| Revision as of 04:38, 17 February 2012 editBeetstra (talk | contribs)Edit filter managers, Administrators172,031 edits Saving copy of the {{chembox}} taken from revid 477306814 of page Hydrogen_sulfide for the Chem/Drugbox validation project (updated: 'ChEMBL'). |
Latest revision as of 19:10, 19 December 2024 edit 208.199.33.203 (talk) →Occurrence: switch around wording so it doesn't sound like proteins have digestive tracts |
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{{short description|Poisonous, corrosive and flammable gas}} |
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{{ambox | text = This page contains a copy of the infobox ({{tl|chembox}}) taken from revid of page ] with values updated to verified values.}} |
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{{redirect-multi|3|H2S|Sulfane|Stinkdamp|other uses|H2S (disambiguation)|and|Sulfan (disambiguation)}} |
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{{Chembox |
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| Watchedfields = changed |
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| Watchedfields = changed |
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| verifiedrevid = 476999170 |
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| verifiedrevid = 477313464 |
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| Name = |
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| ImageFileL1 = Hydrogen-sulfide-2D-dimensions.svg |
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| ImageFile = |
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| ImageFileL1_Ref = {{chemboximage|correct|??}} |
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| ImageFile1 = Hydrogen-sulfide-2D-dimensions.svg |
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| ImageSizeL1 = 121 |
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| ImageFile1_Ref = {{chemboximage|correct|??}} |
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| ImageNameL1 = Skeletal formula of hydrogen sulfide with two dimensions |
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| ImageSize1 = 170 |
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| ImageFileR1 = Hydrogen-sulfide-3D-vdW.png |
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| ImageName1 = Skeletal formula of hydrogen sulfide with two dimensions |
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| ImageFileR1_Ref = {{chemboximage|correct|??}} |
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| ImageFileL1 = Hydrogen-sulfide-3D-balls.png |
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| ImageSizeR1 = 121 |
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| ImageNameR1 = Spacefill model of hydrogen sulfide |
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| ImageNameL1 = Ball-and-stick model of hydrogen sulfide |
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| ImageFileR1 = Hydrogen-sulfide-3D-vdW.svg |
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| SystematicName = Hydrogen sulfide<ref>{{Cite web|title = Hydrogen Sulfide - PubChem Public Chemical Database|url = http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid=402&loc=ec_rcs|work = The PubChem Project|location = USA|publisher = National Center for Biotechnology Information}}</ref> |
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| ImageFileR1_Ref = {{chemboximage|correct|??}} |
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| OtherNames = Dihydrogen monosulfide<br /> |
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| ImageNameR1 = Spacefill model of hydrogen sulfide |
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Dihydrogen sulfide<br /> |
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| ImageCaptionR1 = {{legend|yellow|Sulfur, S}}{{legend|white|Hydrogen, H}} |
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Sewer gas<br /> |
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| SystematicName = Hydrogen sulfide<ref name="pubchem">{{cite web|title = Hydrogen Sulfide - PubChem Public Chemical Database|url = https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid=402&loc=ec_rcs|work = The PubChem Project|location = USA|publisher = National Center for Biotechnology Information}}</ref> |
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Stink damp<br /> |
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| OtherNames = {{ubl|Dihydrogen monosulfide|Sour gas|Dihydrogen sulfide|Sewer gas|Egg gas|Sulfane|Sulfurated hydrogen|Sulfureted hydrogen|Sulfuretted hydrogen|Sulfur hydride|Hydrosulfuric acid|Hydrothionic acid|Thiohydroxic acid|Sulfhydric acid}} |
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Sulfane<br /> |
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| IUPACName = |
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Sulfurated hydrogen<br /> |
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Sulfureted hydrogen<br /> |
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Sulfuretted hydrogen<br /> |
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Sulfur hydride<br /> |
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Hydrosulfuric acid |
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| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers |
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| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers |
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| CASNo = 7783-06-4 |
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| CASNo = 7783-06-4 |
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| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} |
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| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} |
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| PubChem = 402 |
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| PubChem = 402 |
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| ChemSpiderID = 391 |
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| PubChem_Ref = {{Pubchemcite|correct|PubChem}} |
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| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} |
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| ChemSpiderID = 391 |
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| UNII = YY9FVM7NSN |
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| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} |
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| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} |
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| UNII = YY9FVM7NSN |
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| EINECS = 231-977-3 |
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| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} |
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| EINECS = 231-977-3 |
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| UNNumber = 1053 |
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| UNNumber = 1053 |
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| KEGG = C00283 |
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| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} |
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| KEGG = C00283 |
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| MeSHName = Hydrogen+sulfide |
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| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} |
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| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} |
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| MeSHName = Hydrogen+sulfide |
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| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} |
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| ChEBI = 16136 |
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| ChEBI = 16136 |
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| ChEMBL = <!-- blanked - oldvalue: 1200739 --> |
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| ChEMBL = 1200739 |
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| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|changed|EBI}} |
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| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|changed|EBI}} |
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| RTECS = MX1225000 |
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| RTECS = MX1225000 |
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| Beilstein = 3535004 |
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| Beilstein = 3535004 |
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| Gmelin = 303 |
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| Gmelin = 303 |
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| 3DMet = B01206 |
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| 3DMet = B01206 |
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| SMILES = S |
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| SMILES = S |
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| StdInChI = 1S/H2S/h1H2 |
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| StdInChI = 1S/H2S/h1H2 |
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| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} |
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| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} |
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| InChI = 1/H2S/h1H2 |
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| InChI = 1/H2S/h1H2 |
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| StdInChIKey = RWSOTUBLDIXVET-UHFFFAOYSA-N |
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| StdInChIKey = RWSOTUBLDIXVET-UHFFFAOYSA-N |
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| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} |
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| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} |
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| InChIKey = RWSOTUBLDIXVET-UHFFFAOYAJ |
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| InChIKey = RWSOTUBLDIXVET-UHFFFAOYAJ |
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}} |
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}} |
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| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties |
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| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties |
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| H = 2 |
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| H=2 | S=1 |
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| Appearance = Colorless gas |
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| S = 1 |
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| Odor = Foul, pungent, like that of rotten eggs |
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| ExactMass = 33.987720754 g/mol |
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| Density = 1.539 g.L<sup>−1</sup> (0°C)<ref name="Pradyot Patnaik"/> |
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| Appearance = Colorless gas |
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| MeltingPtC = −85.5<ref name="crc97">{{cite book | author=William M. Haynes | title=CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics | edition=97th | year=2016 | publisher=CRC Press | location=Boca Raton | isbn=978-1-4987-5429-3 | pages=4–87 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VVezDAAAQBAJ}}</ref> |
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| Odor = faint rotten egg |
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| BoilingPtC = −59.55<ref name="crc97"/> |
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| Density = 1.363 g dm<sup>-3</sup> |
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| Solubility = 3.980 g dm<sup>−3</sup> (at 20 °C) <ref>{{cite web |title=Hydrogen sulfide |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Hydrogen-sulfide#section=Solubility |website=pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov |language=en}}</ref> |
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| MeltingPtC = -82 |
