| Revision as of 10:44, 16 February 2012 editBeetstra (talk | contribs)Edit filter managers, Administrators172,031 edits Saving copy of the {{chembox}} taken from revid 477110591 of page Nitrous_oxide for the Chem/Drugbox validation project (updated: 'ChEMBL'). |
Latest revision as of 01:27, 3 January 2025 edit ZeroAlpha87 (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users7,161 editsm →Recreational: Fixed punctuation. |
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{{Short description|Colourless non-flammable greenhouse gas}} |
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{{ambox | text = This page contains a copy of the infobox ({{tl|chembox}}) taken from revid of page ] with values updated to verified values.}} |
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{{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=6}} |
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{{see also|Recreational use of nitrous oxide|Nitrous oxide (medication)}} |
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{{Redirect|N2O|3=Nitrous oxide (disambiguation)|4=and|5=N2O (disambiguation)}} |
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{{Redirect|Laughing gas}} |
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{{Distinguish|text=] ({{chem|NO}}), ] ({{chem|NO|2}}), or generic nitrogen oxide pollutants ]}} |
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{{Use British English|date=December 2018}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2018}} |
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| verifiedrevid = 477002341 |
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| verifiedrevid = 477162830 |
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| ImageFile_Ref = {{chemboximage|correct|??}} |
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| ImageFile = Nitrous-oxide-2D-VB.svg |
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| ImageFile = Nitrous-oxide-2D-VB.svg |
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| ImageSize = 250px |
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| ImageName = Nitrous oxide's canonical forms |
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| ImageName = Nitrous oxide's canonical forms |
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| ImageFile1 = Nitrous-oxide-dimensions-3D-balls.png |
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| ImageFile1 = Nitrous-oxide-dimensions-3D-balls.png |
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| ImageName1 = Ball-and-stick model with bond lengths |
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| ImageSize1 = 200px |
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| ImageFile2 = Nitrous-oxide-3D-vdW.png |
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| ImageName1 = Ball-and-stick model with bond lengths |
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| ImageSize2 = 150px |
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| ImageFile2 = Nitrous-oxide-3D-vdW.png |
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| ImageName2 = Space-filling model of nitrous oxide |
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| ImageSize2 = 150px |
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| SystematicName = Oxodiazen-2-ium-1-ide |
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| ImageName2 = Space-filling model of nitrous oxide |
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| IUPACName = Nitrous oxide<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.degruyter.com/database/IUPAC/entry/iupac.compound.948/html|title=|website=Degruyter.com|access-date=24 July 2022}}</ref> ''(not recommended)''<br />Dinitrogen oxide<ref>]. , p. 317.</ref> ''(alternative name)'' |
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| IUPACName = Dinitrogen monoxide |
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| OtherNames = {{Unbulleted list|Laughing gas|galaxy gas|sweet air||nitrous|nos|nang|nitrus{{cn|date=October 2024}}|protoxide of nitrogen|hyponitrous oxide|dinitrogen oxide|dinitrogen monoxide}} |
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| OtherNames = Laughing gas, sweet air |
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| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers |
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| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers |
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| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} |
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| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} |
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| UNII = K50XQU1029 |
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| UNII = K50XQU1029 |
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| InChIKey1 = GQPLMRYTRLFLPF-UHFFFAOYAP |
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| InChIKey1 = GQPLMRYTRLFLPF-UHFFFAOYAP |
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| SMILES = N# |
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| SMILES = N# |
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| SMILES1 = ==O |
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| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} |
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| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} |
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| StdInChI = 1S/N2O/c1-2-3 |
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| StdInChI = 1S/N2O/c1-2-3 |
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| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} |
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| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} |
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| CASNo = 10024-97-2 |
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| CASNo = 10024-97-2 |
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| CAS_Ref = {{cascite|correct|??}} |
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| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} |
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| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} |
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| ChemSpiderID = 923 |
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| ChemSpiderID = 923 |
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| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|changed|EBI}} |
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| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|changed|EBI}} |
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| ChEMBL = <!-- blanked - oldvalue: 335900 --> |
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| ChEMBL = 1234579 |
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| DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|changed|drugbank}} |
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| DrugBank = DB06690 |
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| PubChem = 948 |
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| PubChem = 948 |
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| InChI =1/N2O/c1-2-3 |
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| InChI = 1/N2O/c1-2-3 |
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| UNNumber = 1070 (compressed)<br/>2201 (liquid) |
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| UNNumber = 1070 (compressed)<br />2201 (liquid) |
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| RTECS = QX1350000 |
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| RTECS = QX1350000 |
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| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} |
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| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} |
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| KEGG = D00102 |
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| KEGG = D00102 |
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| Beilstein = 8137358 |
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| ATCCode_prefix = N01 |
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| Gmelin = 2153410 |
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| ATCCode_suffix = AX13 |
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| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties |
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| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties |
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| Formula = N<sub>2</sub>O |
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| Formula = {{chem|N|2|O}} |
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| MolarMass = 44.013 g/mol |
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| MolarMass = 44.013 g/mol |
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| Appearance = colorless gas |
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| Appearance = colourless gas |
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| Density = 1.977 g/L (gas) |
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| Density = 1.977 g/L (gas) |
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| MeltingPt = −90.86 °C (182.29 K) |
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| MeltingPtC = −90.86 |
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| MeltingPt_notes = |
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| BoilingPt = −88.48 °C (184.67 K) |
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| BoilingPtC = −88.48 |
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| Solubility = 0.15 g/100 ml (15 °C) |
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| SolubleOther = soluble in ], ], ] |
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| Solubility = 1.5 g/L (15 °C) |
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| SolubleOther = soluble in ], ], ] |
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| LogP = 0.35 |
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| LogP = 0.35 |
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| RefractIndex = 1.330 |
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| RefractIndex = 1.000516 (0 °C, 101.325 kPa) |
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| Viscosity = 14.90 μPa·s<ref name="TakahashiShibasaki-Kitakawa1996">{{cite journal|last1=Takahashi|first1=Mitsuo|last2=Shibasaki-Kitakawa|first2=Naomi|last3=Yokoyama|first3=Chiaki|last4=Takahashi|first4=Shinji|title=Viscosity of Gaseous Nitrous Oxide from 298.15 K to 398.15 K at Pressures up to 25 MPa|journal=Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data|volume=41|issue=6|year=1996|pages=1495–1498|issn=0021-9568|doi=10.1021/je960060d}}</ref> |
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| VaporPressure = 5150 kPa (20 °C) |
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| VaporPressure = 5150 kPa (20 °C) |
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| HenryConstant = |
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| MagSus = −18.9·10<sup>−6</sup> cm<sup>3</sup>/mol |
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| Section3 = {{Chembox Structure |
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| Section3 = {{Chembox Structure |
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| MolShape = linear, ''C''<sub>∞v</sub> |
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| MolShape = linear, ''C''{{ssub|∞v}} |
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| Dipole = 0.166 ] |
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| Dipole = 0.166 ] |
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| Section4 = {{Chembox Thermochemistry |
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| Section5 = {{Chembox Thermochemistry |
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| DeltaHf = +82.05 kJ/mol |
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| DeltaHf = +82.05 kJ/mol |
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| Entropy = 219.96 J K<sup>−1</sup> mol<sup>−1</sup> |
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| Entropy = 219.96 J/(K·mol) |
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| Section5 = {{Chembox Pharmacology |
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| Section6 = {{Chembox Pharmacology |
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| ATCCode_prefix = N01 |
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| ATCCode_suffix = AX13 |
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| ProteinBound = |
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| Excretion = ] |
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| Excretion = ] |
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| Legal_status = <!-- All U.S. states except for ] allow nitrous oxide as an ]. Also used in the ] and ]. --> |
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| Legal_status = <!-- All U.S. states except for ] allow nitrous oxide as an ]. Also used in the ] and ]. --> |
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| PregCat_US = C |
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| Section7 = {{Chembox Hazards |
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| Section7 = {{Chembox Hazards |
