| Revision as of 12:12, 29 July 2011 editCheMoBot (talk | contribs)Bots141,565 edits Updating {{chembox}} (changes to watched fields - updated 'UNII_Ref', 'ChemSpiderID_Ref', 'StdInChI_Ref', 'StdInChIKey_Ref', 'ChEMBL_Ref', 'KEGG_Ref') per Chem/Drugbox validation (report [[Wikipe |
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{{short description|Type of aviation fuel}} |
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{{About|aviation turbine fuel|the chain of European fuel stations|Jet (brand)}} |
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{{Chembox |
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| verifiedrevid = 442030870 |
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| Name = |
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| verifiedrevid = 441969054 |
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| ImageFile = |
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| ImageFile = Aircraft being fueled by tanker.jpg |
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| ImageSize = 250px |
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| ImageAlt = An ] of ] (OK-WAA) being fueled at ] |
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| ImageCaption = An Airbus ] of ] being fueled at ] |
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| OtherNames = |
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| SystematicName = |
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| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers |
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| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers |
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| CASNo = 70892-11-4 |
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| CASNo1 = 8008-20-6 |
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| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} |
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| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} |
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| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} |
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| CASNo_Comment = (fuel oil no. 5) |
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| CASNo1 = 8008-20-6 |
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| UNII = 1C89KKC04E |
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| CASNo1_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} |
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| CASNo1_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} |
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| CASNo1_Comment = (kerosene) |
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| CASNo1_Comment = (kerosene, also called fuel oil no. 1) |
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| CASNo2 = 64742-47-8 |
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| CASNo2_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} |
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| CASNo2_Comment = (Aviation Kerosene) |
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| ChemSpiderID = None |
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}} |
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| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties |
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| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties |
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| Appearance = Yellow liquid |
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| Appearance = Straw-colored liquid |
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| Density = 0.81 kg/L |
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| Density = 775-840 g/L |
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| MeltingPtC = -47.8 |
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| MeltingPtC = -47<!-- assumed to be C --> |
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| BoilingPtC = 176 |
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| BoilingPtC = 176 |
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| Solubility = }} |
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| Solubility = }} |
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| Section3 = {{Chembox Hazards |
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| Section3 = {{Chembox Hazards |
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| MainHazards = |
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| MainHazards = |
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| ExternalSDS = |
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| ExternalMSDS = |
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| FlashPtC = 38 |
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| FlashPt = {{convert|60|C|F}} |
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| AutoignitionPtC = 210 |
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| Autoignition = |
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| NFPA-H = 2 |
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| NFPA-H = 2 |
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| NFPA-F = 2 |
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| NFPA-F = 2 |
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| NFPA-R = 0 }} |
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| NFPA-R = 0 }} |
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| Section4 = |
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'''Jet fuel''' or '''aviation turbine fuel''' ('''ATF''', also abbreviated '''avtur''') is a type of ] designed for use in ] powered by ]. It is colorless to straw-colored in appearance. The most commonly used fuels for commercial aviation are Jet A and Jet A-1, which are produced to a standardized international specification. The only other jet fuel commonly used in civilian turbine-engine powered aviation is Jet B, which is used for its enhanced cold-weather performance. |
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'''JP-5''' or '''JP5''' (for "Jet Propellant") is a yellow, ]-based ] developed in 1952 for use in aircraft stationed aboard ]s, where the risk from fire is particularly great. JP-5 is a complex mixture of ]s, containing ]s, ]s, and ]s that weighs {{convert|6.8|lb/U.S.gal|kg/L}} and has a high ] (min. {{convert|60|°C|°F|sigfig=2|disp=or}}).<ref> Marine Corps Schools Detachment - Ft. Leonard Wood</ref> It is the primary jet fuel for most navies.{{fact|date=October 2010}} |
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Jet fuel is a mixture of a variety of ]s. Because the exact composition of jet fuel varies widely based on petroleum source, it is impossible to define jet fuel as a ratio of specific hydrocarbons. Jet fuel is therefore defined as a performance specification rather than a chemical compound.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mindex-ltd.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/91-91-issue-7-AMD-3-2.pdf |title=Ministry of Defence Standard 91-91: Turbine Fuel, Kerosine Type, Jet A-1 |author=Defence Standards |page=1 |access-date=2019-01-27 |archive-date=2022-03-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307202110/http://mindex-ltd.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/91-91-issue-7-AMD-3-2.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Furthermore, the range of molecular mass between hydrocarbons (or different carbon numbers) is defined by the requirements for the product, such as the freezing point or smoke point. ]-type jet fuel (including Jet A and Jet A-1, JP-5, and JP-8) has a ] distribution between about 8 and 16 (carbon atoms per molecule); wide-cut or ]-type jet fuel (including Jet B and JP-4), between about 5 and 15.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cgabusinessdesk.com/document/aviation_tech_review.pdf |title=Aviation Fuels Technical Review |author=Chevron Products Corporation |access-date=2014-05-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907173111/https://www.cgabusinessdesk.com/document/aviation_tech_review.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-07 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=Rand2010>Salvatore J. Rand (ed), ''Significance of Tests for Petroleum Products (8th Edition)'' ASTM International, 2010, {{ISBN|978-1-61583-673-4}} page 88</ref> |
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] |
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==History== |
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The ] and JP-5 fuels, covered by the MIL-DTL-5624 U Specification, are intended for use in aircraft ]s. These fuels require military-unique additives that are necessary in military ]s, engines, and missions. |
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Fuel for ] powered aircraft (usually a high-] ] known as ]) has a high ] to improve its ] characteristics and high ] to prevent ] in high compression aircraft engines. Turbine engines (as with ]s) can operate with a wide range of fuels because fuel is injected into the hot combustion chamber. Jet and ] (], ]) aircraft engines typically use lower cost fuels with higher ]s, which are less flammable and therefore safer to transport and handle. |