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| VaporPressure = 1740 kPa (at 21 °C) |
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| BoilingPtC = -60 |
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| ConjugateAcid = ] |
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| Solubility = 4 g dm<sup>-3</sup> (at 20 °C) |
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| ConjugateBase = ] |
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| VaporPressure = 1740 kPa (at 21 °C) |
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| pKa = 7.0<ref>Perrin, D.D., ''Ionisation Constants of Inorganic Acids and Bases in Aqueous Solution'', 2nd Ed., Pergamon Press: Oxford, '''1982'''.</ref> |
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| pKa = 7.0<ref>{{cite book|last=Perrin |first=D.D. |title=Ionisation Constants of Inorganic Acids and Bases in Aqueous Solution |edition= 2nd |publisher=Pergamon Press |location=Oxford |date=1982}}</ref><ref>Bruckenstein, S.; Kolthoff, I.M., in Kolthoff, I.M.; Elving, P.J. ''Treatise on Analytical Chemistry'', Vol. 1, pt. 1; Wiley, NY, '''1959''', pp. 432–433.</ref> |
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| RefractIndex = 1.000644 (0 °C)<ref name="Pradyot Patnaik">{{cite book|first=Pradyot |last=Patnaik |title=Handbook of Inorganic Chemicals |publisher=McGraw-Hill |date=2002 |isbn=978-0-07-049439-8}}</ref> |
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| pKb = 6.95 |
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| MagSus = −25.5·10<sup>−6</sup> cm<sup>3</sup>/mol |
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| RefractIndex = 1.000644 (0 °C) <ref>Pradyot Patnaik. ''Handbook of Inorganic Chemicals''. McGraw-Hill, 2002, ISBN 0-07-049439-8</ref> |
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}} |
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}} |
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| Section3 = {{Chembox Structure |
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| Section3 = {{Chembox Structure |
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| MolShape = Bent |
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| MolShape = Bent |
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| Dipole = 0.97 D |
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| Dipole = 0.97 D |
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| PointGroup = C<sub>2v</sub> |
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}} |
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}} |
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| Section4 = {{Chembox Thermochemistry |
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| Section4 = {{Chembox Thermochemistry |
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| DeltaHf = −21 kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup><ref name=b1>{{cite book| author = Zumdahl, Steven S.|title =Chemical Principles 6th Ed.| publisher = Houghton Mifflin Company| year = 2009| isbn = 061894690X|page=A23}}</ref> |
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| DeltaHf = −21 kJ mol<sup>−1</sup><ref name=b1>{{cite book| last= Zumdahl|first= Steven S.|title =Chemical Principles |edition= 6th| publisher = Houghton Mifflin Company| year = 2009| isbn = 978-0-618-94690-7|page=A23}}</ref> |
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| Entropy = 206 J·mol<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup><ref name=b1/> |
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| Entropy = 206 J mol<sup>−1</sup> K<sup>−1</sup><ref name=b1/> |
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| HeatCapacity = 1.003 J K<sup>-1</sup> g<sup>-1</sup> |
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| HeatCapacity = 1.003 J K<sup>−1</sup> g<sup>−1</sup> |
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}} |
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}} |
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| Section5 = {{Chembox Hazards |
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| Section7 = {{Chembox Hazards |
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| MainHazards = Flammable and highly toxic |
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| MSDS = |
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| ExternalSDS = |
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| EUIndex = 016-001-00-4 |
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| EUClass = {{Hazchem F+}} {{Hazchem T+}} {{Hazchem N}} |
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| GHSPictograms = {{GHS02}}{{GHS06}}{{GHS09}} |
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| GHSSignalWord = Danger |
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| RPhrases = {{R12}}, {{R26}}, {{R50}} |
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| HPhrases = {{H-phrases|220|330|400}} |
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| SPhrases = {{S1/2}}, {{S9}}, {{S16}}, {{S36}}, {{S38}}, {{S45}}, {{S61}} |
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| PPhrases = {{P-phrases|210|260|271|273|284|304+340|310|320|377|381|391|403|403+233|405|501}} |
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| NFPA-H = 4 |
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| NFPA-F = 4 |
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| NFPA-H = 4 |
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| NFPA-R = 0 |
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| NFPA-F = 4 |
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| NFPA-R = 0 |
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| Autoignition = 232 °C |
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| AutoignitionPtC = 232 |
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| FlashPt = 207 °C (closed cup) |
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| FlashPtC = −82.4 |
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| ExploLimits = 4.3–46% |
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| FlashPt_ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.npi.gov.au/substances/hydrogen-sulfide/index.html|title=Hydrogen sulfide|work=npi.gov.au}}</ref> |
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| ExploLimits = 4.3–46% |
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| IDLH = 100 ppm<ref name=PGCH>{{PGCH|0337}}</ref> |
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| REL = C 10 ppm (15 mg/m<sup>3</sup>) <ref name=PGCH/> |
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| PEL = C 20 ppm; 50 ppm <ref name=PGCH/> |
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| LC50 = {{ubl|713 ppm (rat, 1 hr)|673 ppm (mouse, 1 hr)|634 ppm (mouse, 1 hr)|444 ppm (rat, 4 hr)<ref name=IDLH>{{IDLH|7783064|Hydrogen sulfide}}</ref>}} |
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| LCLo = {{ubl|600 ppm (human, 30 min)|800 ppm (human, 5 min)<ref name=IDLH/>}} |
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}} |
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| Section6 = {{Chembox Related |
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| Section9 = {{Chembox Related |
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| Function = hydrogen chalcogenides |
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| OtherFunction_label = hydrogen chalcogenides |
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| OtherFunctn = ]<br />]<br />]<br />]<br />]<br/>] |
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| OtherFunction = {{ubl|]|]|]|]|]|]}} |
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| OtherCpds = ] |
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| OtherCompounds = ] |
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'''Hydrogen sulfide''' is a ] with the ] {{chem2|H2S|auto=1}}. It is a colorless ] ], and is poisonous, corrosive, and flammable, with trace amounts in ambient atmosphere having a characteristic foul odor of ] ].<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd}}</ref> Swedish chemist ] is credited with having discovered the chemical composition of purified hydrogen sulfide in 1777.<ref name="americansci">{{cite journal |year = 2010|last1 = Smith|first1 = Roger P.|title = A Short History of Hydrogen Sulfide|url = https://www.americanscientist.org/article/a-short-history-of-hydrogen-sulfide|journal=American Scientist |volume=98 |issue=1 |page=6 |doi=10.1511/2010.82.6}}</ref> |
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Hydrogen sulfide is toxic to humans and most other animals by inhibiting ] in a manner similar to ]. When it is inhaled or its salts are ingested in high amounts, damage to organs occurs rapidly with symptoms ranging from breathing difficulties to convulsions and death.<ref>{{Cite journal |pmc=8614844|year=2021 |last1=Shackelford |first1=R. E. |last2=Li |first2=Y. |last3=Ghali |first3=G. E. |last4=Kevil |first4=C. G. |title=Bad Smells and Broken DNA: A Tale of Sulfur-Nucleic Acid Cooperation |journal=Antioxidants |volume=10 |issue=11 |page=1820 |doi=10.3390/antiox10111820 |pmid=34829691 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1146/annurev.pa.32.040192.000545|title=Toxicology of Hydrogen Sulfide |year=1992 |last1=Reiffenstein |first1=R. J. |last2=Hulbert |first2=W. C. |last3=Roth |first3=S. H. |journal=Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology |volume=32 |pages=109–134 |pmid=1605565 }}</ref> Despite this, the ] produces small amounts of this sulfide and its mineral salts, and uses it as a ].<ref>{{cite journal|pmc=4369258|year=2015|last1=Bos|first1=E. M|title=Hydrogen sulfide: Physiological properties and therapeutic potential in ischaemia|journal=British Journal of Pharmacology|volume=172|issue=6|pages=1479–1493|last2=Van Goor|first2=H|last3=Joles|first3=J. A|last4=Whiteman|first4=M|last5=Leuvenink|first5=H. G|doi=10.1111/bph.12869|doi-access=free|pmid=25091411}}</ref> |
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Hydrogen sulfide is often produced from the ] breakdown of ] in the absence of oxygen, such as in ] and sewers; this process is commonly known as ], which is done by ]. It also occurs in ]es, ] deposits, and sometimes in well-drawn water. |
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==Properties== |
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Hydrogen sulfide is slightly denser than air. A mixture of {{chem2|H2S}} and air can be explosive. |
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===Oxidation=== |
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In general, hydrogen sulfide acts as a ], as indicated by its ability to reduce sulfur dioxide in the ]. Hydrogen sulfide burns in oxygen with a blue flame to form ] ({{chem2|SO2}}) and ]: |
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:{{chem2|2 H2S + 3 O2 → 2 SO2 + 2 H2O}} |
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If an excess of oxygen is present, ] ({{chem2|SO3}}) is formed, which quickly hydrates to ]: |
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:{{chem2|H2S + 2 O2 → H2SO4}} |
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===Acid-base properties=== |
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It is slightly soluble in water and acts as a ] (] = 6.9 in 0.01–0.1 mol/litre solutions at 18 °C), giving the ] ion {{chem2|HS-}}. Hydrogen sulfide and its solutions are colorless. When exposed to air, it slowly oxidizes to form elemental sulfur, which is not soluble in water. The ] anion {{chem2|S(2-)}} is not formed in aqueous solution.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=May|first1=P.M.|last2=Batka|first2=D.|last3=Hefter|first3=G.|last4=Könignberger|first4=E.|last5=Rowland|first5=D.|title=Goodbye to S2-|journal=Chem. Comm.|volume=54|issue=16|pages=1980–1983|date=2018|doi=10.1039/c8cc00187a|pmid=29404555}}</ref> |
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===Extreme temperatures and pressures=== |