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| ExternalMSDS = , ICSC 0067 |
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| ExternalSDS = , ICSC 0067 |
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| GHSPictograms = {{GHS flame over circle}} |
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| EUIndex = Oxidant |
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| GHSSignalWord = Danger |
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| HPhrases = {{H-phrases|270}} |
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| RPhrases = |
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| PPhrases = {{P-phrases|220|244|282|336|317|370+376|403|410+403}} |
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| MainHazards = |
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| NFPA-H = 2 |
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| NFPA-H = 2 |
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| NFPA-F = 0 |
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| NFPA-F = 0 |
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| NFPA-R = 0 |
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| NFPA-R = 0 |
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| NFPA-O = OX |
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| NFPA-S = OX |
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| FlashPt = Non-flammable |
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| FlashPt = Nonflammable |
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| LD50 = |
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| Section8 = {{Chembox Related |
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| OtherFunctn = ]<br/>]<br/>]<br/>]<br/>] |
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| OtherFunction = ]<br />]<br />]<br />]<br />] |
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| Function = ] ]s |
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| OtherFunction_label = ] ]s |
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'''Nitrous oxide''' (dinitrogen oxide or dinitrogen monoxide), commonly known as '''laughing gas''', '''nitrous''', or '''factitious air''', among others,<ref name="pubchem">{{Cite web |publisher=PubChem, US National Library of Medicine |title=Nitrous oxide |date=14 September 2024|url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/948 |access-date=20 September 2024 |language=en}}</ref> is a ], an ] with the ] '''{{chem|N|2|O}}'''. At room temperature, it is a colourless ] ], and has a slightly sweet scent and taste.<ref name=pubchem/> At elevated temperatures, nitrous oxide is a powerful ] similar to molecular oxygen.<ref name=pubchem/> |
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Nitrous oxide has significant ], especially in ] and ], for its ] and ] effects,<ref name="ACB 2020">{{cite journal |author1-last=Quax |author1-first=Marcel L. J. |author2-last=Van Der Steenhoven |author2-first=Timothy J. |author3-last=Bronkhorst |author3-first=Martinus W. G. A. |author4-last=Emmink |author4-first=Benjamin L. |date=July 2020 |title=Frostbite injury: An unknown risk when using nitrous oxide as a party drug |journal=Acta Chirurgica Belgica |publisher=] on behalf of the Royal Belgian Society for Surgery |volume=120 |issue=1–4 |pages=140–143 |doi=10.1080/00015458.2020.1782160 |issn=0001-5458 |pmid=32543291 |s2cid=219702849}}</ref> and it is on the ].<ref name="WHO21st">{{cite book |last1=Organization |first1=World Health |title=World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 21st list 2019 |publisher=World Health Organization |year=2019 |location=Geneva |hdl=10665/325771 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Its colloquial name, "laughing gas", coined by ], describes the ] effects upon inhaling it, which cause it to be used as a ] inducing a brief "]".<ref name="ACB 2020"/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Turner |first=Sally |date=2024-08-30 |title=Nitrous-Oxide: What is it good for? |url=https://www.drugscience.org.uk/nitrous-oxide-what-is-it-good-for |access-date=2024-10-03 |website=Drug Science |language=en}}</ref> When abused chronically, it may cause neurological damage through inactivation of ]. It is also used as an oxidiser in ]s and ] fuels, and as a ] for whipped cream. |
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Nitrous oxide is also an ], with a concentration of 333 ] (ppb) in 2020, increasing at 1 ppb annually.<ref name="agage" /><ref name="noaaesrl" /> It is a major scavenger of ], with an impact comparable to that of ].<ref name="sciozo"/> About 40% of human-caused emissions are ],<ref name="HTian">{{cite journal |last1=Tian |first1=Hanqin |last2=Xu |first2=Rongting |last3=Canadell |first3=Josep G. |last4=Thompson |first4=Rona L. |last5=Winiwarter |first5=Wilfried |last6=Suntharalingam |first6=Parvadha |last7=Davidson |first7=Eric A. |last8=Ciais |first8=Philippe |last9=Jackson |first9=Robert B. |last10=Janssens-Maenhout |first10=Greet |date=October 2020 |title=A comprehensive quantification of global nitrous oxide sources and sinks |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2780-0 |url-status=bot: unknown |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=586 |issue=7828 |pages=248–256 |bibcode=2020Natur.586..248T |doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2780-0 |issn=1476-4687 |pmid=33028999 |hdl=1871.1/c74d4b68-ecf4-4c6d-890d-a1d0aaef01c9 |s2cid=222217027 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201203131716/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2780-0 |archive-date=3 December 2020 |access-date=2020-11-09|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal |author=Thompson, R. L. |author2=Lassaletta, L. |author3=Patra, P. K. |title=Acceleration of global N<sub>2</sub>O emissions seen from two decades of atmospheric inversion |journal=Nat. Clim. Change |year=2019 |volume=9 |issue=12 |pages=993–998 |doi=10.1038/s41558-019-0613-7|bibcode=2019NatCC...9..993T |s2cid=208302708 |url=http://pure.iiasa.ac.at/id/eprint/16173/2/N2O_paper_SI_revision2_v1.docx|hdl=11250/2646484 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> as nitrogen fertilisers are digested into nitrous oxide by soil micro-organisms.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-13 |title=Reduce nitrous oxide emissions |url=https://www.agmatters.nz/goals/reduce-nitrous-oxide/ |access-date=2024-04-01 |website=Ag Matters |language=en}}</ref> As the third most important ], nitrous oxide substantially contributes to ].<ref name="ipccar5">{{cite book |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg1/ |contribution= Chapter 8 |title=AR5 Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis |pages=677–678}}</ref><ref name="physorg">{{cite news |title=Nitrous oxide emissions pose an increasing climate threat, study finds |language=en |work=phys.org |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-10-nitrous-oxide-emissions-pose-climate.html |access-date=2020-11-09}}</ref> Reduction of emissions is an important goal in the ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mundschenk |first=Susanne |date=3 August 2022 |title=The Netherlands is showing how not to tackle climate change {{!}} The Spectator |url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/the-netherlands-is-showing-how-not-to-tackle-climate-change |access-date=2022-08-28 |website=www.spectator.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> |
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== Discovery and early use == |
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The gas was first synthesised in 1772 by English ] and chemist ] who called it ''dephlogisticated nitrous air'' (see ])<ref name="Nitrous Oxide pioneers">{{cite journal|last=Keys|first=T.E.|year=1941|title=The Development of Anesthesia|journal=Anesthesiology|volume=2|issue=5|pages=552–574|bibcode=1982AmSci..70..522D|doi=10.1097/00000542-194109000-00008|s2cid=73062366|doi-access=free}}</ref> or ''inflammable nitrous air''.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=McEvoy|first1=J. G.|title=Gases, God and the balance of nature: a commentary on Priestley (1772) 'Observations on different kinds of air'|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences|date=6 March 2015|volume=373|issue=2039|page=20140229|doi=10.1098/rsta.2014.0229|pmc=4360083|pmid=25750146|bibcode=2015RSPTA.37340229M}}</ref> Priestley published his discovery in the book ], where he described how to produce the preparation of "nitrous air diminished", by heating iron filings dampened with ].<ref name="Joseph Priestley">{{cite web |year=1776|title=Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air |website=Erowid |url=http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/nitrous/nitrous_journal1.shtml |author=Priestley J}}</ref> |
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] administering a dose of laughing gas to a woman|left]] |
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The first important use of nitrous oxide was made possible by ] and ], who worked together to publish the book ''Considerations on the Medical Use and on the Production of Factitious Airs (1794)''. This book was important for two reasons. First, James Watt had invented a novel machine to produce "]" (including nitrous oxide) and a novel "breathing apparatus" to inhale the gas. Second, the book also presented the new medical theories by Thomas Beddoes, that ] and other lung diseases could be treated by inhalation of "Factitious Airs".<ref name="Drug discovery" /> |
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]'s ''Researches chemical and philosophical: chiefly concerning nitrous oxide'' (1800), pages 556 and 557 (right), outlining potential anaesthetic properties of nitrous oxide in relieving pain during surgery]] |
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The machine to produce "Factitious Airs" had three parts: a furnace to burn the needed material, a vessel with water where the produced gas passed through in a spiral pipe (for impurities to be "washed off"), and finally the gas cylinder with a gasometer where the gas produced, "air", could be tapped into portable air bags (made of airtight oily silk). The breathing apparatus consisted of one of the portable air bags connected with a tube to a mouthpiece. With this new equipment being engineered and produced by 1794, the way was paved for ]s,{{Clarify|date=April 2011}} which began in 1798 when Thomas Beddoes established the ''"] for Relieving Diseases by Medical Airs"'' in ] (]). In the basement of the building, a large-scale machine was producing the gases under the supervision of a young Humphry Davy, who was encouraged to experiment with new gases for patients to inhale.<ref name="Drug discovery" /> The first important work of Davy was examination of the nitrous oxide, and the publication of his results in the book: ''Researches, Chemical and Philosophical (1800)''. In that publication, Davy notes the analgesic effect of nitrous oxide at page 465 and its potential to be used for surgical operations at page 556.<ref name="Humphry Davy">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jhUAAAAAQAAJ|title=Researches, chemical and philosophical –chiefly concerning nitrous oxide or dephlogisticated nitrous air, and its respiration|publisher=Printed for J. Johnson|year=1800|author=Davy H}}</ref> Davy coined the name "laughing gas" for nitrous oxide.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hardman|first1=Jonathan G.|title=Oxford Textbook of Anaesthesia|date=2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=529|isbn=978-0-19-964204-5}}</ref> |
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Despite Davy's discovery that inhalation of nitrous oxide could relieve a conscious person from pain, another 44 years elapsed before doctors attempted to use it for ]. The use of nitrous oxide as a ] at "laughing gas parties", primarily arranged for the ], became an immediate success beginning in 1799. While the effects of the gas generally make the user appear stuporous, dreamy and sedated, some people also "get the giggles" in a state of euphoria, and frequently erupt in laughter.<ref name="Illicit drugs">{{cite web|url=http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/Library/studies/cu/CU43.html|title=Consumers Union Report on Licit and Illicit Drugs, Part VI – Inhalants and Solvents and Glue-Sniffing|year=1972|author=Brecher EM|work=Consumer Reports Magazine|access-date=18 December 2013}}</ref> |
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One of the earliest commercial producers in the U.S. was ], cousin of the poet ], who also was the first to liquefy the gas.<ref name="wp">{{cite news|url=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/243050292.html?dids=243050292:243050292&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&date=FEB+03%2C+1914&author=&pub=The+Washington+Post&desc=GEORGE+POE+IS+DEAD&pqatl=google|title=George Poe is Dead|date=3 February 1914|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=29 December 2007|archive-date=1 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130301050848/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/243050292.html?dids=243050292:243050292&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&date=FEB+03%2C+1914&author=&pub=The+Washington+Post&desc=GEORGE+POE+IS+DEAD&pqatl=google}}</ref> |