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The first ] jet engine in widespread production and combat service, the ] used on the ] fighter and the ] jet recon-bomber, burned either a special synthetic "J2" fuel or diesel fuel. Gasoline was a third option but unattractive due to high fuel consumption.<ref>{{cite web | title = Summary of Debriefing of German pilot Hans Fey | publisher = Zenos' Warbird Video Drive-In | url = http://www.zenoswarbirdvideos.com/Images/Me262/ME262PILOTDEBRIEF.pdf }}</ref> Other fuels used were kerosene or kerosene and gasoline mixtures. |
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JP-5's flash point is substantially higher than ] turbine fuels, an important advantage because it is stored in large quantities on aircraft carriers and support vessels. Its freezing point is {{convert|−46|°C|F}}. It does not contain ]s. |
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==Other names== |
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==Standards== |
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Most jet fuels in use since the end of World War II are kerosene-based. Both British and American standards for jet fuels were first established at the end of World War II. British standards derived from standards for kerosene use for lamps—known as paraffin in the UK—whereas American standards derived from aviation gasoline practices. Over the subsequent years, details of specifications were adjusted, such as minimum freezing point, to balance performance requirements and availability of fuels. Very low temperature ] reduce the availability of fuel. Higher ] products required for use on aircraft carriers are more expensive to produce.<ref name=Rand2010/> In the United States, ] produces standards for civilian fuel types, and the ] produces standards for military use. The ] establishes standards for both civil and military jet fuels.<ref name=Rand2010/> For reasons of inter-operational ability, British and United States military standards are harmonized to a degree. In Russia and the ] members, grades of jet fuels are covered by the State Standard (]) number, or a Technical Condition number, with the principal grade available being TS-1. |
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Other names for JP-5 are: '''NCI-C54784''', '''Fuel oil no. 5''', '''Residual oil no. 5'''. |
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== Types == |
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JP-5's NATO code is '''F-44'''. It is also called '''AVCAT''' fuel for '''Av'''iation '''ca'''rrier '''t'''urbine fuel.<ref></ref> It is specified by MIL-DTL-5624 U (TURBINE FUEL, AVIATION, GRADES JP-4 AND JP-5), last issued on 2004, and meets the British Specification DEF STAN 91-86 AVCAT/] (formerly DERD 2452). |
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=== Jet A/A-1 === |
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] Jet A-1 refueller truck on the ramp at ]. Note the signs indicating ] hazardous material and JET A-1.]] |
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] ] being fueled at ]]] |
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] ] being fueled at ]]] |
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Jet A specification fuel has been used in the United States since the 1950s and is usually not available outside the United States<ref name="shelljet">{{Cite web|url=https://www.shell.com.au/business-customers/lubricants-for-business/aviation-lubricants.html|title=Aviation Lubricants|website=www.shell.com.au}}</ref> and a few Canadian airports such as ], ], and ],<ref>{{CFS}}</ref> whereas Jet A-1 is the standard specification fuel used in most of the rest of the world,{{efn| The Chinese RP-3 jet fuel standard is very similar to Jet A-1 fuel.<ref></ref><ref>{{Cite web |
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|title=3号喷气燃料|url=https://std.samr.gov.cn/gb/search/gbDetailed?id=71F772D82B66D3A7E05397BE0A0AB82A}}</ref>}} the main exceptions being Russia and the ] members, where TS-1 fuel type is the most common standard. Both Jet A and Jet A-1 have a ] higher than {{Convert|38|C}}, with an ] of {{Convert|210|C}}.<ref name="exxonmobil.com">{{Cite web |
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|title=World Jet Fuel Specifications with Avgas Supplement: 2005 Edition |
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|author=ExxonMobil Aviation |
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|url=http://www.exxonmobil.com/AviationGlobal/Files/WorldJetFuelSpecifications2005.pdf |
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|date=April 9, 2016 |
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|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409022632/http://www.exxonmobil.com/AviationGlobal/Files/WorldJetFuelSpecifications2005.pdf|archive-date=2016-04-09}}</ref> |
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=== Differences between Jet A and Jet A-1 === |
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The differences between Jet A and Jet A-1 are twofold. The primary difference is the lower freezing point of Jet A-1 fuel:<ref name="shelljet"/> |
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* Jet A's is {{Convert|−40|C}} |
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* Jet A-1's is {{convert|−47|C}} |
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The other difference is the mandatory addition of an ] to Jet A-1 fuel. |
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Jet A and Jet A-1 fuel trucks and storage tanks, as well as plumbing that carries them, are all marked "Jet A" or "Jet A-1" in white italicized text within a black rectangle background, adjacent to one or two diagonal black stripes.{{cn|date=August 2024}} |
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=== Typical physical properties for Jet A and Jet A-1 === |
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Jet A-1 fuel must meet: |
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* DEF STAN 91-91 (Jet A-1), |
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* ASTM specification D1655 (Jet A-1), and |
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* IATA Guidance Material (Kerosene Type), NATO Code F-35. |
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Jet A fuel must reach ASTM specification D1655 (Jet A).<ref name="Csgnetwork.com"> |
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{{cite web |
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| title= Aviation Fuel — Jet Fuel Information |
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| publisher= Csgnetwork.com |
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| date= 2004-01-05 |
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| url= http://www.csgnetwork.com/jetfuel.html |
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| access-date= 2010-11-28 |
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}} |
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</ref> |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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|- |
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|+Typical physical properties for Jet A / Jet A-1<ref>{{cite web |title=Handbook of Products |publisher=Air BP |url=http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/aviation/air_bp/STAGING/local_assets/downloads_pdfs/a/air_bp_products_handbook_04004_1.pdf |
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|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608075828/http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/aviation/air_bp/STAGING/local_assets/downloads_pdfs/a/air_bp_products_handbook_04004_1.pdf |archive-date=2011-06-08 |pages=11–13 |
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}} |
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</ref> |
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! ||style="text-align:center;"| Jet A-1 ||style="text-align:center;"| Jet A |
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!] |
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|colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| {{Convert|38|C}} |
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!] |
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|colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| {{Convert|210|C}}<ref name="exxonmobil.com"/> |
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|- |
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!] |
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|style="text-align:center;"| {{convert|−47|C}} |
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|style="text-align:center;"| {{Convert|−40|C}} |
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!Max ] burn temperature |
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|colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| {{Convert|2230|C|F}} <br />open air burn temperature: {{convert|1890 |F|order=flip}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://webserver.dmt.upm.es/~isidoro/dat1/eCombus.pdf |title=FUEL DATA FOR COMBUSTION WITH AIR |date=2014 |publisher=Isidoro Martínez Prof. of Thermodynamics, Ciudad Universitaria |access-date=2014-05-09 |archive-date=2014-05-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140501214532/http://webserver.dmt.upm.es/~isidoro/dat1/eCombus.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://papers.sae.org/2012-01-1199/ |chapter=Performance of JP-8 Unified Fuel in a Small Bore Indirect Injection Diesel Engine for APU Applications |date=January 2012 |publisher=SAE International |access-date=2014-05-09|doi=10.4271/2012-01-1199 |title=SAE Technical Paper Series |volume=1 |last1=Soloiu |first1=Valentin |last2=Covington |first2=April |last3=Lewis |first3=Jeff |last4=Duggan |first4=Marvin |last5=Lobue |first5=James |last6=Jansons |first6=Marcis }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://aviationsafetyadvisorygroup.org/projects-initiatives/resource-guide-to-aircraft-fire-fighting-rescue/ |title=Resource Guide To Aircraft Fire Fighting & Rescue |date=2014 |publisher=Aviation Safety Advisory Group of Arizona, Inc. |access-date=2014-05-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512215400/http://aviationsafetyadvisorygroup.org/projects-initiatives/resource-guide-to-aircraft-fire-fighting-rescue/ |archive-date=2014-05-12 }}</ref> |