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At pressures above 90 GPa (]), hydrogen sulfide becomes a metallic conductor of electricity. When cooled below a ] this high-pressure phase exhibits ]. The critical temperature increases with pressure, ranging from 23 K at 100 GPa to 150 K at 200 GPa.<ref name=Drozdov2014>{{Cite arXiv|last1= Drozdov|first1=A.|last2=Eremets|first2=M. I.|last3=Troyan|first3=I. A.|title=Conventional superconductivity at 190 K at high pressures|eprint=1412.0460|year=2014|class=cond-mat.supr-con}}</ref> If hydrogen sulfide is pressurized at higher temperatures, then cooled, the critical temperature reaches {{convert|203|K|°C}}, the highest accepted superconducting critical temperature as of 2015. By substituting a small part of sulfur with phosphorus and using even higher pressures, it has been predicted that it may be possible to raise the critical temperature to above {{convert|0|°C|K}} and achieve ].<ref name=cart15>{{cite journal |last1=Cartlidge |first1=Edwin |title=Superconductivity record sparks wave of follow-up physics |journal=Nature |date=August 2015 |volume=524 |issue=7565 |pages=277 |doi=10.1038/nature.2015.18191 |pmid=26289188 |bibcode=2015Natur.524..277C |doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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Hydrogen sulfide decomposes without a presence of a catalyst under atmospheric pressure around 1200 °C into hydrogen and sulfur.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The direct conversion of hydrogen sulfide to hydrogen and sulfur |journal=International Journal of Hydrogen Energy |date=1998 |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=451–456 |doi=10.1016/S0360-3199(97)00099-2|last1=Faraji |first1=F. |bibcode=1998IJHE...23..451F }}</ref> |
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===Tarnishing=== |
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Hydrogen sulfide reacts with metal ions to form metal sulfides, which are insoluble, often dark colored solids. ] paper is used to detect hydrogen sulfide because it readily converts to ], which is black. Treating metal sulfides with strong acid or electrolysis often liberates hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide is also responsible for ]ing on various metals including ] and ]; the chemical responsible for black ] found on silver coins is ] ({{chem2|Ag2S}}), which is produced when the silver on the surface of the coin reacts with atmospheric hydrogen sulfide.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=JCE staff|date=March 2000 |title=Silver to Black - and Back|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/ed077p328A|journal=Journal of Chemical Education|volume=77|issue=3|pages=328A|doi=10.1021/ed077p328a |bibcode=2000JChEd..77R.328J |issn=0021-9584}}</ref> Coins that have been subject to toning by hydrogen sulfide and other sulfur-containing compounds may have the toning add to the numismatic value of a coin based on aesthetics, as the toning may produce ], resulting in the coin taking on an attractive coloration.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What causes coins to tone – ICCS |url=https://iccscoin.ca/what-causes-coins-to-tone/ |access-date=2024-02-11 |website=iccscoin.ca|date=23 September 2021 }}</ref> Coins can also be intentionally treated with hydrogen sulfide to induce toning, though artificial toning can be distinguished from natural toning, and is generally criticised among collectors.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Coin Toning 101: The Differences between Naturally and Artificially Toned Coins|url=https://www.originalskincoins.com/blogs/news/coin-toning-101-the-differences-between-naturally-and-artificially-toned-coins|access-date=2021-10-15 |website=Original Skin Coins|date=26 June 2016 }}</ref> |
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==Production== |
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Hydrogen sulfide is most commonly obtained by its separation from ], which is natural gas with a high content of {{chem2|H2S}}. It can also be produced by treating ] with molten elemental sulfur at about 450 °C. Hydrocarbons can serve as a source of hydrogen in this process.<ref name=ullmann>{{cite book |doi=10.1002/14356007.a13_467 |chapter=Hydrogen Sulfide |title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry |year=2000 |last1=Pouliquen |first1=Francois |last2=Blanc |first2=Claude |last3=Arretz |first3=Emmanuel |last4=Labat |first4=Ives |last5=Tournier-Lasserve |first5=Jacques |last6=Ladousse |first6=Alain |last7=Nougayrede |first7=Jean |last8=Savin |first8=Gérard |last9=Ivaldi |first9=Raoul |last10=Nicolas |first10=Monique |last11=Fialaire |first11=Jean |last12=Millischer |first12=René |last13=Azema |first13=Charles |last14=Espagno |first14=Lucien |last15=Hemmer |first15=Henri |last16=Perrot |first16=Jacques |isbn=3527306730 }}</ref> |
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:{{chem2|S + H2 -> H2S}} |
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The very favorable thermodynamics for the hydrogenation of sulfur implies that the dehydrogenation (or ]) of hydrogen sulfide would require very high temperatures.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.cej.2023.141398 |title=Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) conversion to hydrogen (H2) and value-added chemicals: Progress, challenges and outlook |date=2023 |last1=Chan |first1=Yi Herng |last2=Loy |first2=Adrian Chun Minh |last3=Cheah |first3=Kin Wai |last4=Chai |first4=Slyvester Yew Wang |last5=Ngu |first5=Lock Hei |last6=How |first6=Bing Shen |last7=Li |first7=Claudia |last8=Lock |first8=Serene Sow Mun |last9=Wong |first9=Mee Kee |last10=Yiin |first10=Chung Loong |last11=Chin |first11=Bridgid Lai Fui |last12=Chan |first12=Zhe Phak |last13=Lam |first13=Su Shiung |journal=Chemical Engineering Journal |volume=458 |s2cid=255887336 |url=http://ir.unimas.my/id/eprint/41182/3/Hydrogen%20sulfide%20%28.pdf }}</ref> |
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A standard lab preparation is to treat ] with a strong acid in a ]: |
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:{{chem2|FeS + 2 HCl → FeCl2 + H2S}} |
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For use in ], ] is used to generate {{chem2|H2S}}: |
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:{{chem2|CH3C(S)NH2 + H2O → CH3C(O)NH2 + H2S}} |
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Many metal and nonmetal sulfides, e.g. ], ], ] liberate hydrogen sulfide upon exposure to water:<ref>{{cite book|last=McPherson|first=William|title=Laboratory manual|year=1913|publisher=Ginn and Company|location=Boston|page=445|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oaMe7OtctlIC&q=%22aluminium+sulfide%22}}</ref> |
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:{{chem2|6 H2O + Al2S3 → 3 H2S + 2 Al(OH)3}} |
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This gas is also produced by heating sulfur with solid organic compounds and by reducing sulfurated organic compounds with hydrogen. |
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It can also be produced by mixing ammonium thiocyanate to concentrated sulphuric acid and adding water to it. |
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=== Biosynthesis === |
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Hydrogen sulfide can be generated in cells via enzymatic or non-enzymatic pathways. Three enzymes catalyze formation of {{chem|H|2|S}}: ] (CSE), ] (CBS), and ] (3-MST).<ref name="Huang-2015">{{Citation|last1=Huang|first1=Caleb Weihao|title=H2S Synthesizing Enzymes: Biochemistry and Molecular Aspects|volume=230|date=2015|work=Chemistry, Biochemistry and Pharmacology of Hydrogen Sulfide|pages=3–25|publisher=Springer International Publishing|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-18144-8_1|pmid=26162827|isbn=9783319181431|last2=Moore|first2=Philip Keith|series=Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology }}</ref> CBS and CSE are the main proponents of {{chem2|H2S}} biogenesis, which follows the trans-sulfuration pathway.<ref name="Kabil-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Kabil |first1=Omer |last2=Vitvitsky |first2=Victor |last3=Xie |first3=Peter |last4=Banerjee |first4=Ruma |title=The Quantitative Significance of the Transsulfuration Enzymes for H 2 S Production in Murine Tissues |journal=Antioxidants & Redox Signaling |date=15 July 2011 |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=363–372 |doi=10.1089/ars.2010.3781 |pmid=21254839 |pmc=3118817 }}</ref> These enzymes have been identified in a breadth of biological cells and tissues, and their activity is induced by a number of disease states.<ref name="Kabil-2014">{{cite journal |last1=Kabil |first1=Omer |last2=Banerjee |first2=Ruma |title=Enzymology of H<sub>2</sub>S Biogenesis, Decay and Signaling |journal=Antioxidants & Redox Signaling |date=10 February 2014 |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=770–782 |doi=10.1089/ars.2013.5339 |pmid=23600844 |pmc=3910450 }}</ref> These enzymes are characterized by the transfer of a sulfur atom from methionine to serine to form a cysteine molecule.<ref name="Kabil-2011" /> 3-MST also contributes to hydrogen sulfide production by way of the cysteine catabolic pathway.<ref name="Kabil-2014"/><ref name="Kabil-2011" /> Dietary amino acids, such as methionine and cysteine serve as the primary substrates for the transulfuration pathways and in the production of hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide can also be derived from proteins such as ]s and ]s.<ref name="Kabil-2014"/> |
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] (resp. ]) bacteria generate usable energy under low-oxygen conditions by using sulfates (resp. elemental sulfur) to ] organic compounds or hydrogen; this produces hydrogen sulfide as a waste product. |
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Water heaters can aid the conversion of ] in water to hydrogen sulfide gas. This is due to providing a warm environment sustainable for ] and maintaining the reaction which interacts between sulfate in the water and the water heater anode, which is usually made from ] metal.<ref>{{cite web|title=Why Does My Water Smell Like Rotten Eggs? Hydrogen Sulfide and Sulfur Bacteria in Well Water|url=http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/eh/wells/waterquality/hydrosulfide.html|website=Minnesota Department of Health|access-date=1 December 2014|archive-date=11 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150311185440/http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/eh/wells/waterquality/hydrosulfide.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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===Signalling role=== |
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{{chem2|H2S}} in the body acts as a ] with implications for health and in diseases.<ref name="Huang-2015"/> <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=John L. |last2=Wang |first2=Rui |title=Hydrogen sulfide-based therapeutics: exploiting a unique but ubiquitous gasotransmitter |journal=Nature Reviews Drug Discovery |date=May 2015 |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=329–345 |doi=10.1038/nrd4433 |pmid=25849904 |s2cid=5361233 }}</ref><ref name="powell">{{cite journal | last1=Powell | first1=Chadwick R. | last2=Dillon | first2=Kearsley M. | last3=Matson | first3=John B. | title=A review of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) donors: Chemistry and potential therapeutic applications | journal=Biochemical Pharmacology | volume=149 | year=2018 | issn=0006-2952 | pmid=29175421 | pmc=5866188 | doi=10.1016/j.bcp.2017.11.014 | pages=110–123}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cirino |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Szabo |first2=Csaba |last3=Papapetropoulos |first3=Andreas |date=2023-01-01 |title=Physiological roles of hydrogen sulfide in mammalian cells, tissues, and organs |url=https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physrev.00028.2021?checkFormatAccess=true |journal=Physiological Reviews |language=en |volume=103 |issue=1 |pages=31–276 |doi=10.1152/physrev.00028.2021 |pmid=35435014 |issn=0031-9333}}</ref> |