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The first time nitrous oxide was used as an ] drug in the treatment of a patient was when dentist ], with assistance by ] and ], demonstrated insensitivity to pain from a ] on 11 December 1844.<ref name="Discovery of Wells">{{Cite journal|year=1933|title=The Discoverer of Anæsthesia: Dr. Horace Wells of Hartford.|journal=The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine|volume=5|issue=5|pages=421–430|pmc=2606479|pmid=21433572|last1=Erving|first1=H. W.}}</ref> In the following weeks, Wells treated the first 12 to 15 patients with nitrous oxide in ], and, according to his own record, only failed in two cases.<ref name="Horace Wells">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=exNtlBi8T4EC|title=A history of the discovery, of the application of nitrous oxide gas, ether, and other vapours, to surgical operations|publisher=J. Gaylord Wells|year=1847|author=Wells H}}</ref> In spite of these convincing results having been reported by Wells to the medical society in ] in December 1844, this new method was not immediately adopted by other dentists. The reason for this was most likely that Wells, in January 1845 at his first public demonstration to the medical faculty in Boston, had been partly unsuccessful, leaving his colleagues doubtful regarding its efficacy and safety.<ref name="Discovery of anaesthesia">{{cite journal|year=2007|title=The discovery of modern anaesthesia-contributions of Davy, Clarke, Long, Wells and Morton|url=http://www.ijaweb.org/text.asp?2007/51/6/472/61183|journal=Indian J Anaesth|volume=51|issue=6|pages=472–8|vauthors=Desai SP, Desai MS, Pandav CS}}</ref> The method did not come into general use until 1863, when Gardner Quincy Colton successfully started to use it in all his "Colton Dental Association" clinics, that he had just established in ] and ].<ref name="Drug discovery" /> Over the following three years, Colton and his associates successfully administered nitrous oxide to more than 25,000 patients.<ref name="use in dentistry" /> Today, nitrous oxide is used in dentistry as an anxiolytic, as an adjunct to ]. |
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Nitrous oxide was not found to be a strong enough anaesthetic for use in major surgery in hospital settings, however. Instead, ], being a stronger and more potent anaesthetic, was demonstrated and accepted for use in October 1846, along with ] in 1847.<ref name="Drug discovery" /> When ] invented the "gas-ether inhaler" in 1876, however, it became a common practice at hospitals to initiate all anaesthetic treatments with a mild flow of nitrous oxide, and then gradually increase the anaesthesia with the stronger ether or chloroform. Clover's gas-ether inhaler was designed to supply the patient with nitrous oxide and ether at the same time, with the exact mixture being controlled by the operator of the device. It remained in use by many hospitals until the 1930s.<ref name="use in dentistry" /> Although hospitals today use a more advanced ], these machines still use the same principle launched with Clover's gas-ether inhaler, to initiate the anaesthesia with nitrous oxide, before the administration of a more powerful anaesthetic. |
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Colton's popularisation of nitrous oxide led to its adoption by a number of less than reputable ], who touted it as a cure for ], ], ] and other diseases of the blood, throat and lungs. Nitrous oxide treatment was administered and licensed as a ] by the likes of ] and Jerome Harris in Boston and Charles E. Barney of Chicago.<ref name="alleged">{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3461701/alleged_forgery/|title=Alleged Forgery|date=1877-09-28|page=8|author=<!--Staff writers; no byline.-->|newspaper=]|access-date=2015-10-26}}</ref><ref name="man">{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3461943/dr_blood_and_the_sawtelles/|title=A Man of Ominous Name|date=1890-02-19|author=<!--Staff writers; no byline.-->|newspaper=]|access-date=2015-10-26}}</ref> |
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==Chemical properties and reactions== |
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Nitrous oxide is a colourless gas with a faint, sweet odour. |
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Nitrous oxide supports combustion by releasing the ] oxygen radical, and can thus relight a glowing ]. |
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{{chem|N|2|O}} is inert at room temperature and has few reactions. At elevated temperatures, its reactivity increases. For example, nitrous oxide reacts with {{chem|link=Sodium amide|NaNH|2}} at {{convert|187|C}} to give {{chem|link=Sodium azide|NaN|3}}: |
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:{{chem2|2 NaNH2 + N2O -> NaN3 + NaOH + NH3 }} |
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This reaction is the route adopted by the commercial chemical industry to produce ] salts, which are used as detonators.<ref name="InorgChem">{{cite book|title=Inorganic Chemistry|url=https://archive.org/details/inorganicchemist00hous_159|url-access=limited|publisher=Pearson|year=2008|isbn=978-0-13-175553-6|edition=3rd|page=|chapter=Chapter 15: The group 15 elements|author1=Housecroft, Catherine E.|author2=Sharpe, Alan G.}}</ref> |
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==Mechanism of action== |
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The pharmacological ] of inhaled {{chem|N|2|O}} is not fully known. However, it has been shown to directly modulate a broad range of ]s, which likely plays a major role. It moderately blocks ] and ]-containing ], weakly inhibits ], ], ] and ], and slightly potentiates ] and ]s.<ref name="pmid11020766">{{cite journal|vauthors=Yamakura T, Harris RA |title=Effects of gaseous anaesthetics nitrous oxide and xenon on ligand-gated ion channels. Comparison with isoflurane and ethanol |journal=Anesthesiology |volume=93 |issue=4 |pages=1095–101 |year=2000 |pmid=11020766 |doi=10.1097/00000542-200010000-00034|s2cid=4684919 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="pmid9822732">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mennerick S, Jevtovic-Todorovic V, Todorovic SM, Shen W, Olney JW, Zorumski CF |title=Effect of nitrous oxide on excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission in hippocampal cultures |journal=Journal of Neuroscience |volume=18 |issue=23 |pages=9716–26 |year=1998 |pmid=9822732 |pmc=6793274 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.18-23-09716.1998 }}</ref> It also has been shown to activate ].<ref name="pmid14742687">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gruss M, Bushell TJ, Bright DP, Lieb WR, Mathie A, Franks NP |title=Two-pore-domain K<sup>+</sup> channels are a novel target for the anesthetic gases xenon, nitrous oxide, and cyclopropane |journal=Molecular Pharmacology |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=443–52 |year=2004 |pmid=14742687 |doi=10.1124/mol.65.2.443|s2cid=7762447 }}</ref> While {{chem|N|2|O}} affects several ion channels, its anaesthetic, ] and ] effects are likely caused mainly via inhibition of NMDA receptor-mediated currents.<ref name="pmid11020766" /><ref name="pmid17352529">{{cite journal|vauthors=Emmanouil DE, Quock RM |title=Advances in Understanding the Actions of Nitrous Oxide |journal=Anesthesia Progress |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=9–18 |year=2007 |pmid=17352529 |pmc=1821130 |doi=10.2344/0003-3006(2007)542.0.CO;2}}</ref> In addition to its effects on ion channels, {{chem|N|2|O}} may act similarly to ] (NO) in the central nervous system.<ref name="pmid17352529" /> Nitrous oxide is 30 to 40 times more soluble than nitrogen. |
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The effects of inhaling sub-anaesthetic doses of nitrous oxide may vary unpredictably with settings and individual differences;<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Atkinson|first1=Roland M.|last2=Green|first2=J. DeWayne|last3=Chenoweth|first3=Dennis E.|last4=Atkinson|first4=Judith Holmes|date=1979-10-01|title=Subjective Effects of Nitrous Oxide: Cognitive, Emotional, Perceptual and Transcendental Experiences|journal=Journal of Psychedelic Drugs|volume=11|issue=4|pages=317–330|doi=10.1080/02791072.1979.10471415|pmid=522172}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Walker|first1=Diana J.|last2=Zacny|first2=James P.|date=2001-09-01|title=Within- and between-subject variability in the reinforcing and subjective effects of nitrous oxide in healthy volunteers|journal=Drug and Alcohol Dependence|volume=64|issue=1|pages=85–96|doi=10.1016/s0376-8716(00)00234-9|pmid=11470344}}</ref> however, Jay (2008)<ref name="Mike Jay 22–25">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Jay M |date=2008-09-01|title=Nitrous oxide: recreational use, regulation and harm reduction|journal=Drugs and Alcohol Today|volume=8|issue=3|pages=22–25|doi=10.1108/17459265200800022}}</ref> suggests that it reliably induces the following states and sensations: |
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* Intoxication |
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* Euphoria/dysphoria |
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* Spatial disorientation |
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* Temporal disorientation |
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* Reduced pain sensitivity |
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A minority of users also experience uncontrolled vocalisations and muscular spasms. These effects generally disappear minutes after removal of the nitrous oxide source.<ref name="Mike Jay 22–25"/> |
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===Anxiolytic effect=== |
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In behavioural tests of ], a low dose of {{chem|N|2|O}} is an effective ]. This anti-anxiety effect is associated with enhanced activity of GABA{{ssub|A}} receptors, as it is partially reversed by ] ]. Mirroring this, animals that have developed tolerance to the anxiolytic effects of ]s are partially tolerant to {{chem|N|2|O}}.<ref name="emmanouil">{{cite journal|title=Nitrous oxide anxiolytic effect in mice in the elevated plus maze: mediation by benzodiazepine receptors |vauthors=Emmanouil DE, Johnson CH, Quock RM |journal=Psychopharmacology |volume=115 |issue=1–2 |pages=167–72 |year=1994 |doi=10.1007/BF02244768 |pmid=7862891|s2cid=21652496 }}</ref> Indeed, in humans given 30% {{chem|N|2|O}}, benzodiazepine receptor antagonists reduced the subjective reports of feeling "high", but did not alter ] performance.<ref name="zacny">{{cite journal|title=Flumazenil may attenuate some subjective effects of nitrous oxide in humans: a preliminary report |vauthors=Zacny JP, Yajnik S, Coalson D, Lichtor JL, Apfelbaum JL, Rupani G, Young C, Thapar P, Klafta J |journal=Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=815–9 |year=1995 |doi=10.1016/0091-3057(95)00039-Y |pmid=7675863|s2cid=39068081 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gillman |first=Mark Akfred |date=2022 |title=What is better for psychiatry: Titrated or fixed concentrations of nitrous oxide? |journal=Front. Psychiatry |volume=13 |issue=773190 |pages=460–3|doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2022.773190 |pmid=36072452 |pmc=9441863 |doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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===Analgesic effect=== |
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The analgesic effects of {{chem|N|2|O}} are linked to the interaction between the ] system and the descending ] system. When animals are given morphine chronically, they develop tolerance to its pain-killing effects, and this also renders the animals tolerant to the analgesic effects of {{chem|N|2|O}}.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Tolerance to nitrous oxide analgesia in rats and mice |vauthors=Berkowitz BA, Finck AD, Hynes MD, Ngai SH |journal=Anesthesiology |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=309–12 |year=1979 |doi=10.1097/00000542-197910000-00006 |pmid=484891|s2cid=26281498 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Administration of ] that bind and block the activity of some endogenous opioids (not ]) also block the antinociceptive effects of {{chem|N|2|O}}.<ref name="branda">{{cite journal|title=Role of brain dynorphin in nitrous oxide antinociception in mice |vauthors=Branda EM, Ramza JT, Cahill FJ, Tseng LF, Quock RM |journal=Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior |volume=65 |pages=217–21 |year=2000 |doi=10.1016/S0091-3057(99)00202-6 |pmid=10672972 |issue=2|s2cid=1978597 }}</ref> Drugs that inhibit the breakdown of endogenous opioids also potentiate the antinociceptive effects of {{chem|N|2|O}}.<ref name="branda" /> Several experiments have shown that opioid receptor antagonists applied directly to the brain block the antinociceptive effects of {{chem|N|2|O}}, but these drugs have no effect when injected into the ]. |