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!] at {{Convert|15|C}} |
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| {{Convert|0.804|kg/L|abbr=on}} |
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| {{Convert|0.820|kg/L|abbr=on}} |
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!] |
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| {{Cvt|43.15|MJ/kg|kWh/kg}} |
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| {{Cvt|43.02|MJ/kg|kWh/kg}} |
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!] |
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| {{Cvt|34.7|MJ/L|kWh/L}}<ref>{{Citation |url=http://ftp.nirb.ca/01-SCREENINGS/COMPLETED%20SCREENINGS/2016/16XN003-GN-CGS-Tank%20Farm%20Expansion/01-APPLICATION/160204-16XN003-Petroleum%20Products%20Strored%20and%20Dispensed-IA2E.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116182103/http://ftp.nirb.ca/01-SCREENINGS/COMPLETED%20SCREENINGS/2016/16XN003-GN-CGS-Tank%20Farm%20Expansion/01-APPLICATION/160204-16XN003-Petroleum%20Products%20Strored%20and%20Dispensed-IA2E.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 January 2017 |access-date=15 January 2017 |title=Characteristics of Petroleum Products Stored and Dispensed |page=132 |publisher=Petroleum Products Division - GN }}</ref> <!-- 43.15 * .804 --> |
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| {{Cvt|35.3|MJ/L|kWh/L}}<!-- 43.02 * .82 --> |
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=== Jet B === |
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Jet B is a naphtha-kerosene fuel that is used for its enhanced cold-weather performance. However, Jet B's lighter composition makes it more dangerous to handle.<ref name="Csgnetwork.com"/> For this reason, it is rarely used, except in very cold climates. A blend of approximately 30% kerosene and 70% gasoline, it is known as wide-cut fuel. It has a very low freezing point of {{Convert|-60|C}}, and a low ] as well. It is primarily used in northern ] and ], where the extreme cold makes its low freezing point necessary, and which helps mitigate the danger of its lower flash point. |
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=== TS-1 === |
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TS-1 is a jet fuel made to Russian standard ] for enhanced cold-weather performance. It has somewhat higher volatility than Jet A-1 (flash point is {{Convert|28|C}} minimum). It has a very low freezing point, below {{Convert|-50|C}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Aviation Jet Fuel |url=https://www.worldoiltraders.com/jet-a1/ |website=World Oil Traders |access-date=21 August 2019 |archive-date=21 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190821204723/https://www.worldoiltraders.com/jet-a1/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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==Additives== |
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The DEF STAN 91-091 (UK) and ASTM D1655 (international) specifications allow for certain additives to be added to jet fuel, including:<ref name="DEF_STAN_91-91">{{citation |url=http://www.dstan.mod.uk/standards/defstans/91/091/00000600.pdf |title=Turbine Fuel, Aviation Kerosine Type, Jet A-1 NATO Code: F-35 Joint Service Designation: AVTUR |edition= 25 August 2008 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100814170713/http%3A//www.dstan.mod.uk/standards/defstans/91/091/00000600.pdf |archive-date=2010-08-14 |id=] Standard 91-91 |issue=6 |date= 8 April 2008}}</ref><ref name="ASTM_D1655">, ASTM D1655-09a (2010). ], ], United States.</ref> |
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* ]s to prevent gumming, usually based on ] ]s, e.g., AO-30, AO-31, or AO-37; |
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* ]s, to dissipate ] and prevent sparking; ], with ] (DINNSA) as a component, is an example |
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* ]s, e.g., ] used for civilian and military fuels, and ] used for military fuels; |
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* ] (FSII) agents, e.g., ] (Di-EGME); FSII is often mixed at the point-of-sale so that users with heated fuel lines do not have to pay the extra expense. |
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* ]s are to remediate microbial (i.e., bacterial and fungal) growth present in aircraft fuel systems. Two biocides were previously approved for use by most aircraft and turbine engine ]s (OEMs); Kathon FP1.5 Microbiocide and Biobor JF.<ref name="Lombardo">{{citation |url=http://www.ainonline.com/ain-and-ainalerts/aviation-international-news/single-publication-story/browse/0/article/fuel-quality-evaluation-requires-pilot-vigilance-1963/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews |last= Lombardo |first=David A. |title=Fuel-quality evaluation requires pilot vigilance |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430043732/http://www.ainonline.com/ain-and-ainalerts/aviation-international-news/single-publication-story/browse/0/article/fuel-quality-evaluation-requires-pilot-vigilance-1963/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews |archive-date=2011-04-30 |work=Aviation International News |date= July 2005}}</ref> Biobor JF is currently the only biocide available for aviation use. Kathon was discontinued by the manufacturer due to several airworthiness incidents. Kathon is now banned from use in aviation fuel.<ref>{{cite report |author=Jetstar Airways PTY LTD. |date=25 June 2020 |title=Aircraft Serious Incident Investigation Report |url=https://www.biobor.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Jetstar-investigation.pdf |publisher=Japan Transport Safety Board}}</ref> |
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* ] can be added to reduce the negative effects of ]s on the thermal stability of the fuel. The one allowable additive is the chelating agent ] (''N,N′''-bis(salicylidene)-1,2-propanediamine). |
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As the aviation industry's jet kerosene demands have increased to more than 5% of all refined products derived from crude, |
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it has been necessary for the refiner to optimize the yield of jet kerosene, a high-value product, by varying process techniques. |
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New processes have allowed flexibility in the choice of crudes, the use of coal tar sands as a source of molecules and the |
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manufacture of synthetic blend stocks. Due to the number and severity of the processes used, it is often necessary and |
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sometimes mandatory to use additives. These additives may, for example, prevent the formation of harmful chemical species |
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or improve a property of a fuel to prevent further engine wear. |
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==Water in jet fuel== |
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It is very important that jet fuel be free from water ]. During flight, the temperature of the fuel in the tanks decreases, due to the low temperatures in the upper ]. This causes precipitation of the dissolved water from the fuel. The separated water then drops to the bottom of the tank, because it is denser than the fuel. Since the water is no longer in solution, it can form droplets which can supercool to below 0 °C (32 °F). If these supercooled droplets collide with a surface they can freeze and may result in blocked fuel inlet pipes.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.fuel.2010.08.018 |last=Murray |first=B.J.|year=2011 |title=Supercooling of water droplets in jet aviation fuel |journal=Fuel |volume=90 |issue=1 |pages=433–435 |bibcode=2011Fuel...90..433M |display-authors=etal}}</ref> This was the cause of the ] accident. Removing all water from fuel is impractical; therefore, fuel heaters are usually used on commercial aircraft to prevent water in fuel from freezing. |
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There are several methods for detecting water in jet fuel. A visual check may detect high concentrations of suspended water, as this will cause the fuel to become hazy in appearance. An industry standard chemical test for the detection of free water in jet fuel uses a water-sensitive filter pad that turns green if the fuel exceeds the specification limit of 30 ppm (parts per million) free water.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.shell.com/home/content/aviation/products/shell_water_detector/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219150959/http://www.shell.com/home/content/aviation/products/shell_water_detector/|title=The Shell Water Detector|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 19, 2012}}</ref> A critical test to rate the ability of jet fuel to release emulsified water when passed through coalescing filters is ASTM standard D3948 Standard Test Method for Determining Water Separation Characteristics of Aviation Turbine Fuels by Portable Separometer. |