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Hydrogen sulfide is involved in ] in animals, as well as in increasing seed germination and stress responses in plants.<ref name="Hancock-2017"/> Hydrogen sulfide signaling is moderated by ] (ROS) and ] (RNS).<ref name="Hancock-2017" /> {{chem2|H2S}} has been shown to interact with the NO pathway resulting in several different cellular effects, including the inhibition of cGMP phosphodiesterases,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bucci |first1=Mariarosaria |last2=Papapetropoulos |first2=Andreas |last3=Vellecco |first3=Valentina |last4=Zhou |first4=Zongmin |last5=Pyriochou |first5=Anastasia |last6=Roussos |first6=Charis |last7=Roviezzo |first7=Fiorentina |last8=Brancaleone |first8=Vincenzo |last9=Cirino |first9=Giuseppe |date=2010 |title=Hydrogen Sulfide Is an Endogenous Inhibitor of Phosphodiesterase Activity |url=https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/ATVBAHA.110.209783 |journal=Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology |language=en |volume=30 |issue=10 |pages=1998–2004 |doi=10.1161/ATVBAHA.110.209783 |pmid=20634473 |issn=1079-5642}}</ref> as well as the formation of another signal called nitrosothiol.<ref name="Hancock-2017" /> Hydrogen sulfide is also known to increase the levels of glutathione, which acts to reduce or disrupt ROS levels in cells.<ref name="Hancock-2017" /> |
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The field of {{chem2|H2S}} biology has advanced from environmental toxicology to investigate the roles of endogenously produced {{chem2|H2S}} in physiological conditions and in various pathophysiological states.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Szabo |first1=Csaba |title=A Timeline of Hydrogen sulfide (H<sub>2</sub>S) Research: From Environmental toxin to biological mediator |journal=Biochemical Pharmacology |date=March 2018 |volume=149 |pages=5–19 |doi=10.1016/j.bcp.2017.09.010 |pmid=28947277 |pmc=5862769 }}</ref> {{chem2|H2S}} has been implicated in cancer, in Down syndrome and in vascular disease.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Szabo |first1=Csaba |last2=Papapetropoulos |first2=Andreas |title=International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. CII: Pharmacological Modulation of H<sub>2</sub>S Levels: H<sub>2</sub>S Donors and H<sub>2</sub>S Biosynthesis Inhibitors |journal=Pharmacological Reviews |date=October 2017 |volume=69 |issue=4 |pages=497–564 |doi=10.1124/pr.117.014050 |pmid=28978633 |pmc=5629631 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Rui |title=Physiological Implications of Hydrogen Sulfide: A Whiff Exploration That Blossomed |journal=Physiological Reviews |date=April 2012 |volume=92 |issue=2 |pages=791–896 |doi=10.1152/physrev.00017.2011 |pmid=22535897 |s2cid=21932297 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Zhen |last2=Polhemus |first2=David J. |last3=Lefer |first3=David J. |title=Evolution of Hydrogen Sulfide Therapeutics to Treat Cardiovascular Disease |journal=Circulation Research |date=17 August 2018 |volume=123 |issue=5 |pages=590–600 |doi=10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.118.311134 |pmid=30355137 |s2cid=53027283 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kimura |first1=Hideo |title=Signalling by Hydrogen Sulfide and Polysulfides via Protein S-Sulfuration |journal=British Journal of Pharmacology |date=February 2020 |volume=177 |issue=4 |pages=720–733 |doi=10.1111/bph.14579 |pmid=30657595 |pmc=7024735 }}</ref> |
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At lower concentrations, it stimulates mitochondrial function via multiple mechanisms including direct electron donation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Goubern |first1=Marc |last2=Andriamihaja |first2=Mireille |last3=Nübel |first3=Tobias |last4=Blachier |first4=Francois |last5=Bouillaud |first5=Frédéric |date=2007 |title=Sulfide, the first inorganic substrate for human cells |journal=The FASEB Journal |language=en |volume=21 |issue=8 |pages=1699–1706 |doi=10.1096/fj.06-7407com |doi-access=free |pmid=17314140 |issn=0892-6638}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=Brennah |last2=Bhattacharya |first2=Resham |last3=Mukherjee |first3=Priyabrata |date=2019 |title=Hydrogen sulfide signaling in mitochondria and disease |journal=The FASEB Journal |language=en |volume=33 |issue=12 |pages=13098–13125 |doi=10.1096/fj.201901304R |doi-access=free |issn=0892-6638 |pmc=6894098 |pmid=31648556}}</ref>However, at higher concentrations, it inhibits Complex IV of the mitochondrial electron transport chain, which effectively reduces ATP generation and biochemical activity within cells.<ref name="Hancock-2017">{{Cite book|title=Cell signalling|last=Hancock|first=John T.|isbn=9780199658480|edition= Fourth|location=Oxford, United Kingdom |oclc=947925636|year=2017}}</ref> |
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==Uses== |
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===Production of sulfur=== |
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Hydrogen sulfide is mainly consumed as a precursor to elemental sulfur. This conversion, called the ], involves partial oxidation to sulfur dioxide. The latter reacts with hydrogen sulfide to give elemental sulfur. The conversion is catalyzed by alumina.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lee |first=J. D. |title=Concise inorganic chemistry |date=1998 |publisher=Blackwell Science |isbn=978-0-632-05293-6 |edition=5. ed., reprinted |location=Oxford |page=538}}</ref> |
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:{{chem2|2H2S + SO2→ 3S + 2H2O}} |
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===Production of thioorganic compounds=== |
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Many fundamental ]s are produced using hydrogen sulfide. These include ], ], and ].<ref name=ullmann/> Hydrosulfides can be used in the production of ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Khazaei |first1=Ardeshir |last2=Kazem-Rostami |first2=Masoud |last3=Moosavi-Zare |first3=Ahmad |last4=Bayat |first4=Mohammad |last5=Saednia |first5=Shahnaz |title=Novel One-Pot Synthesis of Thiophenols from Related Triazenes under Mild Conditions |journal=Synlett |date=August 2012 |volume=23 |issue=13 |pages=1893–1896 |doi=10.1055/s-0032-1316557 |s2cid=196805424 }}</ref> |
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===Production of metal sulfides=== |
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Upon combining with ] bases, hydrogen sulfide converts to alkali hydrosulfides such as ] and ]: |
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:{{chem2|H2S + NaOH → NaSH + H2O}} |
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:{{chem2|NaSH + NaOH → Na2S + H2O}} |
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Sodium sulfides are used in the ] industry. Specifically, salts of {{chem2|SH−}} break bonds between lignin and cellulose components of ] in the ].<ref name=ullmann/> |
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As indicated above, many metal ions react with hydrogen sulfide to give the corresponding metal sulfides. Oxidic ores are sometimes treated with hydrogen sulfide to give the corresponding metal sulfides which are more readily purified by ].<ref name=ullmann/> Metal parts are sometimes ] with hydrogen sulfide. Catalysts used in ] are routinely activated with hydrogen sulfide. |
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Hydrogen sulfide was a reagent in the ] of metal ions. In these analyses, heavy metal (and ]) ions (e.g., Pb(II), Cu(II), Hg(II), As(III)) are precipitated from solution upon exposure to {{chem2|H2S}}. The components of the resulting solid are then identified by their reactivity. |
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===Miscellaneous applications=== |
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Hydrogen sulfide is used to separate deuterium oxide, or ], from normal water via the ]. |
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A suspended animation-like state has been induced in rodents with the use of hydrogen sulfide, resulting in ] with a concomitant reduction in metabolic rate. Oxygen demand was also reduced, thereby protecting against ]. In addition, hydrogen sulfide has been shown to reduce inflammation in various situations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aslami |first1=H |last2=Schultz |first2=MJ |last3=Juffermans |first3=NP |title=Potential applications of hydrogen sulfide-induced suspended animation. |journal=Current Medicinal Chemistry |date=2009 |volume=16 |issue=10 |pages=1295–303 |pmid=19355886 |doi=10.2174/092986709787846631 }}</ref> |
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=== Occurrence === |
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] on a rock, caused by ]]] |
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]es and some ]s (as well as ]) emit some {{chem2|H2S}}. Hydrogen sulfide can be present naturally in well water, often as a result of the action of ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Hydrogen Sulphide In Well Water|url=https://extension.psu.edu/hydrogen-sulfide-rotten-egg-odor-in-water-wells|access-date=4 September 2018}}</ref>{{better source needed|date = January 2020}} Hydrogen sulfide is produced by the human body in small quantities through bacterial breakdown of proteins containing sulfur in the intestinal tract; it therefore contributes to the characteristic odor of flatulence. It is also produced in the mouth (]).<ref name="ATSDR">{{cite web|author=Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry|date=July 2006|title=Toxicological Profile For Hydrogen Sulfide|url=http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp114.pdf|access-date=2012-06-20|page=154}}</ref> |
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A portion of global {{chem2|H2S}} emissions are due to human activity. By far the largest industrial source of {{chem2|H2S}} is ]: The ] process liberates sulfur from ] by the action of hydrogen. The resulting {{chem2|H2S}} is converted to elemental sulfur by partial combustion via the ], which is a major source of elemental sulfur. Other anthropogenic sources of hydrogen sulfide include ] ovens, ]s (using the Kraft process), tanneries and ]. {{chem2|H2S}} arises from virtually anywhere where elemental sulfur comes in contact with organic material, especially at high temperatures. Depending on environmental conditions, it is responsible for deterioration of material through the action of some sulfur oxidizing microorganisms. It is called ]. |
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In 2011 it was reported that increased concentrations of {{chem2|H2S}} were observed in the ] crude, possibly due to oil field practices, and presented challenges such as "health and environmental risks, corrosion of wellbore, added expense with regard to materials handling and pipeline equipment, and additional refinement requirements".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onepetro.org/mslib/servlet/onepetropreview?id=SPE-141434-MS|title=Home - OnePetro|author=OnePetro|work=onepetro.org|access-date=2013-08-14|archive-date=2013-10-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014053027/http://www.onepetro.org/mslib/servlet/onepetropreview?id=SPE-141434-MS|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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Besides living near gas and oil drilling operations, ordinary citizens can be exposed to hydrogen sulfide by being near ] facilities, ]s and farms with manure storage. Exposure occurs through breathing contaminated air or drinking contaminated water.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hydrogen Sulfide|url=https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaqs/tfacts114.pdf|publisher=Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry|date=December 2016}}</ref> |