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Apart from an indirect action, nitrous oxide, like morphine <ref>Gillman M.A. . Minireview: Analgesic nitrous oxide interacts with the endogenous opioid system : A review of the evidence. Life Sciences 39: 1209-1221</ref> also interacts directly with the endogenous opioid system by binding at opioid receptor binding sites.<ref>(Daras, C., Cantrill, R. C., Gillman, M. A. . 3-Naloxone displacement: evidence for nitrous oxide as an opioid agonist. European Journal of Pharmacology 89: 177-8.</ref><ref>Ori, C., Ford-Rice, F., London, E. D. . Effects of nitrous oxide and halothane on mu and kappa opioid receptors in guinea-pig brain. Anesthesiology 70: 541-544.)</ref> |
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Conversely, ] antagonists block the pain-reducing effects of {{chem|N|2|O}} when given directly to the spinal cord, but not when applied directly to the brain.<ref name="guo">{{cite journal|title=Nitrous oxide produces antinociceptive response via alpha2B and/or alpha2C adrenoceptor subtypes in mice |vauthors=Guo TZ, Davies MF, Kingery WS, Patterson AJ, Limbird LE, Maze M |journal=Anesthesiology |volume=90 |issue=2 |pages=470–6 |year=1999 |pmid=9952154 |doi=10.1097/00000542-199902000-00022|doi-access=free }}</ref> Indeed, ] knockout mice or animals depleted in ] are nearly completely resistant to the antinociceptive effects of {{chem|N|2|O}}.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Antinociceptive action of nitrous oxide is mediated by stimulation of noradrenergic neurons in the brainstem and activation of {{ssub|2B}} adrenoceptors |vauthors=Sawamura S, Kingery WS, Davies MF, Agashe GS, Clark JD, Koblika BK, Hashimoto T, Maze M |journal=J. Neurosci. |volume=20 |issue=24 |pages=9242–51 |year=2000 |pmid=11125002 |pmc=6773006 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-24-09242.2000 }}</ref> Apparently {{chem|N|2|O}}-induced release of endogenous opioids causes disinhibition of ] noradrenergic neurons, which release norepinephrine into the spinal cord and inhibit pain signalling.<ref name="pmid10781114">{{cite journal|vauthors=Maze M, Fujinaga M |title=Recent advances in understanding the actions and toxicity of nitrous oxide |journal=Anaesthesia |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=311–4 |year=2000 |pmid=10781114 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2044.2000.01463.x|s2cid=39823627 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Exactly how {{chem|N|2|O}} causes the release of endogenous opioid peptides remains uncertain. |
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==Production== |
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Various methods of producing nitrous oxide are used.<ref name=CatalysisToday2005>{{cite journal |last1=Parmon |first1=V. N. |last2=Panov |first2=G. I. |last3=Uriarte |first3=A. |last4=Noskov |first4=A. S. |title=Nitrous oxide in oxidation chemistry and catalysis application and production |journal=Catalysis Today |volume=100 |issue=2005 |pages=115–131|doi=10.1016/j.cattod.2004.12.012|year=2005 }}</ref> |
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===Industrial methods=== |
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] |
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Nitrous oxide is prepared on an industrial scale by carefully heating ]<ref name=CatalysisToday2005 /> at about 250 °C, which decomposes into nitrous oxide and water vapour.<ref>{{cite book|last=Holleman |first=A. F. |author2=Wiberg, E. |title=Inorganic Chemistry |publisher=Academic Press |location=San Diego |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-12-352651-9}}</ref> |
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:{{chem2 | NH4NO3 -> 2 H2O + N2O }} |
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The addition of various ] salts favours formation of a purer gas at slightly lower temperatures. This reaction may be difficult to control, resulting in ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sanghioverseas.com/nitrous_oxide_gas_plants/nitrous_oxide_gas_plants.htm |publisher=Sanghi Organization |title=Nitrous oxide plant |access-date=18 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131127131246/http://sanghioverseas.com/nitrous_oxide_gas_plants/nitrous_oxide_gas_plants.htm |archive-date=27 November 2013 }}</ref> |
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===Laboratory methods=== |
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The decomposition of ammonium nitrate is also a common laboratory method for preparing the gas. Equivalently, it can be obtained by heating a mixture of ] and ]:<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021035916/http://chemistry.tutorvista.com/inorganic-chemistry/nitrogen-family.html |date=21 October 2014 }}. chemistry.tutorvista.com</ref> |
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:{{chem2 | 2 NaNO3 + (NH4)2SO4 -> Na2SO4 + 2 N2O + 4 H2O }} |
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Another method involves the reaction of urea, nitric acid and sulfuric acid:<ref>.</ref> |
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:{{chem2 | 2 (NH2)2CO + 2 HNO3 + H2SO4 -> 2 N2O + 2 CO2 + (NH4)2SO4 + 2 H2O }} |
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Direct oxidation of ammonia with a ]-] catalyst has been reported:<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Suwa T, Matsushima A, Suziki Y, Namina Y |title= Manufacture of Nitrous Oxide by the Catalytic Oxidation of Ammonia|journal= The Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, Japan|volume=64|issue=11|pages= 1879–1888|year=1961|doi=10.1246/nikkashi1898.64.11_1879|doi-access=free}}</ref> cf. ]. |
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:{{chem2 | 2 NH3 + 2 O2 -> N2O + 3 H2O }} |
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] reacts with ] to give nitrous oxide. If the nitrite is added to the hydroxylamine solution, the only remaining by-product is salt water. If the hydroxylamine solution is added to the nitrite solution (nitrite is in excess), however, then toxic higher oxides of nitrogen also are formed: |
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:{{chem2 | NH3OHCl + NaNO2 -> N2O + NaCl + 2 H2O }} |
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Treating {{chem|HNO|3}} with {{chem|SnCl|2}} and HCl also has been demonstrated: |
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:{{chem2 | 2 HNO3 + 8 HCl + 4 SnCl2 -> 5 H2O + 4 SnCl4 + N2O }} |
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] decomposes to N{{ssub|2}}O and water with a ] of 16 days at 25 °C at pH 1–3.<ref name="Wiberg&Holleman">Egon Wiberg, Arnold Frederick Holleman (2001) ''Inorganic Chemistry'', Elsevier {{ISBN|0-12-352651-5}}</ref> |
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:{{chem2 | H2N2O2 -> H2O + N2O }} |
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==Atmospheric occurrence== |
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) in the lower atmosphere (]) at stations around the world. Abundances are given as pollution free monthly mean mole fractions in ].]] |
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] |
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] |
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] (2020)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.globalcarbonproject.org/nitrousoxidebudget/index.htm |title={{chem|N|2|O}} Budget |publisher=Global Carbon Project |access-date=2020-11-09}}</ref>]] |
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Nitrous oxide is a ] and is an active part of the planetary ]. Based on analysis of air samples gathered from sites around the world, its ] surpassed 330 ] in 2017.<ref name="agage">{{cite web |url=https://agage2.eas.gatech.edu/data_archive/data_figures/monthly/pdf/N2O_mm.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://agage2.eas.gatech.edu/data_archive/data_figures/monthly/pdf/N2O_mm.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Nitrous Oxide (N2O) Mole Fraction |publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology |access-date=2021-02-15}}</ref> The growth rate of about 1 ppb per year has also accelerated during recent decades.<ref name="noaaesrl">{{cite web |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends_n2o/ |title=Trends in Atmospheric Nitrous Oxide |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration / Earth System Research Laboratories |access-date=2021-02-15}}</ref> Nitrous oxide's atmospheric abundance has grown more than 20% from a base level of about 270 ppb in 1750.<ref name="tar">{{cite book |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar3/wg1/|contribution= Chapter 6 |title=TAR Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis |page=358}}</ref> |
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Important atmospheric properties of {{chem|N|2|O}} are summarized in the following table: |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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! Property |
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! Value |
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| ] (ODP) |
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| 0.017<ref name=Ravishankara>{{Citation|url=https://www.sciencemag.org/content/suppl/2009/08/27/1176985.DC1/Ravishankara.SOM.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.sciencemag.org/content/suppl/2009/08/27/1176985.DC1/Ravishankara.SOM.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=Supporting Online Material for - Nitrous Oxide (N<sub>2</sub>O): The Dominant Ozone-Depleting Substance Emitted in the 21st Century|last1=Ravishankara|first1=A. R.|last2=Daniel|first2=John S.|last3=Portmann|first3=Robert W.|date=2009-08-27|journal= Science |volume=326|issue=5949|pages=123–125|doi=10.1126/science.1176985|pmid=19713491|bibcode=2009Sci...326..123R|s2cid=2100618}}</ref> (] = 1) |
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|- |
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| ] (GWP: 100-year) |
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| 273<ref name="ar5">{{cite book |url=https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/understanding-global-warming-potentials |title=US Environmental Protection Agency |date=12 January 2016 |page= |language=English |contribution=}}</ref> (] = 1) |
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|- |
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| ] |
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| 116 ± 9 years<ref name="ar6"/> |
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In 2022 the IPCC reported that: "The human perturbation of the natural nitrogen cycle through the use of synthetic fertilizers and manure, as well as nitrogen deposition resulting from land-based agriculture and fossil fuel burning has been the largest driver of the increase in atmospheric N2O of 31.0 ± 0.5 ppb (10%) between 1980 and 2019."<ref name="ar6">{{Cite report |title=Chapter 5: Global Carbon and other Biogeochemical Cycles and Feedbacks |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/chapter/chapter-5/ |access-date=2023-05-06 |website=www.ipcc.ch |language=en}}</ref> |
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===Emissions by source=== |
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17.0 (12.2 to 23.5) million tonnes total annual average nitrogen in {{chem|N|2|O}} was emitted in 2007–2016.<ref name="ar6"/> About 40% of {{chem|N|2|O}} emissions are from humans and the rest are part of the natural ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=US EPA |first=OAR |date=2015-12-23 |title=Overview of Greenhouse Gases |url=https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/overview-greenhouse-gases |access-date=2023-05-04 |website=www.epa.gov |language=en}}</ref> The {{chem|N|2|O}} emitted each year by humans has a greenhouse effect equivalent to about 3 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide: for comparison humans emitted 37 billion tonnes of actual carbon dioxide in 2019, and methane equivalent to 9 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide.<ref>{{Cite web |title={{!}} Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions {{!}} Climate Watch |url=https://www.climatewatchdata.org/ghg-emissions?breakBy=gas&end_year=2019&gases=n2o&start_year=1990 |access-date=2023-05-04 |website=www.climatewatchdata.org}}</ref> |
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Most of the {{chem|N|2|O}} emitted into the atmosphere, from natural and anthropogenic sources, is produced by ]s such as ] and ] in soils and oceans.<ref name="Sloss1992">{{cite book|last=Sloss |first=Leslie L. |title=Nitrogen Oxides Control Technology Fact Book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=--C_JAU7W8QC&pg=PA6 |year=1992 |publisher=William Andrew |isbn=978-0-8155-1294-3 |page=6}}</ref> Soils under natural vegetation are an important source of nitrous oxide, accounting for 60% of all naturally produced emissions. Other natural sources include the oceans (35%) and atmospheric chemical reactions (5%).<ref name="inputs">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2010), "". Report EPA 430-R-10-001.</ref> ]s can also be ].<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Bange |first=Hermann W. |date=2006 |title=Nitrous oxide and methane in European coastal waters |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0272771406002496 |journal=Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science |language=en |volume=70 |issue=3 |pages=361–374 |bibcode=2006ECSS...70..361B |doi=10.1016/j.ecss.2006.05.042}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last1=Thompson |first1=A. J. |last2=Giannopoulos |first2=G. |last3=Pretty |first3=J. |last4=Baggs |first4=E. M. |last5=Richardson |first5=D. J. |date=2012 |title=Biological sources and sinks of nitrous oxide and strategies to mitigate emissions |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B |volume=367 |issue=1593 |pages=1157–1168 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2011.0415 |pmc=3306631 |pmid=22451101}}</ref> Emissions from thawing ] may be significant, but as of 2022 this is not certain.<ref name="ar6" /> |