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==Military jet fuels== |
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{{Redirect-multi|3|JP-1|JP-2|JP-3|other uses|JP1 (disambiguation)|and|JP2 (disambiguation)|the movie|Jurassic Park III}} |
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] |
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Military organizations around the world use a different classification system of JP (for "Jet Propellant") numbers. Some are almost identical to their civilian counterparts and differ only by the amounts of a few additives; Jet A-1 is similar to ], Jet B is similar to ].<ref name="shell">{{cite web |url=http://www.shell.com/content/dam/shell/static/aviation/downloads/AeroShell-Book/aeroshell-book-2fuels.pdf |title=Shell Aviation Fuels |work=shell.com |publisher=Shell Oil Company |pages=4 |access-date=27 November 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141219050306/http://www.shell.com/content/dam/shell/static/aviation/downloads/AeroShell-Book/aeroshell-book-2fuels.pdf |archive-date=19 December 2014 }}</ref> Other military fuels are highly specialized products and are developed for very specific applications. |
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{{anchor|JP-1}} |
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;JP-1 |
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:was an early jet fuel<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120420064213/http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Evolution_of_Technology/fuel/Tech21.htm |date=2012-04-20 }} - US Centennial of Flight Commission, Retrieved 3 January 2012</ref> specified in 1944 by the United States government (AN-F-32). It was a pure kerosene fuel with high ] (relative to aviation gasoline) and a freezing point of {{Convert|−60|C}}. The low freezing point requirement limited availability of the fuel and it was soon superseded by other "wide cut" jet fuels which were kerosene-naphtha or kerosene-gasoline blends. It was also known as '''avtur'''. |
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{{anchor|JP-2}} |
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;JP-2 |
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:an obsolete type developed during World War II. JP-2 was intended to be easier to produce than JP-1 since it had a higher freezing point, but was never widely used.<ref name="Beyond 1994">], ''Mach 1 and Beyond: The Illustrated Guide to High-Speed Flight'', (McGraw-Hill Professional, 1994), {{ISBN|0070520216}}, page 104</ref> |
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{{anchor|JP-3}} |
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;JP-3 |
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:was an attempt to improve availability of the fuel compared to JP-1 by widening the cut and loosening tolerances on impurities to ensure ready supply. In his book ''Ignition! An Informal History of Liquid Rocket Propellants'', ] described the specification as, "remarkably liberal, with a wide cut (range of distillation temperatures) and with such permissive limits on olefins and aromatics that any refinery above the level of a Kentucky ]<nowiki/>r's pot still could convert at least half of any crude to jet fuel".<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=John D |author-link=John Drury Clark |date=1972 |title=Ignition! An Informal History of Liquid Rocket Propellants |location=New Brunswick, New Jersey |publisher=Rutgers University Press |page=33 |isbn=0-8135-0725-1 }}</ref> It was even more volatile than JP-2 and had high evaporation loss in service.<ref name="Beyond 1994"/> |
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{{anchor|JP-4}} |
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;] |
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:was a 50-50 kerosene-gasoline blend. It had lower ] than JP-1, but was preferred because of its greater availability. It was the primary ] jet fuel between 1951 and 1995. Its ] code is '''F-40'''. It is also known as '''avtag'''. |
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{{anchor|JP-5}} |
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;JP-5 |
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:is a yellow kerosene-based jet fuel developed in 1952 for use in aircraft stationed aboard ]s, where the risk from fire is particularly great. JP-5 is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, containing ]s, ]s, and ]s that weighs {{convert|6.8|lb/U.S.gal|kg/L}} and has a high ] (min. {{convert|60|C|sigfig=2|disp=or}}).<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070126005424/http://mcdetflw.tecom.usmc.mil/MTIC/VRC.SNCOIC/M970/CHAR.FUELS.SLP.doc |date=2007-01-26 }} Marine Corps Schools Detachment — Ft. Leonard Wood</ref> Because some US ]s, Marine Corps air stations and Coast Guard air stations host both sea and land based naval aircraft, these installations will also typically fuel their shore-based aircraft with JP-5, thus precluding the need to maintain separate fuel facilities for JP-5 and non-JP-5 fuel. Chinese also named their navy fuel RP-5.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://xueshu.baidu.com/usercenter/paper/show?paperid=1565003910f013e0a8c676b0836784ef | doi=10.3969/j.issn.1674-3407.2014.01.014 | title=Rp-3和Rp-5煤油对飞机动力装置和燃油系统试飞的影响 | journal=工程与试验 | date=2014 | issue=1 | pages=49–51 }}</ref> Its freezing point is {{convert|−46|C}}. It does not contain antistatic agents. JP-5 is also known as NCI-C54784. JP-5's NATO code is '''F-44'''. It is also called '''AVCAT''' fuel for '''Av'''iation '''Ca'''rrier '''T'''urbine fuel.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050517163529/http://www.dstan.mod.uk/data/23/008/00000200.pdf |date=2005-05-17 }}</ref> |
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:The JP-4 and JP-5 fuels, covered by the MIL-DTL-5624 and meeting the British Specification DEF STAN 91-86 AVCAT/] (formerly DERD 2452),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.epc.shell.com/Docs/GPCDOC_Fuels_Local_TDS_Aviation_Fuels_TDS_-_F-44_-_Military_Aviation_Kerosine.pdf|title=Shell Fuels Technical Data Sheet - F-44|access-date=2012-05-11|archive-date=2013-07-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130718215253/http://www.epc.shell.com/Docs/GPCDOC_Fuels_Local_TDS_Aviation_Fuels_TDS_-_F-44_-_Military_Aviation_Kerosine.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> are intended for use in aircraft ]s. These fuels require unique additives that are necessary for military aircraft and engine fuel systems. |
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{{anchor|JP-6}} |
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;JP-6 |
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:was developed for the ] afterburning ] engines used in the ] for sustained flight at Mach 3. It was similar to JP-5 but with a lower freezing point and improved thermal oxidative stability. When the XB-70 program was cancelled, the JP-6 specification, MIL-J-25656, was also cancelled.<ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018042938/http://www.bp.com/sectiongenericarticle.do?categoryId=4503664&contentId=57733 |date=October 18, 2012 }} Air BP</ref> |
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{{anchor|JP-7}} |
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;] |
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:was developed for the ] afterburning ] engines used in the ] for sustained flight at Mach 3+. It had a high ] required to prevent boiloff caused by aerodynamic heating. Its thermal stability was high enough to prevent coke and varnish deposits when used as a heat-sink for aircraft air conditioning and hydraulic systems and engine accessories.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sr-71.org/blackbird/manual/1/1-4.php|title=SR-71 Online - SR-71 Flight Manual: Section 1, Page 1-4|website=www.sr-71.org}}</ref> |
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{{anchor |JP-8}} |
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;] |
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:is a jet fuel, specified and used widely by the ]. It is specified by MIL-DTL-83133 and British Defence Standard 91-87. JP-8 is a kerosene-based fuel, projected to remain in use at least until 2025. The United States military uses JP-8 as a "universal fuel" in both turbine-powered aircraft and diesel-powered ground vehicles. It was first introduced at NATO bases in 1978. Its NATO code is '''F-34'''. |
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{{anchor |JP-9}} |
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;] |
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:is a gas turbine fuel for missiles, specifically the ] cruise missile, containing the ] (tetrahydrodimethyldicyclopentadiene) produced by catalytic hydrogenation of methylpentadiene dimer. |
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{{anchor |JP-10}} |
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;] |
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:is a gas turbine fuel for missiles, specifically the ] cruise missile.<ref name="CRC, Aviation Fuel Properties, JP-10" >{{Cite book |
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| title=Aviation Fuel Properties |
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| year=1983 |