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In ], the burial of ] rapidly leads to the production of ] within the waste mass and, with the humid atmosphere and relatively high temperature that accompanies ], ] is produced as soon as the air within the waste mass has been reduced. If there is a source of sulfate bearing material, such as plasterboard or natural ] (calcium sulfate dihydrate), under anaerobic conditions ] converts this to hydrogen sulfide. These bacteria cannot survive in air but the moist, warm, anaerobic conditions of buried waste that contains a high source of carbon – in inert landfills, paper and glue used in the fabrication of products such as ] can provide a rich source of carbon<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1016/S1093-0191(00)00056-3|title = Sulfate leaching from recovered construction and demolition debris fines|journal = Advances in Environmental Research|volume = 5|issue = 3|pages = 203–217|year = 2001|last1 = Jang|first1 = Yong-Chul|last2 = Townsend|first2 = Timothy}}</ref> – is an excellent environment for the formation of hydrogen sulfide. |
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In industrial anaerobic digestion processes, such as ] or the ], hydrogen sulfide can be formed from the reduction of sulfate and the degradation of amino acids and proteins within organic compounds.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.valorgas.soton.ac.uk/Pub_docs/JyU%20SS%202011/CC%201.pdf|title=Anaerobic digestion fundamentals|last=Cavinato|first=C. |date=2013|orig-year=2013}}</ref> Sulfates are relatively non-inhibitory to ] but can be reduced to {{chem2|H2S}} by ], of which there are several genera.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pokorna |first1=Dana |last2=Zabranska |first2=Jana |title=Sulfur-oxidizing bacteria in environmental technology |journal=Biotechnology Advances |date=November 2015 |volume=33 |issue=6 |pages=1246–1259 |doi=10.1016/j.biotechadv.2015.02.007 |pmid=25701621 }}</ref> |
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===Removal from water=== |
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A number of processes have been designed to remove hydrogen sulfide from ].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lemley |first1=Ann T. |last2=Schwartz |first2=John J. |last3=Wagenet |first3=Linda P. |title=Hydrogen Sulfide in Household Drinking Water |url=http://waterquality.cce.cornell.edu/publications/CCEWQ-07-HydrogenSulfide.pdf |publisher=Cornell University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819132148/http://waterquality.cce.cornell.edu/publications/CCEWQ-07-HydrogenSulfide.pdf |archive-date=19 August 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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; Continuous chlorination: For levels up to 75 mg/L ] is used in the purification process as an oxidizing chemical to react with hydrogen sulfide. This reaction yields insoluble solid sulfur. Usually the chlorine used is in the form of ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Hydrogen Sulfide (Rotten Egg Odor) in Pennsylvania Groundwater Wells|url=http://extension.psu.edu/natural-resources/water/drinking-water/water-testing/pollutants/hydrogen-sulfide-rotten-egg-odor-in-pennsylvania-groundwater-wells|website=Penn State|publisher=Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences|access-date=1 December 2014|archive-date=4 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150104222350/http://extension.psu.edu/natural-resources/water/drinking-water/water-testing/pollutants/hydrogen-sulfide-rotten-egg-odor-in-pennsylvania-groundwater-wells|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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; Aeration: For concentrations of hydrogen sulfide less than 2 mg/L ] is an ideal treatment process. Oxygen is added to water and a reaction between oxygen and hydrogen sulfide react to produce odorless sulfate.<ref>{{cite web|last1=McFarland|first1=Mark L.|last2=Provin|first2=T. L.|title=Hydrogen Sulfide in Drinking Water Treatment Causes and Alternatives|url=http://soiltesting.tamu.edu/publications/L-5312.pdf|publisher=Texas A&M University|access-date=1 December 2014|archive-date=30 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730113102/http://soiltesting.tamu.edu/publications/L-5312.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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; Nitrate addition: ] can be used to prevent hydrogen sulfide formation in wastewater streams. |
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===Removal from fuel gases=== |
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Hydrogen sulfide is commonly found in raw natural gas and biogas. It is typically removed by ] technologies. In such processes, the hydrogen sulfide is first converted to an ammonium salt, whereas the natural gas is unaffected. |
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: {{chem2|RNH2 + H2S ⇌ + + SH−}} |
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The bisulfide anion is subsequently regenerated by heating of the amine sulfide solution. Hydrogen sulfide generated in this process is typically converted to elemental sulfur using the ]. |
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] of a typical amine treating process used in petroleum refineries, natural gas processing plants and other industrial facilities]] |
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==Safety== |
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The underground mine gas term for foul-smelling hydrogen sulfide-rich gas mixtures is ''stinkdamp''. Hydrogen sulfide is a highly ] and flammable gas (]: 4.3–46%). It can poison several systems in the body, although the ] is most affected.{{cn|date=December 2023}} The toxicity of {{chem2|H2S}} is comparable with that of ].<ref name="pmid23111938">{{cite journal |last1=Lindenmann |first1=J. |last2=Matzi |first2=V. |last3=Neuboeck |first3=N. |last4=Ratzenhofer-Komenda |first4=B. |last5=Maier |first5=A |last6=Smolle-Juettner |first6=F. M. |title=Severe hydrogen sulphide poisoning treated with 4-dimethylaminophenol and hyperbaric oxygen |journal=Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=213–217 |date=December 2010 |pmid=23111938 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/10235 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130615171751/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/10235 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=June 15, 2013 |access-date=2013-06-07}}</ref> It binds with ] in the ]l ] ]s, thus preventing ]. Its toxic properties were described in detail in 1843 by ].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Harrison|first=J. Bower|date=1843-11-18|title=Some Remarks on the Production of Sulphuretted Hydrogen Gas in the Alimentary Canal, and Its Effects on the System |journal=Provincial Medical Journal and Retrospect of the Medical Sciences |volume=7|issue=164 |pages=127–129|jstor=25492480}}</ref> |
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Even before hydrogen sulfide was discovered, Italian physician ] hypothesized in his 1713 book ] that occupational diseases of sewer-workers and blackening of coins in their clothes may be caused by an unknown invisible volatile acid (moreover, in late 18th century toxic gas emanation from ] became a problem for the citizens and authorities).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-02-06 |title=A Short History of Hydrogen Sulfide |url=https://www.americanscientist.org/article/a-short-history-of-hydrogen-sulfide |access-date=2023-12-25 |website=American Scientist |language=en}}</ref> |
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Although very pungent at first (it smells like rotten eggs<ref>{{cite web|title=Why Does My Water Smell Like Rotten Eggs? |url=https://www.health.state.mn.us/communities/environment/water/wells/waterquality/hydrosulfide.html |publisher=Minnesota Department of Health |access-date=20 January 2020}}</ref>), it quickly deadens the sense of smell, creating temporary ],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Contaminants|first=National Research Council (US) Committee on Emergency and Continuous Exposure Guidance Levels for Selected Submarine |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK219913/|title=Hydrogen Sulfide|date=2009|publisher=National Academies Press (US)|language=en}}</ref> so victims may be unaware of its presence until it is too late. Safe handling procedures are provided by its ].<ref>{{cite web |
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|last=] |
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|publisher=Department of Chemistry |
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|title=Hydrogen Sulfide Material Safety Data Sheet |
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|url=http://avogadro.chem.iastate.edu/MSDS/hydrogen_sulfide.pdf |
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|access-date=2009-03-14 |
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|url-status=dead |
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|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327094137/http://avogadro.chem.iastate.edu/MSDS/hydrogen_sulfide.pdf |
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|archive-date=2009-03-27 |
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}}</ref> |
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===Low-level exposure=== |
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Since hydrogen sulfide occurs naturally in the body, the environment, and the gut, enzymes exist to metabolize it. At some threshold level, believed to average around 300–350 ppm, the oxidative enzymes become overwhelmed. Many personal safety gas detectors, such as those used by utility, sewage and petrochemical workers, are set to alarm at as low as 5 to 10 ppm and to go into high alarm at 15 ppm. Metabolism causes oxidation to sulfate, which is harmless.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ramasamy |first1=S. |last2=Singh |first2=S. |last3=Taniere |first3=P. |last4=Langman |first4=M. J. S. |last5=Eggo |first5=M. C. |title=Sulfide-detoxifying enzymes in the human colon are decreased in cancer and upregulated in differentiation |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology |date=August 2006 |volume=291 |issue=2 |pages=G288–G296 |doi=10.1152/ajpgi.00324.2005 |pmid=16500920 |s2cid=15443357 }}</ref> Hence, low levels of hydrogen sulfide may be tolerated indefinitely. |
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Exposure to lower concentrations can result in ] irritation, a sore throat and ], nausea, shortness of breath, and ].<ref name="pmid23111938"/> These effects are believed to be due to hydrogen sulfide combining with ] present in moist surface tissues to form ], a ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Richard J. |title=Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials |edition=9th |location=New York, NY |publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold |date=1996 |isbn=0442022557|page=1844}}</ref> These symptoms usually subside in a few weeks. |
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Long-term, low-level exposure may result in ], loss of appetite, ]s, irritability, poor memory, and ]. Chronic exposure to low level {{chem2|H2S}} (around 2 ]) has been implicated in increased miscarriage and reproductive health issues among Russian and Finnish wood pulp workers,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hemminki |first1=K. |last2=Niemi |first2=M. L. |date=1982 |journal=Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=55–63|title=Community study of spontaneous abortions: relation to occupation and air pollution by sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and carbon disulfide|pmid=7152702 |doi=10.1007/bf00378410|bibcode=1982IAOEH..51...55H |s2cid=2768183 }}</ref> but the reports have not (as of 1995) been replicated. |
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===High-level exposure=== |