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The main components of anthropogenic emissions are fertilised agricultural soils and livestock manure (42%), runoff and leaching of fertilisers (25%), biomass burning (10%), fossil fuel combustion and industrial processes (10%), biological degradation of other nitrogen-containing atmospheric emissions (9%) and human ] (5%).<ref name="denman">K. L. Denman, G. Brasseur, et al. (2007), "Couplings Between Changes in the Climate System and Biogeochemistry". In ''Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change'', Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a0701e/a0701e00.HTM |title=Livestock's long shadow: Environmental issues and options |publisher=Fao.org |author1=Steinfeld, H. |author2=Gerber, P. |author3=Wassenaar, T. |author4=Castel, V. |author5=Rosales, M. |author6=de Haan, C. |access-date=2 February 2008 |year=2006}}</ref><ref name="epaUpdated">{{cite web|url=https://www3.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/gases/n2o.html |title=Overview of Greenhouse Gases: Nitrous Oxide |publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |access-date=31 March 2016|date=23 December 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160812082641/https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/overview-greenhouse-gases |archive-date=12 August 2016 }}</ref><ref name="epa">{{cite web |url= http://www.epa.gov/nitrousoxide/sources.html |title=Nitrous Oxide: Sources and Emissions |publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |access-date=2 February 2008 |year=2006 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080116204312/http://www.epa.gov/nitrousoxide/sources.html |archive-date=16 January 2008}}</ref><ref>IPCC. 2013. Climate change: the physical basis (WG I, full report). p. 512.</ref> Agriculture enhances nitrous oxide production through soil cultivation, the use of nitrogen ] and animal waste handling.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Thompson|first1=R. L.|last2=Lassaletta|first2=L.|last3=Patra|first3=P. K.|last4=Wilson|first4=C. |last5=Wells|first5=K. C.|last6=Gressent|first6=A.|last7=Koffi|first7=E. N.|last8=Chipperfield|first8=M. P.|last9=Winiwarter|first9=W. |last10=Davidson|first10=E. A.|last11=Tian|first11=H.|display-authors=3|date=2019-11-18|title=Acceleration of global N 2 O emissions seen from two decades of atmospheric inversion|journal=Nature Climate Change|language=en|volume=9|issue=12 |pages=993–998|doi=10.1038/s41558-019-0613-7|issn=1758-6798|bibcode=2019NatCC...9..993T|s2cid=208302708|hdl=11250/2646484|hdl-access=free}}</ref> These activities stimulate naturally occurring bacteria to produce more nitrous oxide. Nitrous oxide emissions from soil can be challenging to measure as they vary markedly over time and space,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Molodovskaya |first1=Marina |last2=Warland |first2=Jon |last3=Richards |first3=Brian K. |last4=Öberg |first4=Gunilla |last5=Steenhuis |first5=Tammo S. |title=Nitrous Oxide from Heterogeneous Agricultural Landscapes: Source Contribution Analysis by Eddy Covariance and Chambers |journal=Soil Science Society of America Journal |date=2011 |volume=75 |issue=5 |page=1829 |doi=10.2136/SSSAJ2010.0415|bibcode=2011SSASJ..75.1829M }}</ref> and the majority of a year's emissions may occur when conditions are favorable during "hot moments"<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Molodovskaya | first1 = M. | last2 = Singurindy | first2 = O. | last3 = Richards | first3 = B. K. | last4 = Warland | first4 = J. S. | last5 = Johnson | first5 = M. | last6 = Öberg | first6 = G. | last7 = Steenhuis | first7 = T. S. | year = 2012 | title = Temporal variability of nitrous oxide from fertilized croplands: hot moment analysis | journal = Soil Science Society of America Journal | volume = 76 | issue = 5| pages = 1728–1740 | doi = 10.2136/sssaj2012.0039 | bibcode = 2012SSASJ..76.1728M | s2cid = 54795634 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Singurindy |first1=Olga |last2=Molodovskaya |first2=Marina |last3=Richards |first3=Brian K. |last4=Steenhuis |first4=Tammo S. |title=Nitrous oxide emission at low temperatures from manure-amended soils under corn (Zea mays L.) |journal=Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment |date=July 2009 |volume=132 |issue=1–2 |pages=74–81 |doi=10.1016/j.agee.2009.03.001|bibcode=2009AgEE..132...74S }}</ref> and/or at favorable locations known as "hotspots".<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Mason | first1 = C.W. | last2 = Stoof | first2 = C.R. | last3 = Richards | first3 = B.K. | last4 = Das | first4 = S. | last5 = Goodale | first5 = C.L. | last6 = Steenhuis | first6 = T.S. | year = 2017 | title = Hotspots of nitrous oxide emission in fertilized and unfertilized perennial grasses on wetness-prone marginal land in New York State | journal = Soil Science Society of America Journal | volume = 81 | issue = 3| pages = 450–458 | doi = 10.2136/sssaj2016.08.0249 | bibcode = 2017SSASJ..81..450M }}</ref> |
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Among industrial emissions, the production of nitric acid and ] are the largest sources of nitrous oxide emissions. The adipic acid emissions specifically arise from the degradation of the ] intermediate derived from the nitration of cyclohexanone.<ref name="denman"/><ref>{{cite journal|title=Abatement of N{{ssub|2}}O emissions produced in the adipic acid industry|author1=Reimer R. A. |author2=Slaten C. S. |author3=Seapan M. |author4=Lower M. W. |author5=Tomlinson P. E. | journal = Environmental Progress| year = 1994| volume = 13| issue = 2| pages = 134–137| doi = 10.1002/ep.670130217|bibcode=1994EnvPr..13..134R }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Abatement of N{{ssub|2}}O emissions produced in the adipic acid industry|author1=Shimizu, A. |author2=Tanaka, K. |author3=Fujimori, M. | journal = Chemosphere – Global Change Science| year = 2000| volume = 2| issue = 3–4| pages = 425–434| doi = 10.1016/S1465-9972(00)00024-6|bibcode=2000ChGCS...2..425S}}</ref> |
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===Biological processes=== |
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Microbial processes that generate nitrous oxide may be classified as ] and ]. Specifically, they include: |
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* aerobic autotrophic nitrification, the stepwise oxidation of ] ({{chem|NH|3}}) to ] ({{chem|NO|2|−}}) and to ] ({{chem|NO|3|−}})<!-- (Kowalchuk and Stephen, 2001)--> |
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* anaerobic heterotrophic denitrification, the stepwise reduction of {{chem|NO|3|−}} to {{chem|NO|2|-}}, ] (NO), {{chem|N|2|O}} and ultimately {{chem|N|2}}, where facultative anaerobe bacteria use {{chem|NO|3|−}} as an electron acceptor in the respiration of organic material in the condition of insufficient oxygen ({{chem|O|2}})<!-- (Knowles, 1982)--> |
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* nitrifier denitrification, which is carried out by autotrophic {{chem|NH|3}}-oxidising bacteria and the pathway whereby ammonia ({{chem|NH|3}}) is oxidised to nitrite ({{chem|NO|2|−}}), followed by the reduction of {{chem|NO|2|-}} to nitric oxide (NO), {{chem|N|2|O}} and molecular nitrogen ({{chem|N|2}})<!-- (Webster and Hopkins, 1996; Wrage et al., 2001)--> |
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* heterotrophic nitrification<!-- (Robertson and Kuenen, 1990)--> |
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* aerobic denitrification by the same heterotrophic nitrifiers<!-- (Robertson and Kuenen, 1990) --> |
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* fungal denitrification<!-- (Laughlin and Stevens, 2002) --> |
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* non-biological chemodenitrification<!-- (Chalk and Smith, 1983; Van Cleemput and Baert, 1984; Martikainen and De Boer, 1993; Daum and Schenk, 1998; Mørkved et al., 2007)--> |
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These processes are affected by soil chemical and physical properties such as the availability of mineral nitrogen and ], acidity and soil type, as well as climate-related factors such as soil temperature and water content. <!--(Mosier, 1994; Bouwman, 1996; Beauchamp, 1997; Yamulki et al. 1997; Dobbie and Smith, 2003; Smith et al. 2003; Dalal et al. 2003) --> |
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The emission of the gas to the atmosphere is limited greatly by its consumption inside the cells, by a process catalysed by the enzyme ].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Schneider, Lisa K. |author2=Wüst, Anja |author3=Pomowski, Anja |author4=Zhang, Lin |author5=Einsle, Oliver |chapter=No Laughing Matter: The Unmaking of the Greenhouse Gas Dinitrogen Monoxide by Nitrous Oxide Reductase |year=2014|title=The Metal-Driven Biogeochemistry of Gaseous Compounds in the Environment|pages =177–210| volume =14 |series=Metal Ions in Life Sciences |editor=Kroneck, Peter M. H. |editor2=Sosa Torres, Martha E. |publisher= Springer|doi=10.1007/978-94-017-9269-1_8|pmid=25416395|isbn=978-94-017-9268-4}}</ref> |
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==Uses== |
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===Rocket motors=== |
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Nitrous oxide may be used as an ] in a ] motor. Compared to other oxidisers, it is much less toxic and more stable at room temperature, making it easier to store and safer to carry on a flight. Its high density and low storage pressure (when maintained at low temperatures) make it highly competitive with stored high-pressure gas systems.<ref>{{cite web|author=Berger, Bruno |date=5 October 2007 |url=http://www.spl.ch/publication/SPL_Papers/N2O_safety_e.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.spl.ch/publication/SPL_Papers/N2O_safety_e.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Is nitrous oxide safe? |publisher=Swiss Propulsion Laboratory |pages=1–2 |quote=...Self pressurizing (Vapor pressure at 20°C is ~50.1 bar...Nontoxic, low reactivity -> rel. safe handling (General safe ???)...Additional energy from decomposition (as a monopropellant: ISP of 170 s)...Specific impulse doesn't change much with O/F... N{{ssub|2}}O is a monopropellant (as H{{ssub|2}}O{{ssub|2}} or Hydrazine...)}}</ref> |
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In a 1914 patent, American rocket pioneer ] suggested nitrous oxide and gasoline as possible propellants for a liquid-fuelled rocket.<ref>Goddard, R. H. (1914) "Rocket apparatus" {{US patent|1103503}}</ref> Nitrous oxide has been the oxidiser of choice in several ] designs (using ] with a liquid or gaseous oxidiser). The combination of nitrous oxide with ] fuel has been used by ] and others. It also is notably used in ] and ]ry with various plastics as the fuel. |
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Nitrous oxide may also be used as a ]. In the presence of a heated ] at a temperature of {{convert|577|C}}, {{chem|N|2|O}} decomposes exothermically into nitrogen and oxygen.<ref>. Space Propulsion Group (2012)</ref> Because of the large heat release, the catalytic action rapidly becomes secondary, as thermal ] becomes dominant. In a vacuum thruster, this may provide a monopropellant ] (''I''{{ssub|sp}}) up to 180 s. While noticeably less than the ''I''{{ssub|sp}} available from ] thrusters (monopropellant, or ] with ]), the decreased toxicity makes nitrous oxide a worthwhile option. |
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The ignition of nitrous oxide depends critically on pressure. It ] at approximately {{convert|600|C}} at a pressure of 309 psi (21 atmospheres).<ref name="Munke">Munke, Konrad (2 July 2001) , Report at CGA Seminar "Safety and Reliability of Industrial Gases, Equipment and Facilities", 15–17 October 2001, St. Louis, Missouri</ref> At 600 {{abbr|psi|pounds per square inch}}, the required ignition energy is only 6 joules, whereas at 130 psi a 2,500-joule ignition energy input is insufficient.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scaled.com/images/uploads/news/N2OSafetyGuidelines.pdf |title=Scaled Composites Safety Guidelines for {{chem|N|2|O}} |publisher=Scaled Composites |date=17 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712044612/http://www.scaled.com/images/uploads/news/N2OSafetyGuidelines.pdf |access-date=29 December 2013 |archive-date=12 July 2011 |quote=For example, N2O flowing at 130 psi in an epoxy composite pipe would not react even with a 2500 J ignition energy input. At 600 psi, however, the required ignition energy was only 6 J.}}</ref><ref>. Pratt & Whitney Aircraft.</ref> |