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| publisher=Coordinating Research Council |
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| id=CRC Report Nº 530 |
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| ref={{harvid|CRC|Aviation Fuel Properties}} |
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| url=http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a132106.pdf |
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| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722080544/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a132106.pdf |
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| url-status=live |
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| archive-date=July 22, 2012 |
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| page=3 |
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}}</ref> It contains a mixture of (in decreasing order) ], ] (a ]), and ]. It is produced by ] of ]. It superseded JP-9 fuel, achieving a lower low-temperature service limit of {{convert|-65|F}}.<ref name="CRC, Aviation Fuel Properties, JP-10" /> It is also used by the Tomahawk jet-powered subsonic cruise missile.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Coggeshall |first1=Katharine |title=Revolutionizing Tomahawk fuel |url=https://www.lanl.gov/discover/publications/national-security-science/2020-spring/tomahawk.php |website=Los Alamos National Laboratory |access-date=20 May 2020}}</ref> |
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{{anchor |JPTS}} |
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;] |
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:was a combination of LF-1 ] and an additive to improve thermal oxidative stability officially known as "Thermally Stable Jet Fuel". It was developed in 1956 for the ] engine which powered the ] spy plane.<ref></ref> |
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{{anchor |Zip fuel}} |
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;] |
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:designates a series of experimental boron-containing "high energy fuels" intended for long range aircraft. The toxicity and undesirable residues of the fuel made it difficult to use. The development of the ] removed the principal application of zip fuel. |
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{{anchor |Syntroleum}} |
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;] |
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:has been working with the USAF to develop a synthetic jet fuel blend that will help them reduce their dependence on imported petroleum. The USAF, which is the United States military's largest user of fuel, began exploring alternative fuel sources in 1999. On December 15, 2006, a ] took off from ] for the first time powered solely by a 50–50 blend of JP-8 and Syntroleum's FT fuel. The seven-hour flight test was considered a success. The goal of the flight test program was to qualify the fuel blend for fleet use on the service's B-52s, and then flight test and qualification on other aircraft. |
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==Piston engine use== |
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{{Confusing|section|date=July 2014}} |
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Jet fuel is very similar to ], and in some cases, may be used in ]s. The possibility of environmental legislation banning the use of ] ] (fuel in spark-ignited internal combustion engine, which usually contains ] (TEL), a toxic substance added to prevent ]), and the lack of a replacement fuel with similar performance, has left aircraft designers and pilot's organizations searching for alternative engines for use in small aircraft.<ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090606121617/http://www.kansas.com/business/story/833098.html |date=June 6, 2009 }}</ref> As a result, a few aircraft engine manufacturers, most notably ] and ], have begun offering ]s which run on jet fuel which may simplify airport logistics by reducing the number of fuel types required. Jet fuel is available in most places in the world, whereas avgas is only widely available in a few countries which have a large number of ] aircraft. A diesel engine may be more fuel-efficient than an avgas engine. However, very few diesel aircraft engines have been certified by aviation authorities. Diesel aircraft engines are uncommon today, even though opposed-piston aviation diesel powerplants such as the ] family had been used during the Second World War. |
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Jet fuel is often used in diesel-powered ground-support vehicles at airports. However, jet fuel tends to have poor lubricating ability in comparison to diesel, which increases wear in fuel injection equipment.{{Citation needed|date=June 2009}} An additive may be required to restore its ]. Jet fuel is more expensive than diesel fuel but the logistical advantages of using one fuel can offset the extra expense of its use in certain circumstances. |
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Jet fuel contains more sulfur, up to 1,000 ppm, which therefore means it has better lubricity and does not currently require a lubricity additive as all pipeline diesel fuels require.{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}} The introduction of Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel or ULSD brought with it the need for lubricity modifiers. Pipeline diesels before ULSD were able to contain up to 500 ppm of sulfur and were called Low Sulfur Diesel or LSD. In the United States LSD is now only available to the off-road construction, locomotive and marine markets. As more EPA regulations are introduced, more refineries are hydrotreating their jet fuel production, thus limiting the lubricating abilities of jet fuel, as determined by ASTM Standard D445. |
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], which is similar to Jet A-1, is used in ] diesel vehicles as part of the single-fuel policy.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chapter 15: Fuels, Oils, Lubricants and Petroleum Handling Equipment: Military Fuels and the Single Fuel Concept |url=https://www.nato.int/docu/logi-en/1997/lo-1511.htm |access-date=19 May 2023}}</ref> |
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==Synthetic jet fuel== |
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{{main|Synthetic fuel}} |
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] (FT) ] (SPK) synthetic fuels are certified for use in United States and international aviation fleets at up to 50% in a blend with conventional jet fuel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.astm.org/Standards/D7566.htm|title=ASTM D7566 - 20a Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuel Containing Synthesized Hydrocarbons|website=www.astm.org}}</ref> As of the end of 2017, four other pathways to SPK are certified, with their designations and maximum blend percentage in brackets: Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA SPK, 50%); synthesized iso-paraffins from hydroprocessed fermented sugars (SIP, 10%); synthesized paraffinic kerosene plus aromatics (SPK/A, 50%); alcohol-to-jet SPK (ATJ-SPK, 30%). Both FT and HEFA based SPKs blended with JP-8 are specified in MIL-DTL-83133H. |
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Some synthetic jet fuels show a reduction in pollutants such as SOx, NOx, particulate matter, and sometimes carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nrel.gov/vehiclesandfuels/npbf/pdfs/36363.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090508055932/http://www.nrel.gov/vehiclesandfuels/npbf/pdfs/36363.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Fuel Property, Emission Test, and Operability Results from a Fleet of Class 6 Vehicles Operating on Gas-To-Liquid Fuel and Catalyzed Diesel Particle Filters|archive-date=May 8, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1021/es201902e|pmid = 22043875|title = Comparison of PM Emissions from a Commercial Jet Engine Burning Conventional, Biomass, and Fischer–Tropsch Fuels|journal = Environmental Science & Technology|volume = 45|issue = 24|pages = 10744–10749|year = 2011|last1 = Lobo|first1 = Prem|last2 = Hagen|first2 = Donald E.|last3 = Whitefield|first3 = Philip D.|bibcode = 2011EnST...4510744L|url = https://figshare.com/articles/Comparison_of_PM_Emissions_from_a_Commercial_Jet_Engine_Burning_Conventional_Biomass_and_Fischer_Tropsch_Fuels/2571376}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://greet.es.anl.gov/publication-aviation-lca|title=Argonne GREET Publication: Life Cycle Analysis of Alternative Aviation Fuels in GREET|website=greet.es.anl.gov|access-date=2018-01-05|archive-date=2022-01-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119191737/https://greet.es.anl.gov/publication-aviation-lca|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a536842.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224194406/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a536842.pdf|url-status=live|archive-date=February 24, 2017|title=Corporan, E et al. (2010). Alternative Fuels Tests on a C-17 Aircraft: Emissions Characteristics, DTIC Document}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20110007202.pdf |title=Alternative Aviation Fuel Experiment (AAFEX) |last=Anderson |first=B. E. |display-authors=etal |date=February 2011 |publisher=NASA Langley Research Centre}}</ref> It is envisaged that usage of synthetic jet fuels will increase air quality around airports which will be particularly advantageous at inner city airports.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.synthetic-fuels.org/documents/Landing%20release%20Commercial%20Passenger%20Flight%20Shell.pdf|title=Best Synth Jet Fuel}}{{Dead link|date=October 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> |