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Short-term, high-level exposure can induce immediate collapse, with loss of breathing and a high probability of death. If death does not occur, high exposure to hydrogen sulfide can lead to ], degeneration of the ] and ].<ref name="pmid23111938"/> Although respiratory paralysis may be immediate, it can also be delayed up to 72 hours.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.firerescue1.com/fire-products/hazmat-equipment/articles/968922-The-chemical-suicide-phenomenon/ |title=The chemical suicide phenomenon |publisher=Firerescue1.com |date=2011-02-07 |access-date=2013-12-19 |archive-date=2015-04-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404182626/http://www.firerescue1.com/fire-products/hazmat-equipment/articles/968922-The-chemical-suicide-phenomenon/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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Inhalation of {{chem2|H2S}} resulted in about 7 workplace deaths per year in the U.S. (2011–2017 data), second only to carbon monoxide (17 deaths per year) for workplace chemical inhalation deaths.<ref name='"BLS 2019"'>{{cite web |title=Fatal chemical inhalations in the workplace up in 2017 |url=https://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2019/fatal-chemical-inhalations-in-the-workplace-up-in-2017.htm |publisher=U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics |access-date=15 April 2022}}</ref> |
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====Exposure thresholds==== |
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* Exposure limits stipulated by the United States government:<ref>{{Cite web|title=Hydrogen Sulfide - Hazards {{!}} Occupational Safety and Health Administration|url=https://www.osha.gov/hydrogen-sulfide/hazards|access-date=2021-09-27|website=www.osha.gov}}</ref> |
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**10 ] ]-Ceiling (]): recommended permissible exposure ceiling (the recommended level that must not be exceeded, except once for 10 min. in an 8-hour shift, if no other measurable exposure occurs) |
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**20 ppm ]-Ceiling (]): permissible exposure ceiling (the level that must not be exceeded, except once for 10 min. in an 8-hour shift, if no other measurable exposure occurs) |
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**50 ppm PEL-Peak (OSHA): peak permissible exposure (the level that must never be exceeded) |
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**100 ppm ] (NIOSH): immediately dangerous to life and health (the level that interferes with the ability to escape) |
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* 0.00047 ppm or 0.47 ] is the odor threshold, the point at which 50% of a human panel can detect the presence of an odor without being able to identify it.<ref name="IA State">{{cite web|author=Iowa State University Extension|date=May 2004|title=The Science of Smell Part 1: Odor perception and physiological response|url=http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM1963A.pdf|access-date=2012-06-20|work=PM 1963a}}</ref> |
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* 10–20 ppm is the borderline concentration for eye irritation. |
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* 50–100 ppm leads to eye damage. |
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* At 100–150 ppm the ] is paralyzed after a few inhalations, and the ], often together with awareness of danger.<ref>USEPA; Health and Environmental Effects Profile for Hydrogen Sulfide p.118-8 (1980) ECAO-CIN-026A</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Zenz |first1=C. |first2=O.B. |last2=Dickerson |first3=E.P. |last3=Horvath |title=Occupational Medicine. |edition= 3rd |location=St. Louis, MO. |date=1994 |page=886}}</ref> |
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* 320–530 ppm leads to ] with the possibility of death.<ref name="pmid23111938"/> |
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* 530–1000 ppm causes strong stimulation of the ] and rapid breathing, leading to loss of breathing. |
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* 800 ppm is the lethal concentration for 50% of humans for 5 minutes' exposure (]). |
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* Concentrations over 1000 ppm cause immediate collapse with loss of breathing, even after inhalation of a single breath. |
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====Treatment==== |
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Treatment involves immediate inhalation of ], injections of ], or administration of ] in combination with inhalation of pure oxygen, administration of ]s to overcome eventual ], and in some cases ] (HBOT).<ref name="pmid23111938"/> HBOT has clinical and anecdotal support.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gerasimon |first1=Gregg |last2=Bennett |first2=Steven |last3=Musser |first3=Jeffrey |last4=Rinard |first4=John |title=Acute hydrogen sulfide poisoning in a dairy farmer |journal=Clinical Toxicology |date=January 2007 |volume=45 |issue=4 |pages=420–423 |doi=10.1080/15563650601118010 |pmid=17486486 |s2cid=10952243 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1234517 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Belley |first1=R. |last2=Bernard |first2=N. |last3=Côté |first3=M |last4=Paquet |first4=F. |last5=Poitras |first5=J. |title=Hyperbaric oxygen therapy in the management of two cases of hydrogen sulfide toxicity from liquid manure |journal=CJEM |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=257–261 |date=July 2005 |pmid=17355683 |doi=10.1017/s1481803500014408 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hsu |first1=P |last2=Li |first2=H-W |last3=Lin |first3=Y-T |title=Acute hydrogen sulfide poisoning treated with hyperbaric oxygen. |journal=Journal of Hyperbaric Medicine |date=1987 |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=215–221 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/4354 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207074326/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/4354 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=December 7, 2008 }}</ref> |
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===Incidents=== |
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Hydrogen sulfide was used by the ] as a ] during ]. It was not considered to be an ideal war gas, partially due to its flammability and because the distinctive smell could be detected from even a small leak, alerting the enemy to the presence of the gas. It was nevertheless used on two occasions in 1916 when other gases were in short supply.<ref>{{cite book |
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| last = Foulkes |
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| first = Charles Howard |
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| author-link = Charles Foulkes (British Army officer) |
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| title = "Gas!" The story of the special brigade |
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| publisher = Published by Naval & Military P. |
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| year = 2001 |
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| orig-year = First published Blackwood & Sons, 1934 |
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| isbn = 978-1-84342-088-0 |
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| page = 105 }}</ref> |
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On September 2, 2005, a leak in the propeller room of a ] docked in ] resulted in the deaths of 3 crewmen due to a ] line leak. As a result, all such compartments are now required to have a ventilation system.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://publichealth.lacounty.gov/acd/reports/spclrpts/spcrpt05/DeathsHydrogenSulfide05.pdf |website=County of Los Angeles: Department of Public Health |title=LA County Department of Public Health |access-date=2017-06-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218043631/http://publichealth.lacounty.gov/Acd/reports/spclrpts/spcrpt05/DeathsHydrogenSulfide05.pdf |archive-date=2017-02-18 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Gas Kills 3 Crewmen on Ship |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2005-sep-03-me-port3-story.html |newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=2005-09-03 |last1=Becerra |first1=Hector |last2=Pierson |first2=David }}</ref> |
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A dump of toxic waste containing hydrogen sulfide is believed to have caused 17 deaths and thousands of illnesses in ], on the ] coast, in the ]. |
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In September 2008, three workers were killed and two suffered serious injury, including long term brain damage, at a mushroom growing company in ], ]. A valve to a pipe that carried chicken ], ] and ] to the compost fuel for the mushroom growing operation became clogged, and as workers unclogged the valve in a confined space without proper ventilation the hydrogen sulfide that had built up due to anaerobic decomposition of the material was released, poisoning the workers in the surrounding area.<ref>{{cite web|title=Details of Langley mushroom farm tragedy finally disclosed|url=https://www.abbynews.com/news/details-of-langley-mushroom-farm-tragedy-finally-disclosed/|first=Dan|last=Ferguson|publisher=]|date=September 16, 2011|access-date=April 13, 2020}}</ref> An investigator said there could have been more fatalities if the pipe had been fully cleared and/or if the wind had changed directions.<ref>{{cite news|title=Dozens could have died because of owner's negligence in B.C. mushroom farm incident: investigator|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/british-columbia/dozens-could-have-died-because-of-owners-negligence-in-bc-mushroom-farm-incident-investigator/article4106103/|work=]|publisher=]|first=Terri|last=Theodore|date=May 8, 2012|access-date=April 13, 2020}}</ref> |
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In 2014, levels of hydrogen sulfide as high as 83 ppm were detected at a recently built mall in ] called Siam Square One at the ] area. Shop tenants at the mall reported health complications such as sinus inflammation, breathing difficulties and eye irritation. After investigation it was determined that the large amount of gas originated from imperfect treatment and disposal of waste water in the building.<ref>{{cite web|title=Do not breathe: Dangerous, toxic gas found at Siam Square One|url=http://bangkok.coconuts.co/2014/10/21/do-not-breathe-dangerous-toxic-gas-found-siam-square-one|website=Coconuts Bangkok|publisher=] |access-date=20 November 2014|date=2014-10-21}}</ref> |
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In 2014, hydrogen sulfide gas killed workers at the Promenade shopping center in North ], USA <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/two-sewer-workers-die-apparently-due-to-toxic-fumes/ | title=Two sewer workers die, apparently due to toxic fumes - CBS News | website=] | date=26 August 2014 }}</ref> after climbing into 15ft deep chamber without wearing ]. "Arriving crews recorded high levels of ] and hydrogen sulfide coming out of the sewer." |
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In November 2014, a substantial amount of hydrogen sulfide gas shrouded the central, eastern and southeastern parts of ]. Residents living in the area were urged to stay indoors by the emergencies ministry. Although the exact source of the gas was not known, blame had been placed on a Moscow oil refinery.<ref>{{cite news|title=Russian capital Moscow shrouded in noxious gas|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-29990375|publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation|access-date=1 December 2014|work=BBC News|date=2014-11-10}}</ref> |