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===Internal combustion engine=== |
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{{Main|Nitrous oxide engine}} |
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In vehicle ], nitrous oxide (often called "]") increases ] by providing more oxygen during combustion, thus allowing the engine to burn more fuel. It is an oxidising agent roughly equivalent to hydrogen peroxide, and much stronger than molecular oxygen. Nitrous oxide is not flammable at low pressure/temperature, but at about {{convert|300|C}}, its breakdown delivers more oxygen than atmospheric air. It often is mixed with another fuel that is easier to deflagrate. |
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Nitrous oxide is stored as a compressed liquid. In an engine ], the ] and expansion of the liquid causes a large drop in intake charge temperature, resulting in a denser charge and allowing more air/fuel mixture to enter the cylinder. Sometimes nitrous oxide is injected into (or prior to) the intake manifold, whereas other systems directly inject it just before the cylinder (direct port injection). |
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The technique was used during ] by ] aircraft with the ] system to boost the power output of ]s. Originally meant to provide the Luftwaffe standard aircraft with superior high-altitude performance, technological considerations limited its use to extremely high altitudes. Accordingly, it was only used by specialised planes such as high-altitude ], ] and high-altitude ]. It sometimes could be found on Luftwaffe aircraft also fitted with another engine-boost system, ], a form of ] for aviation engines that used ] for its boost capabilities. |
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One of the major problems of nitrous oxide oxidant in a reciprocating engine is excessive power: if the mechanical structure of the engine is not properly reinforced, it may be severely damaged or destroyed. It is important with nitrous oxide augmentation of ]s to maintain proper and evenly spread ]s and fuel levels to prevent ] (also called detonation or spark knock).<ref>Cline, Allen W. (January 2000) . ''CONTACT!'' Magazine</ref> However, most problems associated with nitrous oxide come not from excessive power but from excessive pressure, since the gas builds up a much denser charge in the cylinder. The increased pressure and temperature can melt, crack, or warp the piston, valve, and cylinder head. |
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Automotive-grade liquid nitrous oxide differs slightly from medical-grade. A small amount of ] ({{chem|SO|2}}) is added to prevent substance abuse.<ref name="Automotive gas">{{cite web|url=https://www.holley.com/support/faq/?category=NOS |work=Holley |title=Holley performance products, FAQ for Nitrous Oxide Systems |access-date=18 December 2013}}</ref> |
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===Aerosol propellant for food=== |
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]s]] |
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The gas is approved for use as a ] (]: E942), specifically as an ]. It is commonly used in aerosol ] canisters and ]s. |
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The gas is extremely soluble in fatty compounds. In pressurised aerosol whipped cream, it is dissolved in the fatty cream until it leaves the can, when it becomes gaseous and thus creates foam. This produces whipped cream four times the volume of the liquid, whereas whipping air into cream only produces twice the volume. Unlike air, nitrous oxide inhibits ] of the butterfat. Carbon dioxide cannot be used for whipped cream because it is acidic in water, which would curdle the cream and give it a seltzer-like "sparkle". |
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Extra-frothed whipped cream produced with nitrous oxide is unstable, and will return to liquid within half an hour to one hour.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.explora-science.net/nitrousoxide-use-as-a-propellant-and-in-cooking/|title=Explora Science {{!}} Nitrous use as a propellant and in cooking|language=en-US|access-date=2019-02-19|archive-date=27 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227015310/http://www.explora-science.net/nitrousoxide-use-as-a-propellant-and-in-cooking/}}</ref> Thus, it is not suitable for decorating food that will not be served immediately. |
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In December 2016, there was a shortage of aerosol whipped cream in the United States, with canned whipped cream use at its peak during the ], due to an explosion at the ] nitrous oxide facility in ] in late August. The company prioritized the remaining supply of nitrous oxide to medical customers rather than to food manufacturing.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dewey |first=Caitlin |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2016/12/21/the-real-reason-you-cant-buy-whipped-cream-this-christmas/ |title=The real reason grocery stores are running out of whipped cream this Christmas |newspaper=] |date=2016-12-21 |access-date=2016-12-22 }}</ref> |
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Also, cooking spray, made from various oils with ] ], may use nitrous oxide ], or alternatively food-grade ] or ]. |
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===Medical=== |
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{{Main|Nitrous oxide (medication)}} |
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]]] |
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Nitrous oxide has been used in dentistry and surgery, as an anaesthetic and analgesic, since 1844.<ref name="Drug discovery">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mYQxRY9umjcC |author=Sneader W |title=Drug Discovery –A History |chapter=Systematic Medicine |pages=74–87 |date=2005 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |isbn=978-0-471-89980-8}}</ref> In the early days, the gas was administered through simple inhalers consisting of a breathing bag made of rubber cloth.<ref name="use in dentistry">{{cite journal|author=Miller AH |title=Technical Development of Gas Anesthesia |journal=Anesthesiology |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=398–409 |year=1941 |doi=10.1097/00000542-194107000-00004|s2cid=71117361 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Today, the gas is administered in hospitals by means of an automated ], with an ] and a ], that delivers a precisely dosed and breath-actuated flow of ] in a 2:1 ratio. |
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Nitrous oxide is a weak ], and so is generally not used alone in general anaesthesia, but used as a carrier gas (mixed with oxygen) for more powerful general anaesthetic drugs such as ] or ]. It has a ] of 105% and a ] of 0.46. The use of nitrous oxide in anaesthesia can increase the risk of postoperative nausea and vomiting.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Divatia|first1=Jigeeshu V.|last2=Vaidya|first2=Jayant S.|last3=Badwe|first3=Rajendra A.|last4=Hawaldar|first4=Rohini W.|title=Omission of Nitrous Oxide during Anesthesia Reduces the Incidence of Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting|journal=Anesthesiology|volume=85|issue=5|pages=1055–1062|doi=10.1097/00000542-199611000-00014|pmid=8916823|year=1996|s2cid=41549796|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hartung|first=John|title=Twenty-Four of Twenty-Seven Studies Show a Greater Incidence of Emesis Associated with Nitrous Oxide than with Alternative Anesthetics|journal=Anesthesia & Analgesia|volume=83|issue=1|pages=114–116|doi=10.1213/00000539-199607000-00020|year=1996}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tramèr|first1=M.|last2=Moore|first2=A.|last3=McQuay|first3=H.|date=February 1996|title=Omitting nitrous oxide in general anaesthesia: meta-analysis of intraoperative awareness and postoperative emesis in randomized controlled trials|journal=British Journal of Anaesthesia|volume=76|issue=2|pages=186–193|pmid=8777095|doi=10.1093/bja/76.2.186|doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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Dentists use a simpler machine which only delivers an {{chem|N|2|O}}/{{chem|O|2}} mixture for the patient to inhale while conscious but must still be a recognised purpose designed dedicated relative analgesic flowmeter with a minimum 30% of oxygen at all times and a maximum upper limit of 70% nitrous oxide. The patient is kept conscious throughout the procedure, and retains adequate mental faculties to respond to questions and instructions from the dentist.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Council on Clinical Affairs|date=2013|title=Guideline on use of nitrous oxide for pediatric dental patients|url=http://www.aapd.org/media/policies_guidelines/g_nitrous.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.aapd.org/media/policies_guidelines/g_nitrous.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|journal=Reference Manual V37|volume=6|pages=206–210}}</ref> |
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Inhalation of nitrous oxide is used frequently to relieve pain associated with ], ], ] and ] (including heart attacks). Its use during labour has been shown to be a safe and effective aid for birthing women.<ref>{{cite web |last=Copeland |first=Claudia |url=http://www.pregnancy.org/article/nitrous-oxide-analgesia-child-birth |title=Nitrous Oxide Analgesia for Childbirth |website=Pregnancy.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525080809/http://www.pregnancy.org/article/nitrous-oxide-analgesia-child-birth |archive-date=25 May 2011 }}</ref> Its use for acute coronary syndrome is of unknown benefit.<ref name="AHA10">{{cite journal|author=O'Connor RE |title=Part 10: acute coronary syndromes: 2010 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care |journal=Circulation |volume=122 |issue=18 Suppl 3 |pages=S787–817 |year=2010 |pmid=20956226 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.971028 |author2=Brady W |author3=Brooks SC |last4=Diercks |first4=D. |last5=Egan |first5=J. |last6=Ghaemmaghami |first6=C. |last7=Menon |first7=V. |last8=O'Neil |first8=B. J. |last9=Travers |first9=A. H. |last10=Yannopoulos |doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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In Canada and the UK, ] and Nitronox are used commonly by ambulance crews (including unregistered practitioners) as rapid and highly effective analgesic gas. |
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Fifty percent nitrous oxide can be considered for use by trained non-professional first aid responders in prehospital settings, given the relative ease and safety of administering 50% nitrous oxide as an analgesic. The rapid reversibility of its effect would also prevent it from precluding diagnosis.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Faddy|first1=S. C.|last2=Garlick|first2=S. R.|date=2005-12-01|title=A systematic review of the safety of analgesia with 50% nitrous oxide: can lay responders use analgesic gases in the prehospital setting?|journal=Emergency Medicine Journal|volume=22|issue=12|pages=901–908|doi=10.1136/emj.2004.020891|pmc=1726638|pmid=16299211}}</ref> |
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===Recreational=== |
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{{main|Recreational use of nitrous oxide}} |
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] depiction of a laughing gas party in the nineteenth century, by ]]] |
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]]] |
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] remnants (the small steel canisters) of recreational drug use, the Netherlands, 2017]] |
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], to induce ] and slight ]s, began with the British upper class in 1799 in gatherings known as "laughing gas parties".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Davy|first=Humphry|url=http://archive.org/details/researcheschemic00davy|title=Researches, chemical and philosophical: chiefly concerning nitrous oxide, or diphlogisticated nitrous air, and its respiration|date=1800|publisher=London : printed for J. Johnson, St. Paul's Church-Yard, by Biggs and Cottle, Bristol|others=Francis A. Countway Library of Medicine}}</ref> |
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From the 19th century, the widespread availability of the gas for medical and culinary purposes allowed for recreational use to greatly expand globally. In the UK as of 2014, nitrous oxide was estimated to be used by almost half a million young people at nightspots, festivals and parties.<ref>{{cite news | title = Warning over laughing gas misuse | url = https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2014/aug/09/warning-over-laughing-gas-misuse | date = 9 August 2014 | work = ] |location=London |agency=] | access-date = 9 August 2014}}</ref> |
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Widespread recreational use of the drug throughout the UK was featured in the 2017 ] documentary ''Inside The Laughing Gas Black Market'', in which journalist ] met with dealers of the drug who stole it from hospitals.<ref>{{Citation|last=VICE|title=Inside The Laughing Gas Black Market|date=2017-02-07|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gdhdAktIHtg| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211029/gdhdAktIHtg| archive-date=2021-10-29|access-date=2019-03-29}}{{cbignore}}</ref> |