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] became the first airline to operate a commercial flight on a 50:50 blend of synthetic Gas to Liquid (GTL) jet fuel and conventional jet fuel. The natural gas derived synthetic kerosene for the six-hour flight from ] to ] came from Shell's GTL plant in ], ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2009/10/qatar-gtl-20091012.html |title=Qatar Airways Becomes First to Operate Commercial Flight on GTL Jet Fuel Blend |publisher=Green Car Congress |date=2009-10-12}}</ref> The world's first passenger aircraft flight to use only synthetic jet fuel was from ] to ] on September 22, 2010. The fuel was developed by ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sasol.com/sasol_internet/frontend/navigation.jsp?articleTypeID=2&articleId=28500003&navid=1&rootid=1 |title=Sasol takes to the skies with the world's first fully synthetic jet fuel |publisher=Sasol |date=2010-09-22 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515202422/http://www.sasol.com/sasol_internet/frontend/navigation.jsp?articleTypeID=2&articleId=28500003&navid=1&rootid=1 |archive-date=2011-05-15 }}</ref> |
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Chemist ] is leading a team of researchers at the ] who are developing a process to make jet fuel from seawater. The technology requires an input of electrical energy to separate ] (O<sub>2</sub>) and Hydrogen (H<sub>2</sub>) gas from seawater using an iron-based catalyst, followed by an ]ization step wherein carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen are recombined into long-chain hydrocarbons, using ] as the catalyst. The technology is expected to be deployed in the 2020s by U.S. Navy warships, especially nuclear-powered aircraft carriers.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nrl.navy.mil/media/news-releases/2012/fueling-the-fleet-navy-looks-to-the-seas |title=Fueling the Fleet, Navy Looks to the Seas |last=Parry |first=Daniel |date=September 24, 2012 |work=Naval Research Laboratory News |access-date=June 18, 2014 |archive-date=February 3, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203162405/https://www.nrl.navy.mil/media/news-releases/2012/fueling-the-fleet-navy-looks-to-the-seas |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ibtimes.com/how-navy-might-spin-seawater-jet-fuel-1512712 |title=How The Navy Might Spin Seawater Into Jet Fuel |date=December 17, 2013 |first=Roxanne |last=Palmer |work=International Business Times}}</ref><ref name=Tozer2014>{{cite web |first=Jessica L. |last=Tozer |title=Energy Independence: Creating Fuel from Seawater |date=April 11, 2014 |url=https://science.dodlive.mil/2014/04/11/energy-independence-creating-fuel-from-sea-water/ |work=Armed with Science |publisher=U.S. Department of Defense |access-date=November 4, 2019 |archive-date=November 4, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191104154749/https://science.dodlive.mil/2014/04/11/energy-independence-creating-fuel-from-sea-water/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.nationaljournal.com/innovation-works/guess-what-could-fuel-the-battleships-of-the-future-20131213 |title=Guess What Could Fuel the Battleships of the Future? |last=Koren |first=Marina |date=December 13, 2013 |journal=National Journal }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.defenseone.com/technology/2014/04/navy-just-turned-seawater-jet-fuel/82300/ |title=The Navy Just Turned Seawater Into Jet Fuel |date=April 10, 2014 |last=Tucker |first=Patrick |journal=Defense One}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2014/apr/10/game-changer-us-navy-can-now-turn-seawater-jet-fue/ |title=U.S. Navy to turn seawater into jet fuel |date=April 10, 2014 |last=Ernst |first=Douglas |newspaper=The Washington Times}}</ref> |
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On February 8, 2021, the world's first scheduled passenger flight flew with some synthetic kerosene from a non-fossil fuel source. 500 liters of synthetic kerosene was mixed with regular jet fuel. Synthetic kerosene was produced by Shell and the flight was operated by KLM.<ref name="Shell">{{cite web |url=https://www.shell.com/business-customers/aviation/100years/flying-together/synthetic-kerosene.html |title=World First – Synthetic Kerosene Takes to the Air |accessdate=2022-03-31 }}</ref> |
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===USAF synthetic fuel trials=== |
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On August 8, 2007, ] ] certified the B-52H as fully approved to use the FT blend, marking the formal conclusion of the test program. |
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This program is part of the Department of Defense Assured Fuel Initiative, an effort to develop secure domestic sources for the military energy needs. The Pentagon hopes to reduce its use of crude oil from foreign producers and obtain about half of its aviation fuel from alternative sources by 2016. With the B-52 now approved to use the FT blend, the USAF will use the test protocols developed during the program to certify the ] and then the ] to use the fuel. To test these two aircraft, the USAF has ordered {{convert|281,000|USgal|L|abbr=on}} of FT fuel. The USAF intends to test and certify every airframe in its inventory to use the fuel by 2011. They will also supply over {{convert|9,000|USgal|abbr=on}} to ] for testing in various aircraft and engines.{{Update inline|date=October 2014}} |
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The USAF has certified the B-1B, B-52H, C-17, ], ] (as QF-4 ]s), ], ], and ] to use the synthetic fuel blend.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sirak|first=Michael|title=B-2 Goes Synthetic | url=https://www.airandspaceforces.com/b-2goessynthetic/ | publisher=Air & Space Forces Magazine | access-date=2023-01-15 |date=2010-01-27}}</ref> |
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The U.S. Air Force's C-17 Globemaster III, ] and F-15 are certified for use of hydrotreated renewable jet fuels.<ref>{{cite news |
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|last=Dowdell |
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|first=Richelle |
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|title=Officials certify first aircraft for biofuel usage |
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|publisher=The Official Website of the U.S. Air Force |
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|date=February 10, 2011 |
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|url=http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123242117%29 |
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|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121212040734/http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123242117) |
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|url-status=dead |
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|archive-date=December 12, 2012 |
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|access-date=March 7, 2012 |
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}}</ref><ref name="one">{{cite news |
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|last=Morales |
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|first=Alex |
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|author2=Louise Downing |
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|title=Fat Replaces Oil for F-16s as Biofuels Head to War: Commodities |
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|newspaper=BusinessWeek |
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|date=October 18, 2011 |
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|url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-10-18/fat-replaces-oil-for-f-16s-as-biofuels-head-to-war-commodities.html |
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|access-date=March 7, 2012 |
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|url-status=dead |
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|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120226100206/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-10-18/fat-replaces-oil-for-f-16s-as-biofuels-head-to-war-commodities.html |
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|archive-date=February 26, 2012 |
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}}</ref> The USAF plans to certify over 40 models for fuels derived from waste oils and plants by 2013.<ref name="one"/> The ] is considered one of the few customers of ]s large enough to potentially bring biofuels up to the volume production needed to reduce costs.<ref name="one"/> The ] has also flown a ] dubbed the "Green Hornet" at 1.7 times the speed of sound using a biofuel blend.<ref name="one"/> The ] (DARPA) funded a $6.7 million project with ] to develop technologies to create jet fuels from biofeedstocks for use by the United States and NATO militaries.<ref>{{cite news |
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| title =UOP To Develop Technology to Produce Bio JP-8 for Military Jets |
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| publisher =Green Car Congress |
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| date =June 28, 2007 |
