurgence of Hinduism with the ideas of Shankaracharya led to reduction of royal patronage of the Buddhist monks. As political patronage failed it came under increasing pressure by Hinduism and the revival movements of Adi Shankara. Shakyamuni Buddha eventually came to be venerated as a manifestation of the Hindu god Vishnu.

Sufis and the Bhakti movement

When Islam arrived in India, it sought conversion from, not assimilation to or integration with, the already present religions. Under Sufi influence, the pressures of caste and with no political support structure left in place to resist social mores many converted to Islam in the Bengal region.

After the Mongol invasions of Islamic lands across Central Asia, many Sufis also found themselves fleeing towards India and around the environs of Bengal. Here their influence, caste attitudes towards Buddhists, previous familiarity with converting Buddhists, a lack of Buddhist political power, Hinduism's resurgence through movements such as the Advaita and the bhakti movement, all contributed to a significant realignment of beliefs relegating Buddhism in India to the peripheries.

Islam

Hinduism traditionally does not evangelize. Buddhism suffered immensely during the Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent with muslim rulers such as Muhammad bin Qasim, Muhammad of Ghor, Qutb-ud-Din and Aurangzeb destroying temples and shrines and seeking conversion of Buddhists to Islam.

According to Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, "there can be no doubt that the fall of Buddhism was due to the invasions of the Muslims.” He wrote: “Thus the origin of the word indicates that in the Muslim mind idol worship had come to be identified with the religion of Buddha. To the Muslims they were one and the same thing. The mission to break idols thus became the mission to destroy Buddhism. Islam destroyed Buddhism not only in India but wherever it went. Bactria, Parthia, Afghanistan, Gandhara and Chinese Turkestan (…) in all these countries Islam destroyed Buddhism.”

The Arabic invaders described Indian Pagans as But-parast, and idol-breakers as but-shikan. The word "but" is derived from Buddhism, but the Arabs used it for "Indian paganism" in general. Therefore in Arabic chronicles it is not always evident if Buddhists, Hindus or other Indian religions are meant.

Survival of Buddhism in India

At the beginning of the modern era, Buddhism was very nearly extinct in mainstream Indian society. Some tribal peoples living in the territory of modern India did continue to practice Buddhism. In Bengal, the Bauls still practice a syncretic form of Hinduism that was strongly influenced by Buddhism. There is also evidence of small communities of Indian Theravada Buddhists existing continuously in Bengal in the area of Chittagong up to the present.

Buddhist institutions flourished in eastern India right until the Islamic invasion. Buddhism still survives among the Barua, a community of Bengali/Magadh descent that migrated to Chittagong region. Indian Buddhism also survives among Newars of Nepal.

In Orissa, Mahima Dharma, a derivative of Buddhism, survived until 18th century.

The Hindu Kayasthas, a community of scribes in North India, had been a supporter of Buddhism since the early period. They continued to support Buddhism until about 12th-13th century in some regions.

Buddhism survived in Kashmir valley until 13-14th century, perhaps slightly longer in the nearby Swat Valley. In Ladakh region, adjacent to Kashmir valley, Tibetan Buddhism survives. Tibetan Buddhism must have been popular in Kashmir at one time, as we learn from Rajatarangini of Kalhana.

In Tamilnadu and Kerala, Buddhism survived until 15-16th century. At Nagapattinam, in Tamil Nadu, Buddhist idols were cast and inscribed until this time, and the ruins of the Chudamani Vihara stood until they were destroyed by the Jesuits in 1867. In south in some pockets, it may have survived even longer.

Revival

Further information: Buddhism in India

In recent times, Buddhism has seen a revival in India due to the influence of Anagarika Dharmapala, Tenzin Gyatso and the Dalit Buddhist movement.

Notes

Promsak, pg.14
^ Merriam-Webster, pg. 155-157
^ Sarvastivada pg 38-39
Ashoka and Pushyamitra, iconoclasts? by Koenraad Elst
Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas by Romila Thapar, Oxford University Press, 1960 P200
^ Cite error: The named reference ashok was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
Pakistan: ps:pakistan,cultural Guide(p+) By Marian Rengel
e.g. by Veer Savarkar in his book "Hindutva"
Elliot & Dowson: History of India, vol.1, p.121. Elst 2001
Elliot & Dowson: History of India, vol.1, p.158
The Historical Interaction between the Buddhist and Islamic Cultures before the Mongol Empire, Part III: The Spread of Islam among and by the Turkic Peoples (840 - 1206 CE)
Notes on the Religious, Moral, and Political State of India Before the Mahomedan Invasion:... By Faxian, Sykes (William Henry) pg.??
How to Prepare for the Sat II: World History By Marilynn Hitchens, Heidi Roupp, pg. ??
Historia Religionum: Handbook for the History of Religions By C. J. Bleeker, G. Widengren page 381
Islam at War: A History By Mark W. Walton, George F. Nafziger, Laurent W. Mbanda (page 226)
B.F. Manz, "Tīmūr Lang", in Encyclopaedia of Islam, Online Edition, 2006
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, "Timur", 6th ed., Columbia University Press: "... Timur (timoor') or Tamerlane (tăm'urlān), c.1336–1405, Mongol conqueror, b. Kesh, near Samarkand. ...", (LINK)
"Timur", in Encyclopaedia Britannica: "... was a member of the Turkic Barlas clan of Mongols..."
"Baber", in Encyclopaedia Britannica: "... Baber first tried to recover Samarkand, the former capital of the empire founded by his Mongol ancestor Timur Lenk ..."
Sir Aurel Stein: Archaeological Explorer By Jeannette Mirsky
Ethnicity & Family Therapy edited by Nydia Garcia-Preto, Joe Giordano, Monica McGoldrick
War at the Top of the World: The Struggle for Afghanistan, Kashmir, and Tibet By Eric S. Margolis page 165
India By Sarina Singh
Islam at War: A History By Mark W. Walton, George F. Nafziger, Laurent W. Mbanda (page 226)
The World Economy: a millennial perspective by Angus Maddison, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Development Centre. Seminars (Paris), page 108
^ Buddhism in Andhra
F. R. Hemingway, Godavari district gazetteer, 2000, Asian Educational Services, ISBN 8120614615, pg 20
BBC on Hinduism
B.R. Ambedkar: Writings and Speeches, vol.3, p.229 (Chapter “The decline and fall of Buddhism”).
B.R. Ambedkar: Writings and Speeches, vol.3, p.229-230.
Elliot & Dowson: History of India, vol.1, p.119, 120. Koenraad Elst: Who is a Hindu. 2001

References

"The Decline of Buddhism in India". Washington State University. Retrieved 2006-12-23.
Dhammika, S. (1993). The Edicts of King Ashoka. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. ISBN 955-24-0104-6. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
Promsak Jermsawatdi, "Thai Art with Indian influence", 2003, Abhinav Publications, ISBN 8170170907
Doniger, Wendy (2000). Merriam-Webster Encyclopedia of World Religions. Encyclopedia Britanica. p. 1378. ISBN 0877790442. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
Charles (EDT) Willemen, Bart Dessein, Collett Cox, "Sarvastivada Buddhist Scholastism", 1998, Brill Academic Publishers
Ashok Kumar Anand, "Buddhism in India", 1996, Gyan Books, ISBN 8121205069

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