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In June 2016, a mother and her daughter were found dead in their still-running 2006 ] ] against a guardrail on ], initially thought to be victims of ].<ref>{{cite news |title=Sources: Mom, daughter found dead in Porsche likely died from carbon monoxide |url=https://www.wftv.com/news/local/sources-mom-daughter-found-dead-in-porsche-likely-died-from-carbon-monoxide/328786342/ |work=WFTV |date=7 June 2016 |quote=Both had red skin and rash-like symptoms, and had vomited, sources said. }}</ref><ref name="Salinger">{{cite news|last1=Salinger|first1=Tobias|title=Woman, girl died after inhaling hydrogen sulfide, coroners say|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/woman-girl-died-inhaling-hydrogen-sulfide-coroners-article-1.2817657|access-date=28 April 2017|work=]|date=4 October 2016}}</ref> Their deaths remained unexplained as the medical examiner waited for results of toxicology tests on the victims,<ref name="Lotan">{{cite news|last1=Lotan|first1=Gal Tziperman|title=Hydrogen sulfide inhalation killed mother, toddler found on Florida's Turnpike in June|url=http://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/breaking-news/os-latifa-lincoln-dead-hydrogen-sulfide-20161004-story.html|access-date=28 April 2017|work=]|date=4 October 2016}}</ref> until urine tests revealed that hydrogen sulfide was the cause of death. A report from the Orange-Osceola Medical Examiner's Office indicated that toxic fumes came from the Porsche's ], located under the front passenger seat.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.wesh.com/news/medical-examiner-confirms-suspected-cause-of-deaths-in-turnpike-mystery/41939954|title=Medical examiner confirms suspected cause of deaths in Turnpike mystery|last=Kealing|first=Bob|access-date=2016-10-04|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005164308/http://www.wesh.com/news/medical-examiner-confirms-suspected-cause-of-deaths-in-turnpike-mystery/41939954|archive-date=2016-10-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Bell|first1=Lisa|others=Produced by Donovan Myrie |title=Hidden car dangers you should be aware of|url=https://www.clickorlando.com/news/investigators/hidden-car-dangers-you-should-be-aware-of |website=ClickOrlando.com |publisher=]|access-date=28 April 2017|date=19 March 2017|quote=Porsche Cayennes, along with a few other vehicles, have their batteries in the passenger compartment.}}</ref> |
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In January 2017, three utility workers in ], died one by one within seconds of descending into a narrow space beneath a ] to check a section of paved street.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/amphtml/news/morning-mix/wp/2017/01/18/three-utility-workers-descend-to-their-deaths-in-florida-manhole-overcome-by-fumes/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118220358/https://www.washingtonpost.com/amphtml/news/morning-mix/wp/2017/01/18/three-utility-workers-descend-to-their-deaths-in-florida-manhole-overcome-by-fumes/|url-status=dead|archive-date=2017-01-18|title=One by one, 3 utility workers descended into a manhole. One by one, they died |website=www.washingtonpost.com}}</ref> In an attempt to save the men, a firefighter who entered the hole without his air tank (because he could not fit through the hole with it) collapsed within seconds and had to be rescued by a colleague.<ref name="Goodhue">{{cite news|last1=Goodhue|first1=David|title=Firefighter who tried to save 3 men in a manhole is fighting for his life|url=http://www.miamiherald.com/news/local/community/florida-keys/article126958804.html|access-date=28 April 2017|work=]|date=17 January 2017}}</ref> The firefighter was airlifted to ] and later recovered.<ref>{{cite news |title=Key Largo firefighter takes first steps since nearly getting killed |url=https://wsvn.com/news/local/key-largo-firefighter-takes-first-steps-since-nearly-getting-killed/ |work=WSVN |date=18 January 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Firefighter who survived Key Largo rescue attempt that killed 3 leaves hospital |url=https://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/florida/sfl-ap-key-largo-firefighter-recovering-20170126-story.html |work=Sun Sentinel |agency=The Associated Press |date=26 January 2017 }}</ref> A Monroe County Sheriff officer initially determined that the space contained hydrogen sulfide and ] gas produced by decomposing vegetation.<ref name="Rabin">{{cite news|last1=Rabin|first1=Charles|last2=Goodhue|first2=David|title=Three Keys utility workers die in wastewater trench|url=http://www.miamiherald.com/news/local/community/florida-keys/article126799319.html|access-date=28 April 2017|work=]|date=16 January 2017}}</ref> |
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On May 24, 2018, two workers were killed, another seriously injured, and 14 others hospitalized by hydrogen sulfide inhalation at a ] paper mill in ].<ref name="Clantar 2020">{{cite news |last=Clantar |first=Claire |title=Former Victorian paper mill fined $1 million after deaths of two workers |work=9News |date=25 Sep 2020 |url=https://www.9news.com.au/national/norske-skog-paper-mill-1-million-fine-after-deaths-of-two-employees/2320f231-debc-4ae4-9fae-e4933bbb9c8b |access-date=30 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s)/no by-line.--> |title=Two fatalities in suspected hydrogen sulfide gas leak at paper mill |work=Australian Institute of Health & Safety |date=31 May 2018 |url=https://www.aihs.org.au/news-and-publications/news/two-fatalities-in-suspected-hydrogen-sulfide-gas-leak-paper-mill |access-date=30 May 2021}}</ref> An investigation by ] found that the gas was released from a tank used to hold ]. The workers were exposed at the end of a 3-day maintenance period. Hydrogen sulfide had built up in an upstream tank, which had been left stagnant and untreated with ] during the maintenance period. These conditions allowed sulfate-reducing bacteria to grow in the upstream tank, as the water contained small quantities of ] and ]. The high rate of pumping from this tank into the tank involved in the incident caused hydrogen sulfide gas to escape from various openings around its top when pumping was resumed at the end of the maintenance period. The area above it was sufficiently enclosed for the gas to pool there, despite not being identified as a ] by Norske Skog. One of the workers who was killed was exposed while investigating an apparent fluid leak in the tank, while the other who was killed and the worker who was badly injured were attempting to rescue the first after he collapsed on top of it. In a resulting ], Norske Skog was accused of failing to ensure the health and safety of its workforce at the plant to a reasonably practicable extent. It pleaded guilty, and was fined AU$1,012,500 and ordered to fund the production of an anonymized educational video about the incident.<ref>{{cite news |last=Brescia |first=Paul |title=SafeWork investigating Norske Skog |work=Sprinter |date=28 May 2018 |url=https://www.sprinter.com.au/safework-investigating-norske-skog/ |access-date=30 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite court |litigants=SafeWork NSW v Norske Skog Paper Mills (Australia) Limited |court=] |reporter=NSWDC 559 |date=25 September 2020 |url=https://www.caselaw.nsw.gov.au/decision/174be35ee49dc41d188b23cd |access-date=30 May 2021}}</ref><ref name="Clantar 2020" /><ref>{{cite AV media |author=SafeWork NSW |author-link=Safe Work Australia |title=Incident Animation – Hazardous Gas |type=Motion picture |date=29 Mar 2021 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bo2XN43lXAc | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/bo2XN43lXAc| archive-date=2021-10-30|access-date=30 May 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref> |
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In October 2019, an ] employee of Aghorn Operating Inc. and his wife were killed due to a water pump failure. ] with a high concentration of hydrogen sulfide was released by the pump. The worker died while responding to an automated phone call he had received alerting him to a mechanical failure in the pump, while his wife died after driving to the facility to check on him.<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s)/no by-line.--> |title=Feds Probe Fatal 2019 Hydrogen Sulfide Release in Texas |work=Industrial Fire World |date=27 July 2020 |url=https://www.industrialfireworld.com/566266/feds-probe-fatal-2019-hydrogen-sulfide-release-in-texas |access-date=29 May 2021 }}</ref> A ] investigation cited lax safety practices at the facility, such as an informal ] procedure and a nonfunctioning hydrogen sulfide alert system.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.csb.gov/aghorn-operating-waterflood-station-hydrogen-sulfide-release-/ |title=Aghorn Operating Waterflood Station Hydrogen Sulfide Release |publisher=U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazardous Investigation Board |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=21 May 2021 |access-date=29 May 2021}}</ref> |
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===Suicides=== |
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The gas, produced by mixing certain household ingredients, was used in a ] wave in 2008 in Japan.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2009/03/japanese-deterg/|title=Dangerous Japanese 'Detergent Suicide' Technique Creeps Into U.S|date=March 13, 2009|magazine=Wired}}</ref> The wave prompted staff at Tokyo's ] center to set up a special hotline during "]", as they received an increase in calls from people wanting to kill themselves during the annual May holiday.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Namiki |first1=Noriko |title=Terrible Twist in Japan Suicide Spates |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Health/story?id=4908320 |work=ABC News |date=23 May 2008 }}</ref> |
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As of 2010, this phenomenon has occurred in a number of US cities, prompting warnings to those arriving at the site of the suicide.<ref>http://info.publicintelligence.net/LARTTAChydrogensulfide.pdf{{full citation needed|date=September 2020}}</ref><ref>http://info.publicintelligence.net/MAchemicalsuicide.pdf{{full citation needed|date=September 2020}}</ref><ref>http://info.publicintelligence.net/illinoisH2Ssuicide.pdf{{full citation needed|date=September 2020}}</ref><ref>http://info.publicintelligence.net/NYhydrogensulfide.pdf{{full citation needed|date=September 2020}}</ref><ref>http://info.publicintelligence.net/KCTEWhydrogensulfide.pdf{{full citation needed|date=September 2020}}</ref> These first responders, such as emergency services workers or family members are at risk of death or injury from inhaling the gas, or by fire.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chemical Suicide on Campus |website=www.maryland.gov |url=https://www.maryland.gov/Pages/default.aspx |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103193036/http://www.dhmh.maryland.gov/suicideprevention/safety%20alert.pdf|archivedate=January 3, 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Chemical Suicides |url=http://www.policemag.com/Channel/Patrol/Articles/Print/Story/2011/04/Duty-Dangers-Chemical-Suicides.aspx |last=Scoville |first=Dean |publisher=POLICE Magazine |date=April 2011 |access-date=2013-12-19}}</ref> Local governments have also initiated campaigns to prevent such suicides. |
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In 2020, {{chem2|H2S}} ingestion was used as a suicide method by Japanese pro wrestler ].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://comicbook.com/wwe/news/hana-kimura-cause-of-death-suicide-hydrogen-sulfide-suicide-wwe-stardom/ |title=Hana Kimura Cause Of Death Revealed |work=ComicBook.com |first=Connor |last=Casey |date=26 May 2020 |quote=More details about her death have since come to light, as Dave Meltzer provided details about what happened on the night of her death during a recent Wrestling Observer Radio. According to Meltzer, Kimura died after inhalation of hydrogen sulfide. He explained that concerns about her health first popped up when she posted a tweet early Saturday morning indicating that she was going to cause self-harm.}}</ref> |
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In 2024, Lucy-Bleu Knight, stepdaughter of famed musician ], also used {{chem2|H2S}} ingestion to commit suicide.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2492245/slashs-stepdaughters-cause-of-death-explained-by-medical-examiner |title=Slash's stepdaughter's cause of death explained by medical examiner|work=tribune.com.pk |date=30 August 2024 |access-date=2024-08-30}}</ref> |
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==Hydrogen sulfide in the natural environment== |
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===Microbial: The sulfur cycle=== |
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{{Anchor|Microbial|Sulfur cycle}} |
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{{main|Sulfur cycle}} |