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A significant issue cited in London's press is the effect of nitrous oxide canister littering, which is highly visible and causes significant complaints from communities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://metro.co.uk/2018/07/10/recycling-used-laughing-gas-canisters-for-cash-could-help-create-a-cleaner-britain-7694925/|title=Recycling used laughing gas canisters for cash could help create a cleaner Britain|date=2018-07-10|website=Metro|language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-15}}</ref> |
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Prior to 8 November 2023 in the UK, nitrous oxide was subject to the Psychoactive Substances Act 2016, making it illegal to produce, supply, import or export nitrous oxide for recreational use. The updated law prohibited possession of nitrous oxide, classifying it as a Class C drug under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nitrous oxide ban: guidance |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/nitrous-oxide-ban/nitrous-oxide-ban-guidance |access-date=2023-12-06 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref> |
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While nitrous oxide is understood by most recreational users to give a "safe high", many are unaware that excessive consumption may cause neurological harm which, if left untreated, can cause permanent neurological damage.<ref name="bbc.co.uk">{{cite news |title=Nitrous oxide: Laughing gas users risk spine damage, say doctors |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-64718233 |access-date=26 March 2023}}</ref> In Australia, recreation use became a public health concern following a rise in reports of neurotoxicity and ] admissions. In the state of South Australia, legislation was passed in 2020 to restrict canister sales.<ref name=nangs/> |
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In 2024, under the street name "Galaxy Gas", nitrous oxide has exploded in popularity among young people for recreational use. Most of the popularity has been fostered through ]. <ref>{{Cite web |last=Rakowitz |first=Rebecca |date=2024-09-27 |title=Everything Parents of Teens Need To Know about the Drug Going Viral on TikTok |url=https://www.sheknows.com/parenting/articles/3105253/galaxy-gas-everything-to-know/ |access-date=2024-09-30 |website=SheKnows |language=en-US}}</ref> |
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== Safety == |
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Nitrous oxide is a significant ] for surgeons, dentists and nurses. Because the gas is minimally metabolised in humans (with a rate of 0.004%), it retains its potency when exhaled into the room by the patient, and can intoxicate the clinic staff if the room is poorly ventilated, with potential chronic exposure. A continuous-flow fresh-air ] or {{chem|N|2|O}} ] may be needed to prevent waste-gas buildup.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}} The ] recommends that workers' exposure to nitrous oxide should be controlled during the administration of anaesthetic gas in medical, dental and veterinary operators.<ref>. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 94-100</ref> It set a ] (REL) of 25 ] (46 mg/m<sup>3</sup>) to escaped anaesthetic.<ref>{{Cite web|title =NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Nitrous oxide|url = https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0465.html|website = CDC|access-date = 2015-11-21}}</ref> |
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Exposure to nitrous oxide causes short-term impairment of cognition, audiovisual acuity, and manual dexterity, as well as spatial and temporal disorientation,<ref>. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Center for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, DHEW (NIOSH) Publication No. 77B140.</ref> putting the user at risk of accidental injury.<ref name="Mike Jay 22–25"/> |
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Nitrous oxide is ], and medium or long-term habitual consumption of significant quantities can cause neurological harm with the potential for permanent damage if left untreated.<ref name=nangs>{{cite journal |vauthors=Evans EB, Evans MR |title=Nangs, balloons and crackers: Recreational nitrous oxide neurotoxicity |journal=Aust J Gen Pract |volume=50 |issue=11 |pages=834–838 |date=November 2021 |pmid=34713284 |doi=10.31128/AJGP-10-20-5668 |s2cid=240153502 |type=Review|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="bbc.co.uk"/> It is believed that, like other ]s, {{chem|N|2|O}} produces ] in rodents upon prolonged (several hour) exposure.<ref name="pmid14622904">{{cite journal |year=2003|title=Prolonged exposure to inhalational anesthetic nitrous oxide kills neurons in adult rat brain|journal=Neuroscience|volume=122|issue=3|pages=609–16|doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2003.07.012|pmid=14622904|vauthors=Jevtovic-Todorovic V, Beals J, Benshoff N, Olney JW|s2cid=9407096}}</ref><ref name="pmid12854473">{{cite journal|year=2003|title=NMDA receptor antagonist neurotoxicity and psychotomimetic activity|journal=Masui. The Japanese Journal of Anesthesiology|language=ja|volume=52|issue=6|pages=594–602|pmid=12854473|vauthors=Nakao S, Nagata A, Masuzawa M, Miyamoto E, Yamada M, Nishizawa N, Shingu K}}</ref><ref name="pmid10928976">{{cite journal |year=2000|title=Ketamine potentiates cerebrocortical damage induced by the common anaesthetic agent nitrous oxide in adult rats|journal=British Journal of Pharmacology|volume=130|issue=7|pages=1692–8|doi=10.1038/sj.bjp.0703479|pmc=1572233|pmid=10928976 |vauthors=Jevtovic-Todorovic V, Benshoff N, Olney JW}}</ref><ref name="pmid15718054">{{cite journal|last2=Carter|year=2005|title=The anesthetics nitrous oxide and ketamine are more neurotoxic to old than to young rat brain|journal=Neurobiology of Aging|volume=26|issue=6|pages=947–56|doi=10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2004.07.009|pmid=15718054|author=Jevtovic-Todorovic V, Carter LB|s2cid=25095727}}</ref> |
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However, because it is normally expelled from the body rapidly, it is less likely to be neurotoxic than other NMDAR antagonists.<ref name="pmid16179534">{{cite journal |year=2005|title=Potentially neuroprotective and therapeutic properties of nitrous oxide and xenon|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume=1053|issue=1|pages=289–300|bibcode=2005NYASA1053..289A|doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.2005.tb00036.x|pmid=16179534 |vauthors=Abraini JH, David HN, Lemaire M|s2cid=34160112}}</ref> In rodents, short-term exposure results in only mild injury that is rapidly reversible, and neuronal death occurs only after constant and sustained exposure.<ref name="pmid14622904" /> Nitrous oxide may also cause neurotoxicity after extended exposure because of ]. This is especially true of non-medical formulations such as ]s ("whippits" or "nangs"),<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=23801743|doi=10.1093/bja/aet215|year=2013|last1=De Vasconcellos|first1=K.|title=Nitrous oxide: Are we still in equipoise? A qualitative review of current controversies|journal=British Journal of Anaesthesia|volume=111|issue=6|pages=877–85|last2=Sneyd|first2=J. R.|doi-access=free}}</ref> which contain no oxygen gas.<ref name="Middleton 2012 p.">{{cite book|title=Physics in anaesthesia|last=Middleton|first=Ben|publisher=Scion Pub. Ltd|year=2012|isbn=978-1-904842-98-9|location=Banbury, Oxfordshire, UK}}</ref> |
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In reports to poison control centers, heavy users (≥400 g or ≥200 L of {{N2O}} gas in one session) or frequent users (regular, i.e., daily or weekly) have developed signs of ]: ] (gait abnormalities) or ] (perception of sensations such as tingling, numbness, or prickling, mostly in the extremities). Such early signs of neurological damage indicate ].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.drugpo.2021.103519|year=2022|last1=van Riel|first1=A.J.H.P.|title=Alarming increase in poisonings from recreational nitrous oxide use after a change in EU-legislation, inquiries to the Dutch Poisons Information Center|journal=International Journal of Drug Policy|volume=100|page=103519|pmid=34753046|doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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Nitrous oxide might have therapeutic use in treating ]. In a rodent model, nitrous oxide at 75% by volume reduced ischemia-induced neuronal death induced by occlusion of the middle cerebral artery, and decreased NMDA-induced Ca<sup>2+</sup> influx in neuronal cell cultures, a cause of ].<ref name="pmid16179534" /> |
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Occupational exposure to ambient nitrous oxide has been associated with DNA damage, due to interruptions in DNA synthesis.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Randhawa |first1=G. |last2=Bodenham |first2=A. |title=The increasing recreational use of nitrous oxide: history revisited |url=https://academic.oup.com/bja/article/116/3/321/2566058 |journal=British Journal of Anaesthesia |volume=116 |issue=3 |pages=321–324 |language=en |doi=10.1093/bja/aev297 |pmid=26323292 |date=1 March 2016}}</ref> This correlation is dose-dependent<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wrońska-Nofer |first1=Teresa |last2=Nofer |first2=Jerzy-Roch |last3=Jajte |first3=Jolanta |last4=Dziubałtowska |first4=Elżbieta |last5=Szymczak |first5=Wiesław |last6=Krajewski |first6=Wojciech |last7=Wąsowicz |first7=Wojciech |last8=Rydzyński |first8=Konrad |title=Oxidative DNA damage and oxidative stress in subjects occupationally exposed to nitrous oxide (N<sub>2</sub>O) |journal=Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis |date=1 March 2012 |volume=731 |issue=1 |pages=58–63 |doi=10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2011.10.010 |pmid=22085808 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=DNA damage induced by nitrous oxide: Study in medical personnel of operating rooms |journal=Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis |date=18 June 2009 |volume=666 |issue=1–2 |pages=39–43 |doi=10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2009.03.012 |pmid=19439331 |last1=Wrońska-Nofer |first1=Teresa |last2=Palus |first2=Jadwiga |last3=Krajewski |first3=Wojciech |last4=Jajte |first4=Jolanta |last5=Kucharska |first5=Małgorzata |last6=Stetkiewicz |first6=Jan |last7=Wąsowicz |first7=Wojciech |last8=Rydzyński |first8=Konrad |bibcode=2009MRFMM.666...39W }}</ref> and does not appear to extend to casual recreational use; however, further research is needed to confirm the level of exposure needed to cause damage. |
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Inhalation of pure nitrous oxide causes oxygen deprivation, resulting in low blood pressure, fainting, and even heart attacks. This can occur if the user inhales large quantities continuously, as with a strap-on mask connected to a gas canister or other inhalation system, or prolonged breath-holding.{{citation needed|date=August 2024}} |
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Long-term exposure to nitrous oxide may cause ]. This can cause serious neurotoxicity if the user has preexisting vitamin B{{ssub|12}} deficiency.<ref>{{Cite journal|last2=Holder|first2=W. D. Jr.|year=1993|title=Neurologic Degeneration Associated with Nitrous Oxide Anesthesia in Patients with Vitamin B12 Deficiency|journal=Archives of Surgery|volume=128|issue=12|pages=1391–5|doi=10.1001/archsurg.1993.01420240099018|pmid=8250714|last1=Flippo|first1=T. S.}}</ref> It inactivates the cobalamin form of vitamin B{{ssub|12}} by oxidation. Symptoms of vitamin B{{ssub|12}} deficiency, including ], ] and ], may occur within days or weeks of exposure to nitrous oxide anaesthesia in people with subclinical vitamin B{{ssub|12}} deficiency. Symptoms are treated with high doses of vitamin B{{ssub|12}}, but recovery can be slow and incomplete.<ref>{{cite book |last=Giannini |first=A.J. |year=1999 |title=Drug Abuse |place=Los Angeles |publisher=Health Information Press |isbn=978-1-885987-11-2 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/drugabuse00ajam }}</ref> People with normal vitamin B{{ssub|12}} levels have stores to make the effects of nitrous oxide insignificant, unless exposure is repeated and prolonged (nitrous oxide abuse). Vitamin B{{ssub|12}} levels should be checked in people with risk factors for vitamin B{{ssub|12}} deficiency prior to using nitrous oxide anaesthesia.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Conrad |first=Marcel |title=Pernicious Anemia |website=Medscape |date=4 October 2006 |url=http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic1799.htm |access-date=2 June 2008}}</ref> |