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| url =http://www.greencarcongress.com/2007/06/uop-to-develop-.html |
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| access-date =March 7, 2012 }}</ref> |
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In April 2011, four USAF ] flew over the ] opening ceremony using a blend of traditional jet fuel and synthetic biofuels. This flyover made history as it was the first flyover to use biofuels in the ].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Air Force jets perform first flyover using alternative fuel |url=https://www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/113759/air-force-jets-perform-first-flyover-using-alternative-fuel/ |access-date=2022-03-27 |website=Air Force |date=31 March 2011 |language=en-US}}</ref> |
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===Jet biofuels=== |
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{{main|Aviation biofuel}} |
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The air transport industry is responsible for 2–3 percent of man-made ] emitted.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-org.airbus.com/store/mm_repository/pdf/att00014178/media_object_file_BeginnersGuide_Biofuels.pdf |title=Beginner's Guide to Aviation Biofuels |date=May 2009 |publisher=Air Transport Action Group |access-date=2009-09-20 }}{{dead link|date=November 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ] estimates that biofuels could reduce flight-related ] emissions by 60 to 80 percent. One possible solution which has received more media coverage than others would be blending synthetic ] with existing jet fuel:<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/01/03/AR2008010303907.html |newspaper=] |title=A Promising Oil Alternative: Algae Energy |date=2008-01-06 |access-date=2010-05-06}}</ref> |
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* Green Flight International became the first airline to fly jet aircraft on 100% biofuel. The flight from ] in Stead, Nevada was in an ] piloted by Carol Sugars and Douglas Rodante.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greenflightinternational.com/index.htm |title=Gfi Home |publisher=Greenflightinternational.com |access-date=2010-11-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110125173011/http://www.greenflightinternational.com/index.htm |archive-date=2011-01-25 }}</ref> |
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* Boeing and ] are collaborating with Tecbio<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tecbio.com.br/ |title=Tecbio |publisher=Tecbio |access-date=2010-11-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110123141009/http://www.tecbio.com.br/ |archive-date=2011-01-23 }}</ref> Aquaflow Bionomic and other jet biofuel developers around the world. |
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* ] successfully tested a biofuel blend consisting of 20 percent ] and coconut and 80 percent conventional jet fuel, which was fed to a single engine on a ] flight from ] to ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/3/story.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=10494543 |title=Crop this: Virgin takes off with nut-fuel - 26 Feb 2008 - NZ Herald: New Zealand Business, Markets, Currency and Personal Finance News |publisher=NZ Herald |date=2008-02-26 |access-date=2010-11-28}}</ref> |
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* A consortium consisting of Boeing, NASA's ], ] (Germany), and the U.S. ] is working on development of jet fuel blends containing a substantial percentage of biofuel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boeing.com/aboutus/environment/environmental_report/alternative-energy-solutions.html |title=2008 Environment Report |publisher=Boeing |access-date=2010-11-28}}</ref> |
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* ] and Velocys have entered into a partnership in the UK to design a series of plants that convert household waste into jet fuel.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.velocys.com/uk-waste-to-jet-partnership/ |title=Velocys press release, "Partnership formed, aimed at waste-to-jet-fuel plants in UK |date=September 18, 2017 |access-date=January 5, 2018 |archive-date=January 5, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180105233716/http://www.velocys.com/uk-waste-to-jet-partnership/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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*24 commercial and military biofuel flights have taken place using ] “Green Jet Fuel,” including a Navy F/A-18 Hornet.<ref>{{cite news | last=Koch |first=Wendy |title=United flies first US passengers using fuel from algae |newspaper=USA Today |date =November 7, 2011 |url =http://content.usatoday.com/communities/greenhouse/post/2011/11/united-flies-first-us-passengers-with-biofuel-from-algae/1 |access-date =December 16, 2011 }}</ref> |
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* In 2011, ] was the first United States airline to fly passengers on a commercial flight using a blend of sustainable, advanced biofuels and traditional petroleum-derived jet fuel. ] developed the algae oil, which was refined utilizing Honeywell's UOP process technology, into jet fuel to power the commercial flight.<ref>{{cite web|title=United Airlines Flies First U.S. Commercial Advanced Biofuel Flight |url=http://ir.unitedcontinentalholdings.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=83680&p=irol-newsArticle&ID=1627061&highlight |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130412030740/http://ir.unitedcontinentalholdings.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=83680&p=irol-newsArticle&ID=1627061&highlight |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 12, 2013 |publisher=United Continental Holdings, Inc. |access-date=November 7, 2011 }}</ref> |
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] produced the world's first 100 percent algae-derived jet fuel, Solajet, for both commercial and military applications.<ref>{{cite news|last=Price |first=Toby |title=Solazyme completes first commercial flight on biofuel |url=http://www.renewableenergymagazine.com/article/solazyme-completes-first-commercial-flight-on-biofuel |access-date=13 February 2013 |newspaper=Renewable Energy Magazine |date=November 10, 2011}}</ref> |
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] from 2003 to 2008, raising fears that world petroleum production is becoming ]. The fact that there are few alternatives to ] for aviation fuel adds urgency to the ]. Twenty-five airlines were bankrupted or stopped operations in the first six months of 2008, largely due to fuel costs.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.asiaone.com/News/Latest+News/Business/Story/A1Story20080708-75407.html |title=More airlines fold as fuel prices soar: IATA |publisher=News.asiaone.com |access-date=2010-11-28 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703095921/http://news.asiaone.com/News/Latest+News/Business/Story/A1Story20080708-75407.html |archive-date=2011-07-03 }}</ref> |
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In 2015 ASTM approved a modification to Specification D1655 Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuels to permit up to 50 ppm (50 mg/kg) of FAME (]) in jet fuel to allow higher cross-contamination from biofuel production.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.astm.org/newsroom/revised-astm-standard-expands-limit-biofuel-contamination-jet-fuels|title=Revised ASTM Standard Expands Limit on Biofuel Contamination in Jet Fuels | www.astm.org|website=www.astm.org|access-date=2020-09-14|archive-date=2020-03-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200308122854/https://www.astm.org/newsroom/revised-astm-standard-expands-limit-biofuel-contamination-jet-fuels|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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==Worldwide consumption of jet fuel== |
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Worldwide demand of jet fuel has been steadily increasing since 1980. Consumption more than tripled in 30 years from 1,837,000 barrels/day in 1980, to 5,220,000 in 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indexmundi.com/energy.aspx?product=jet-fuel |access-date=19 November 2014 |title=Jet fuel consumption on Index Mundi}}</ref> Around 30% of the worldwide consumption of jet fuel is in the US (1,398,130 barrels/day in 2012). |
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== Taxation == |
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{{See also|Aviation taxation and subsidies}} |