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] on the bottom; its black colour is due to the presence of metal sulfides, the result of reactions with hydrogen sulfide produced by bacteria]] |
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Hydrogen sulfide is a central participant in the ], the ] of sulfur on Earth.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-94-017-9269-1_10 |chapter=Hydrogen Sulfide: A Toxic Gas Produced by Dissimilatory Sulfate and Sulfur Reduction and Consumed by Microbial Oxidation |title=The Metal-Driven Biogeochemistry of Gaseous Compounds in the Environment |series=Metal Ions in Life Sciences |year=2014 |last1=Barton |first1=Larry L. |last2=Fardeau |first2=Marie-Laure |last3=Fauque |first3=Guy D. |volume=14 |pages=237–277 |pmid=25416397 |isbn=978-94-017-9268-4 }}</ref> |
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In the absence of ], ] and ] bacteria derive energy from ] hydrogen or organic molecules by reducing elemental sulfur or sulfate to hydrogen sulfide. Other bacteria liberate hydrogen sulfide from sulfur-containing ]s; this gives rise to the odor of rotten eggs and contributes to the odor of ]. |
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As organic matter decays under low-oxygen (or ]) conditions (such as in swamps, ] lakes or ] of oceans), sulfate-reducing bacteria will use the sulfates present in the water to oxidize the organic matter, producing hydrogen sulfide as waste. Some of the hydrogen sulfide will react with metal ions in the water to produce metal sulfides, which are not water-soluble. These metal sulfides, such as ferrous sulfide FeS, are often black or brown, leading to the dark color of ]. |
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Several groups of bacteria can use hydrogen sulfide as fuel, oxidizing it to elemental sulfur or to sulfate by using dissolved oxygen, metal oxides (e.g., ] and ]s), or nitrate as electron acceptors.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jørgensen |first1=B. B. |first2=D. C. |last2=Nelson |date=2004 |chapter=Sulfide oxidation in marine sediments: Geochemistry meets microbiology |pages=36–81 |editor1-first=J. P. |editor1-last=Amend |editor2-first=K. J. |editor2-last=Edwards |editor3-first=T. W. |editor3-last=Lyons |title=Sulfur Biogeochemistry – Past and Present |publisher=Geological Society of America}}</ref> |
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The ] and the ] use hydrogen sulfide as an ] in ], thereby producing elemental sulfur. This mode of photosynthesis is older than the mode of ], ], and ]s, which uses water as electron donor and liberates oxygen. |
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The biochemistry of hydrogen sulfide is a key part of the chemistry of the ]. In this model of the ] on Earth, geologically produced hydrogen sulfide is postulated as an electron donor driving the reduction of carbon dioxide.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wächtershäuser |first1=G |title=Before enzymes and templates: theory of surface metabolism. |journal=Microbiological Reviews |date=December 1988 |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=452–484 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.52.4.452-484.1988 |pmid=3070320 |pmc=373159 }}</ref> |
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===Animals=== |
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Hydrogen sulfide is lethal to most animals, but a few highly specialized species (]s) do thrive in habitats that are rich in this compound.<ref name=Tobler2008>{{cite journal |last1=Tobler |first1=M |last2=Riesch |first2=R. |last3=García de León |first3=F. J. |last4=Schlupp |first4=I. |last5=Plath |first5=M. |date=2008 |title=Two endemic and endangered fishes, ''Poecilia sulphuraria'' (Álvarez, 1948) and ''Gambusia eurystoma'' Miller, 1975 (Poeciliidae, Teleostei) as only survivors in a small sulphidic habitat |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=523–533 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.2007.01716.x |bibcode=2008JFBio..72..523T |s2cid=27303725 }}</ref> |
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In the deep sea, ]s and ]s with high levels of hydrogen sulfide are home to a number of extremely specialized lifeforms, ranging from bacteria to fish.{{which|date=June 2015}}<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bernardino|first1=Angelo F. |last2=Levin|first2=Lisa A. |last3=Thurber|first3=Andrew R. |last4=Smith|first4=Craig R. |date=2012 |title=Comparative Composition, Diversity and Trophic Ecology of Sediment Macrofauna at Vents, Seeps and Organic Falls. |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=7|issue=4|page=e33515|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0033515 |pmid=22496753 |pmc=3319539|bibcode=2012PLoSO...733515B|doi-access=free }}</ref> Because of the absence of sunlight at these depths, these ecosystems rely on ] rather than ].<ref>{{cite web|work=Marine Society of Australia|url=http://www.mesa.edu.au/deep_sea/hydrothermal_vents.asp|title=Hydrothermal Vents|access-date=28 December 2014}}</ref> |
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Freshwater springs rich in hydrogen sulfide are mainly home to invertebrates, but also include a small number of fish: '']'' (a ] from Mexico), '']'' (a ] from the ]), '']'' (a poeciliid from Mexico), and a few '']'' (poeciliids from Mexico).<ref name=Tobler2008/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Palacios|first1=Maura |last2=Arias-Rodríguez|first2=Lenín |last3=Plath|first3=Martin |last4=Eifert|first4=Constanze |last5=Lerp|first5=Hannes |last6=Lamboj|first6=Anton |last7=Voelker |first7=Gary|last8=Tobler|first8=Michael |date=2013 |title=The Rediscovery of a Long Described Species Reveals Additional Complexity in Speciation Patterns of Poeciliid Fishes in Sulfide Springs.|journal=PLOS ONE |volume=8|issue=8 |page=e71069|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0071069 |pmid=23976979 |pmc=3745397|bibcode=2013PLoSO...871069P|doi-access=free }}</ref> Invertebrates and microorganisms in some cave systems, such as ], are adapted to high levels of hydrogen sulfide.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kumaresan |first1=Deepak |last2=Wischer |first2=Daniela |last3=Stephenson |first3=Jason |last4=Hillebrand-Voiculescu |first4=Alexandra |last5=Murrell |first5=J. Colin |title=Microbiology of Movile Cave—A Chemolithoautotrophic Ecosystem |journal=Geomicrobiology Journal |date=16 March 2014 |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=186–193 |doi=10.1080/01490451.2013.839764 |bibcode=2014GmbJ...31..186K |s2cid=84472119 }}</ref> |
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===Interstellar and planetary occurrence=== |
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Hydrogen sulfide has often been detected in the interstellar medium.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Despois |first1=D. |title=Radio Line Observations Of Molecular And Isotopic Species In Comet C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp) |journal=Earth, Moon, and Planets |date=1997 |volume=79 |issue=1/3 |pages=103–124 |doi=10.1023/A:1006229131864 |bibcode=1997EM&P...79..103D |s2cid=118540103 }}</ref> It also occurs in the clouds of planets in our solar system.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Irwin |first1=Patrick G. J. |last2=Toledo |first2=Daniel |last3=Garland |first3=Ryan |last4=Teanby |first4=Nicholas A. |last5=Fletcher |first5=Leigh N. |last6=Orton |first6=Glenn A. |last7=Bézard |first7=Bruno |title=Detection of hydrogen sulfide above the clouds in Uranus's atmosphere |journal=Nature Astronomy |date=May 2018 |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=420–427 |doi=10.1038/s41550-018-0432-1 |bibcode=2018NatAs...2..420I |hdl=2381/42547 |s2cid=102775371 |url=https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/en/publications/detection-of-hydrogen-sulfide-above-the-clouds-in-uranuss-atmosphere(099d2fdd-8d3d-4e78-b009-bebffdece302).html |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name=lissauer2019>{{Cite book |title=Fundamental Planetary Sciences : physics, chemistry, and habitability |last1=Lissauer|first1=Jack J. |last2=de Pater|first2=Imke |year=2019 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=149–152|isbn=9781108411981 |location=New York, NY, USA }}{{page needed|date=September 2020}}</ref> |
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===Mass extinctions=== |
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{{main|Anoxic event}} |
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Hydrogen sulfide has been implicated in several ] that have occurred in the Earth's past. In particular, a buildup of hydrogen sulfide in the atmosphere may have caused, or at least contributed to, the ] 252 million years ago.<ref name="sciam" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lamarque |first1=J.-F. |last2=Kiehl |first2=J. T. |last3=Orlando |first3=J. J. |date=16 January 2007 |title=Role of hydrogen sulfide in a Permian-Triassic boundary ozone collapse |journal=] |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=1–4 |doi=10.1029/2006GL028384 |bibcode=2007GeoRL..34.2801L |s2cid=55812439 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Kump2005>{{cite journal |last1=Kump |first1=Lee |last2=Pavlov |first2=Alexander |first3=Michael A. |last3=Arthur |title=Massive release of hydrogen sulfide to the surface ocean and atmosphere during intervals of oceanic anoxia |journal=] |date=1 May 2005 |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=397–400 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/253144294 |doi=10.1130/G21295.1 |bibcode=2005Geo....33..397K |access-date=2 April 2023}}</ref> |
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Organic residues from these extinction boundaries indicate that the oceans were anoxic (oxygen-depleted) and had species of shallow plankton that metabolized {{chem2|H2S}}. The formation of {{chem2|H2S}} may have been initiated by massive volcanic eruptions, which emitted ] and ] into the atmosphere, which warmed the oceans, lowering their capacity to absorb oxygen that would otherwise oxidize {{chem2|H2S}}. The increased levels of hydrogen sulfide could have killed oxygen-generating plants as well as depleted the ozone layer, causing further stress. Small {{chem2|H2S}} blooms have been detected in modern times in the ] and in the ] off the coast of ].<ref name="sciam">{{cite magazine|url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=00037A5D-A938-150E-A93883414B7F0000&sc=I100322|title=Impact from the Deep|magazine=Scientific American | date = October 2006 }}</ref> |
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==See also== |
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<!-- Please respect alphabetical order --> |
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* {{Annotated link|Hydrogen chalcogenide}} |
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* ] |
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* ] |
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* {{Annotated link|Sewer gas}} |
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* {{Annotated link|Targeted temperature management|aka=induced hypothermia}} |
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==References== |
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{{Reflist|30em}} |
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== Additional resources == |
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*{{cite book|title=Hydrogen Sulfide|author=Committee on Medical and Biological Effects of Environmental Pollutants|publisher=University Park Press|date=1979|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-0-8391-0127-7}} |
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*{{cite thesis|degree=MS|last=Siefers|first=Andrea|title=A novel and cost-effective hydrogen sulfide removal technology using tire derived rubber particles|publisher=Iowa State University|year=2010|url=http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/etd/11281/|access-date=8 February 2013}} |
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