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Several experimental studies in rats indicate that chronic exposure of pregnant females to nitrous oxide may have adverse effects on the developing fetus.<ref name="Vieira1980">{{cite journal|pmid=7189346 |year=1980 |last1=Vieira |first1=E. |last2=Cleaton-Jones |first2=P. |last3=Austin |first3=J.C. |last4=Moyes |first4=D.G. |last5=Shaw |first5=R. |title=Effects of low concentrations of nitrous oxide on rat fetuses |volume=59 |issue=3 |pages=175–7 |journal=Anesthesia and Analgesia |doi=10.1213/00000539-198003000-00002|s2cid=41966990 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=465253 |year=1979 |last1=Vieira |first1=E. |title=Effect of the chronic administration of nitrous oxide 0.5% to gravid rats |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=283–7 |journal=British Journal of Anaesthesia |doi=10.1093/bja/51.4.283|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=6821624 |year=1983 |last1=Vieira |first1=E |last2=Cleaton-Jones |first2=P |last3=Moyes |first3=D. |title=Effects of low intermittent concentrations of nitrous oxide on the developing rat fetus |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=67–9 |journal=British Journal of Anaesthesia |doi=10.1093/bja/55.1.67|doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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At room temperature ({{Convert|20|C|disp=sqbr}}) the saturated vapour pressure is 50.525 bar, rising up to 72.45 bar at {{convert|36.4|C}}—the ]. The pressure curve is thus unusually sensitive to temperature.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160330004038/http://encyclopedia.airliquide.com/encyclopedia.asp?LanguageID=11&CountryID=19&Formula=&GasID=55&UNNumber= |date=30 March 2016 }}. Air Liquide Gas Encyclopedia.</ref> As with many strong oxidisers, contamination of parts with fuels have been implicated in rocketry accidents, where small quantities of nitrous/fuel mixtures explode due to "]"-like effects (sometimes called "dieseling"—heating due to ] compression of gases can reach decomposition temperatures).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ukrocketman.com/rocketry/hybridukhistory.shtml |title=Vaseline triggered explosion of hybrid rocket |publisher=Ukrocketman.com}}</ref> Some common building materials such as stainless steel and aluminium can act as fuels with strong oxidisers such as nitrous oxide, as can contaminants that may ignite due to adiabatic compression.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.airproducts.com/nr/rdonlyres/8c46596e-2f7d-4895-b12a-e54cd63e1996/0/safetygram20.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060901093045/http://www.airproducts.com/nr/rdonlyres/8c46596e-2f7d-4895-b12a-e54cd63e1996/0/safetygram20.pdf |archive-date=1 September 2006 |title=Safetygram 20: Nitrous Oxide |publisher=Airproducts.com}}</ref> There also have been incidents where nitrous oxide decomposition in plumbing has led to the explosion of large tanks.<ref name="Munke" /> |
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==Environmental impact== |
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Global accounting of {{chem|N|2|O}} sources and sinks over the decade ending 2016 indicates that about 40% of the average 17 TgN/yr (]s, or million metric tons, of nitrogen per year) of emissions originated from human activity, and shows that emissions growth chiefly came from expanding ].<ref name="HTian" /><ref name=":0" /> |
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Nitrous oxide has significant ] as a ]. On a per-molecule basis, considered over a 100-year period, nitrous oxide has 265 times the atmospheric heat-trapping ability of ] ({{chem|CO|2}}).<ref name="ar5" /> However, because of its low concentration (less than 1/1,000 of that of {{chem|C|O|2}}), its contribution to the ] is less than one third that of carbon dioxide, and also less than ].<ref name="clim">US Environmental Protection Agency, "" Web document, accessed on 2017-02-14</ref> On the other hand, since about 40% of the {{chem|N|2|O}} entering the atmosphere is the result of human activity,<ref name="denman" /> control of nitrous oxide is part of efforts to curb greenhouse gas emissions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.grida.no/publications/other/ipcc%5Ftar/?src=/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/247.htm |title=4.1.1 Sources of Greenhouse Gases |work=IPCC TAR WG1 2001 |access-date=21 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029023441/http://www.grida.no/publications/other/ipcc%5Ftar/?src=%2Fclimate%2Fipcc_tar%2Fwg1%2F247.htm |archive-date=29 October 2012 }}</ref> |
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Most human caused nitrous oxide released into the atmosphere is a ], when farmers add nitrogen-based fertilizers onto the fields, and through the breakdown of animal manure. Reduction of emissions can be a hot topic in the ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mundschenk |first=Susanne |title=The Netherlands is showing how not to tackle climate change {{!}} The Spectator |url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/the-netherlands-is-showing-how-not-to-tackle-climate-change |access-date=2022-08-28 |website=www.spectator.co.uk |date=3 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref> |
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Nitrous oxide is also released as a by-product of burning fossil fuel, though the amount released depends on which fuel was used. It is also emitted through the manufacture of ], which is used in the synthesis of nitrogen fertilizers. The production of adipic acid, a precursor to ] and other synthetic clothing fibres, also releases nitrous oxide.<ref>{{cite web|title=Overview of Greenhouse Gases: Nitrous Oxide Emissions|url=https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/ghgemissions/overview-greenhouse-gases_.html|publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency|date=October 6, 2016|access-date=July 14, 2019}}</ref> |
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A rise in atmospheric nitrous oxide concentrations has been implicated as a possible contributor to the extremely intense global warming during the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Naafs |first1=B. David A. |last2=Monteiro |first2=Fanny M. |last3=Pearson |first3=Ann |last4=Higgins |first4=Meytal B. |last5=Pancost |first5=Richard D. |last6=Ridgwell |first6=Andy |date=10 December 2019 |title=Fundamentally different global marine nitrogen cycling in response to severe ocean deoxygenation |journal=] |volume=116 |issue=50 |pages=24979–24984 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1905553116 |pmid=31767742 |pmc=6911173 |bibcode=2019PNAS..11624979N |doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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Nitrous oxide has also been implicated in ]. A 2009 study suggested that {{chem|N|2|O}} emission was the single most important ozone-depleting emission and it was expected to remain the largest throughout the 21st century.<ref name="sciozo">{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.1176985 |title=Nitrous Oxide (N{{ssub|2}}O): The Dominant Ozone-Depleting Substance Emitted in the 21st Century|year=2009|last1=Ravishankara|first1=A. R.|last2=Daniel|first2=J. S.|last3=Portmann|first3=R. W. |journal=Science |volume=326 |issue=5949 |pages=123–5|pmid=19713491 |bibcode = 2009Sci...326..123R |s2cid=2100618|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|last=Grossman |first=Lisa |date=28 August 2009 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn17698-laughing-gas-is-biggest-threat-to-ozone-layer.html |title=Laughing gas is biggest threat to ozone layer |magazine=New Scientist}}</ref> |
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== Legality == |
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{{main|Recreational use of nitrous oxide#Legal status}} |
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In ] transfer of nitrous oxide from bulk cylinders to smaller, more transportable E-type, 1,590-litre-capacity tanks<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohiomedical.com/UserFiles/File/Medical+Gas+Cylinder+Data.pdf|title=Ohio Medical|website=www.ohiomedical.com|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417223630/http://www.ohiomedical.com/UserFiles/File/Medical%20Gas%20Cylinder%20Data.pdf|archive-date=17 April 2016}}</ref> is legal when intended for medical anaesthesia. |
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The ] has warned that nitrous oxide is a prescription medicine whose sale or possession without a prescription is an offense under the Medicines Act.<ref>{{cite news |last=Anderton |first=Jim |date=26 June 2005 |url=http://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/time039s-sham-sales-laughing-gas |title=Time's up for sham sales of laughing gas |publisher=Beehive.govt.nz |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150108015457/http://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/time039s-sham-sales-laughing-gas |archive-date=8 January 2015 }}</ref> This would seemingly prohibit all non-medicinal uses of nitrous oxide, although it is implied that only recreational use will be targeted. |
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In August 2015, the ] of the ] (]) banned the use of the drug for recreational purposes, making offenders liable to an on-the-spot fine of up to £1,000.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-33955823 |title=Lambeth Council bans laughing gas as recreational drug |work=BBC News |date=17 August 2015 |access-date=17 August 2015 }}</ref> In September 2023, the UK Government announced that nitrous oxide would be made illegal by the end of the year, with possession potentially carrying up to a two-year prison sentence or an unlimited fine.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-09-05 |title=Nitrous oxide: Laughing gas to be illegal by end of year |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-66718165 |access-date=2023-09-05}}</ref> |
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Possession of nitrous oxide is legal under ] federal law and is not subject to ] purview.<ref name="ccle">{{cite web |url=http://www.cognitiveliberty.org/dll/N20_state_laws.htm |title=US Nitrous Oxide Laws (alphabetically) Based on a search of online free legal databases. Conducted May 2002 |publisher=Center for Cognitive Liberty and Ethics |access-date=27 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080124114346/http://www.cognitiveliberty.org/dll/N20_state_laws.htm |archive-date=24 January 2008 }}</ref> It is, however, regulated by the ] under the Food Drug and Cosmetics Act; prosecution is possible under its "misbranding" clauses, prohibiting the sale or distribution of nitrous oxide for the purpose of ] without a proper medical license. Many states have laws regulating the possession, sale and distribution of nitrous oxide. Such laws usually ban distribution to minors or limit the amount that may be sold without special license.{{Citation needed|date=July 2008}} For example, in California, possession for recreational use is prohibited and qualifies as a misdemeanor.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?sectionNum=381b&lawCode=PEN |title=California Penal Code § 381b |publisher=]|date=1984|access-date=October 27, 2024 }}</ref> |
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==See also== |
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* ] |
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==References== |
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{{Reflist}} |
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== Further reading == |
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*{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Nitrous Oxide |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Oxidizers |publisher=De Gruyter |last=Schmidt |first=Eckart W. |date=2022 |pages=2905–3042 |doi=10.1515/9783110750294-023 |isbn=978-3-11-075029-4}} |
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*{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Schmidt |first=Eckart W.|title=Nitrous Oxide Monopropellants |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Monopropellants |publisher=De Gruyter |date=2023 |pages=1215–1436 |doi=10.1515/9783110751390-009 |isbn=978-3-11-075139-0}} |
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*{{Cite journal |last=Leont'ev |first=Aleksandr V. |last2=Fomicheva |first2=Ol'ga A. |last3=Proskurnina |first3=Marina V. |last4=Zefirov |first4=Nikolai S. |date=2001 |title=Modern chemistry of nitrous oxide |url=https://www.russchemrev.org/RCR631pdf |journal=Russian Chemical Reviews |volume=70 |issue=2 |pages=91–104 |doi=10.1070/RC2001v070n02ABEH000631 |issn=0036-021X}} |
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== External links == |
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{{Commons category|Nitrous oxide}} |
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* Freeview video of Paul Crutzen Nobel Laureate for his work on decomposition of ozone talking to Harry Kroto Nobel Laureate by the Vega Science Trust. |
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* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929191310/http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/46776/title/Nitrous_oxide_fingered_as_monster_ozone_slayer |date=29 September 2012 }}, Science News |
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