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Article 24 of the ] of 7 December 1944 stipulates that when flying from one contracting state to another, the kerosene that is already on board aircraft may not be taxed by the state where the aircraft lands, nor by a state through whose airspace the aircraft has flown. This is to prevent double taxation. It is sometimes suggested that the Chicago Convention precludes the taxation of aviation fuel. However, this is not correct. The Chicago Convention does not preclude a kerosene tax on domestic flights or on refuelling before international flights.<ref name="faber2018">{{Cite web |url=https://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/2019_02_CE_Delft_Taxing_Aviation_Fuels_EU.pdf |title=Taxing aviation fuels in the EU |author=Jasper Faber and Aoife O'Leary |work=CE Delft |page=16 |publisher=] |date=November 2018 |access-date=20 June 2020 |quote=The Chicago Convention provides no obstacle to placing a tax on domestic or intra-EU aviation fuel. The Convention bans parties from imposing taxes on fuel already on board an aircraft when it lands in another country but it contains no prohibition on taxing the fuel sold to aircraft in a country. Further, the Chicago Convention is not applicable to domestic aviation. It is often suggested that the Chicago Convention exempts aviation fuel from taxation. However, the Chicago Convention only exempts fuels already on-board aircraft when landing, and retained on board when leaving, from taxation. Article 24 states: 'Fuel... on board an aircraft of a contracting State, on arrival in the territory of another contracting State and retained on board on leaving the territory of that State shall be exempt from customs duty, inspection fees or similar national or local duties and charges.' Therefore, Article 24 does not prohibit the taxing of fuel taken on board in a particular country but rather prohibits the taxation of fuel that was already on board the aircraft when it landed, i.e. Member States cannot tax aviation fuel purchased in another country that arrives on board the aircraft. The purpose of this Article is to prevent double taxation. |archive-date=13 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113175951/https://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/2019_02_CE_Delft_Taxing_Aviation_Fuels_EU.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{rp|22}} |
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Article 15 of the Chicago Convention is also sometimes said to ban fuel taxes. Article 15 states: "No fees, dues or other charges shall be imposed by any contracting State in respect solely of the right of transit over or entry into or exit from its territory of any aircraft of a contracting State or persons or property thereon." However, ICAO distinguishes between charges and taxes, and Article 15 does not prohibit the levying of taxes without a service |
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provided.<ref name="faber2018"/>{{rp|23}} |
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In the European Union, commercial aviation fuel ], according to the 2003 ].<ref name="Energy Taxation Directive">{{Cite web |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32003L0096 |title=Council Directive 2003/96/EC of 27 October 2003, restructuring the Community framework for the taxation of energy products and electricity |work=Official Journal of the European Union |publisher=Eur-Lex |date=27 October 2002 |access-date=20 June 2020 |quote=Member States shall exempt the following from taxation... energy products supplied for use as fuel for the purpose of air navigation other than in private pleasure-flying.}}</ref> EU member states may tax jet fuel via bilateral agreements, however no such agreements exist.<ref name="faber2018"/> |
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In the United States, most ]. |
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== Health effects == |
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General health hazards associated with exposure to jet fuel vary according to its components, exposure duration (acute vs. long-term), route of administration (dermal vs. respiratory vs. oral), and exposure phase (vapor vs. aerosol vs. raw fuel).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mattie|first1=David R.|last2=Sterner|first2=Teresa R.|date=2011-07-15|title=Past, present and emerging toxicity issues for jet fuel|journal=Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology|volume=254|issue=2|pages=127–132|doi=10.1016/j.taap.2010.04.022|issn=1096-0333|pmid=21296101|bibcode=2011ToxAP.254..127M }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Ritchie|first1=Glenn|last2=Still|first2=Kenneth|last3=Rossi III|first3=John|last4=Bekkedal|first4=Marni|last5=Bobb|first5=Andrew|last6=Arfsten|first6=Darryl|date=2003-01-01|title=Biological And Health Effects Of Exposure To Kerosene-Based Jet Fuels And Performance Additives|journal=Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part B|language=en|volume=6|issue=4|pages=357–451|doi=10.1080/10937400306473|pmid=12775519|bibcode=2003JTEHB...6..357R |s2cid=30595016|issn=1093-7404}}</ref> Kerosene-based hydrocarbon fuels are complex mixtures which may contain up to 260+ aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbon compounds including toxicants such as benzene, n-hexane, toluene, xylenes, trimethylpentane, methoxyethanol, naphthalenes.<ref name=":0" /> While time-weighted average hydrocarbon fuel exposures can often be below recommended exposure limits, peak exposure can occur, and the health impact of occupational exposures is not fully understood. Evidence of the health effects of jet fuels comes from reports on both temporary or persisting biological from acute, subchronic, or chronic exposure of humans or animals to kerosene-based hydrocarbon fuels, or the constituent chemicals of these fuels, or to fuel combustion products. The effects studied include: ], ]s, ],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Robledo|first1=R. F.|last2=Barber|first2=D. S.|last3=Witten|first3=M. L.|date=1999|title=Modulation of bronchial epithelial cell barrier function by in vitro jet propulsion fuel 8 exposure|journal=Toxicological Sciences|volume=51|issue=1|pages=119–125|doi=10.1093/toxsci/51.1.119|issn=1096-6080|pmid=10496683|doi-access=free}}</ref> ] and ],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Harris|first1=D. T.|last2=Sakiestewa|first2=D.|last3=Titone|first3=D.|last4=Robledo|first4=R. F.|last5=Young|first5=R. S.|last6=Witten|first6=M.|date=2000|title=Jet fuel-induced immunotoxicity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11693943|journal=Toxicology and Industrial Health|volume=16|issue=7–8|pages=261–265|doi=10.1177/074823370001600702|issn=0748-2337|pmid=11693943|bibcode=2000ToxIH..16..261H |s2cid=42673565}}</ref> ],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Knave|first1=B.|last2=Persson|first2=H. E.|last3=Goldberg|first3=J. M.|last4=Westerholm|first4=P.|date=1976|title=Long-term exposure to jet fuel: an investigation on occupationally exposed workers with special reference to the nervous system|journal=Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health|volume=2|issue=3|pages=152–164|doi=10.5271/sjweh.2809|issn=0355-3140|pmid=973128|doi-access=free}}</ref> ] and ],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Morata|first1=Thais C.|last2=Hungerford|first2=Michelle|last3=Konrad-Martin|first3=Dawn|date=2021-08-18|title=Potential Risks to Hearing Functions of Service Members From Exposure to Jet Fuels|journal=American Journal of Audiology|volume=30|issue=3S|language=en|pages=922–927|doi=10.1044/2021_AJA-20-00226|pmid=34407375|issn=1059-0889|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kaufman|first1=Laura R.|last2=LeMasters|first2=Grace K.|last3=Olsen|first3=Donna M.|last4=Succop|first4=Paul|date=2005|title=Effects of concurrent noise and jet fuel exposure on hearing loss|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15761316|journal=Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine|volume=47|issue=3|pages=212–218|doi=10.1097/01.jom.0000155710.28289.0e|issn=1076-2752|pmid=15761316|s2cid=1195860}}</ref> renal and ], ] conditions, ] disorders, ] and ] effects.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bendtsen|first1=Katja M.|last2=Bengtsen|first2=Elizabeth|last3=Saber|first3=Anne T.|last4=Vogel|first4=Ulla|date=2021-02-06|title=A review of health effects associated with exposure to jet engine emissions in and around airports|journal=Environmental Health: A Global Access Science Source|volume=20|issue=1|pages=10|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00690-y|issn=1476-069X|pmc=7866671|pmid=33549096 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2021EnvHe..20...10B }}</ref> |
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==See also== |
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==See also== |
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{{Portal bar|Aviation}} |
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* ], ], ], ], ] |
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==Notes== |
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==Notes== |
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{{notelist}} |
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<references/> |
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==References== |
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==References== |
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{{reflist}} |
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* Naval Air Systems Command, Highway 547, Lakehurst, NJ 08733-5100 |
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==Further reading== |
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*{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Jet Fuels |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Liquid Fuels |publisher=De Gruyter |last=Schmidt |first=Eckart W. |date=2022 |pages=3497–3592 |doi=10.1515/9783110750287-030 |isbn=978-3-11-075028-7}} |
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==External links== |
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* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722080544/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a132106.pdf |date=2012-07-22 }} |
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