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{{Chembox {{Chembox
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| ImageFile = vasotocin.png | ImageFile = vasotocin.svg
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| IUPACName = 1--13--3,6,9,12,15-pentaoxo-18,19-dithia-2,5,8,11,14-pentazacycloicosane-1-carbonyl]-''N''--5-(diaminomethylideneamino)-1-oxopentan-2-yl]pyrrolidine-2-carboxamide | IUPACName = 1--13--3,6,9,12,15-pentaoxo-18,19-dithia-2,5,8,11,14-pentazacycloicosane-1-carbonyl]-''N''--5-(diaminomethylideneamino)-1-oxopentan-2-yl]pyrrolidine-2-carboxamide
| OtherNames = Argiprestocin; Arg-vasotocin; 8-Arg-vasotocin; Arginine vasotocin | OtherNames = Argiprestocin; Arg-vasotocin; 8-Arg-vasotocin; Arginine vasotocin
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'''Vasotocin''' is an ] hybrid of ] and ] found in all non-mammalian vertebrates including ]s, ], ]s and in foetal mammals. In mammals it appears to have similar biological properties to both oxytocin (stimulating reproductive tract contraction as in egg laying or birth) and vasopressin (diuretic and antidiuretic effects). It has been found to have effects on the regulation of ]<ref name="isbn3-540-58961-9">{{cite book | author = Kales, Anthony | authorlink = | editor = | others = | title = The Pharmacology of sleep | edition = | language = | publisher = Springer-Verlag | location = Berlin | year = 1995 | origyear = | pages = | quote = | isbn = 3-540-58961-9 | oclc = | doi = | url = | accessdate = }}</ref>. It's functions in non-mammals are unknown. '''Vasotocin''' is an ] homologous to ] and ] found in all non-mammalian vertebrates (including ]s, ]es, and ]s) and possibly in mammals during the fetal stage of development. Arginine vasotocin (AVT), a hormone produced by neurosecretory cells within the ] gland (neurohypophysis) of the brain, is a major endocrine regulator of water balance and osmotic homoeostasis and is involved in social and sexual behavior in non-mammalian vertebrates. In mammals, it appears to have biological properties similar to those of oxytocin (stimulating reproductive tract contraction as in egg laying or birth) and vasopressin (diuretic and antidiuretic effects). It has been found to have effects on the regulation of ].<ref name="isbn3-540-58961-9">{{cite book | author = Kales, Anthony | title = The Pharmacology of sleep | publisher = Springer-Verlag | location = Berlin | year = 1995 | isbn = 3-540-58961-9 }}</ref> Evidence for the existence of endogenous vasotocin in mammals is limited<ref name="pmid3998151">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ervin MG, Leake RD, Ross MG, Calvario GC, Fisher DA | title = Arginine vasotocin in ovine fetal blood, urine, and amniotic fluid | journal = J Clin Invest | volume = 75 | issue = 5 | pages = 1696–701 |date=May 1985 | pmid = 3998151 | doi = 10.1172/JCI111878 | pmc=425513}}</ref><ref name="pmid3355867">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ervin MG, Amico JA, Leake RD, Ross MG, Robinson AG, Fisher DA | title = Arginine vasotocin and a novel oxytocin-vasotocin-like material in plasma of human newborns | journal = Biol Neonate | volume = 53 | issue = 1 | pages = 17–22 | year = 1988 | pmid = 3355867 | doi=10.1159/000242757}}</ref> and no mammalian gene encoding vasotocin has been confirmed.

AVT (Cys-Tyr-Ile-Gln-Asn-Cys-Pro-Arg-Gly-NH2), which occurs in the ], represents the ancestral form in the phylogeny of the vertebrate neurohypophysial hormones.<ref name="pmid8275925">{{cite journal |vauthors=Liu JW, Ben-Jonathan N | title = Prolactin-releasing activity of neurohypophysial hormones: structure-function relationship | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 134 | issue = 1 | pages = 114–18 |date=January 1994 | pmid = 8275925 | doi = 10.1210/endo.134.1.8275925 }}</ref> Gene duplication and point mutation have produced two distinct lineages, one involved in reproduction (oxytocin-like peptides) and the other in ] (vasopressin-like peptides). These hormones have remained highly conserved throughout evolution. Each is a peptide of nine amino acids derived from a preprohormone precursor by proteolytic cleavage, with an intramolecular disulfide bridge between the ] (Cys) residues; the C-terminal ] (Gly) residue is amidated. Six of the residues have been found to be invariant in homologous peptides from numerous species of vertebrates. The vasopressin-like peptides, which differ in positions 3 and/or 8, include AVT and the mammalian hormones ] (Cys-Tyr-Phe-Gln-Asn-Cys-Pro-Arg-Gly-NH2, with ]-3 of AVT changed to ]) and ] (isoleucine-3 changed to phenylalanine and ]-8 changed to ]). The oxytocin-like peptides, which differ in positions 4 and/or 8, include ] (Cys-Tyr-Ile-Gln-Asn-Cys-Pro-Leu-Gly-NH2, with arginine-8 of AVT changed to ]), ] (arginine-8 changed to isoleucine), and ] (]-4 changed to ] and arginine-8 changed to isoleucine); they differ from the vasopressin-like peptides in having a neutral amino acid in place of a basic amino acid at position 8. Oxytocin occurs in placental mammals; mesotocin occurs in amphibians, reptiles, and birds, and isotocin occurs in fishes.

== Biosynthesis ==

AVT is synthesized as a preprohormone that includes a second peptide, neurophysin VT (] are carrier proteins that are secreted along with their passenger hormones); intracellular proteolytic processing generates the mature peptides. In the chicken (Gallus gallus), the 161-amino acid vasotocin-neurophysin VT preprohormone is encoded by the gene AVP, which is considered homologous to the mammalian genes encoding arginine vasopressin.<ref name="AVP arginine vasopressin (neurophysin II, antidiuretic hormone, diabetes insipidus, neurohypophyseal) ">{{cite web | title = AVP arginine vasopressin (neurophysin II, antidiuretic hormone, diabetes insipidus, neurohypophyseal) , Entrez Gene ID 396101 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/396101}}</ref> Removal of the 19-amino acid N-terminal signal peptide generates the prohormone, which is hydrolysed to AVT (derived from amino acids 20-28) and neurophysin VT (derived from amino acids 32-161).<ref name="UniProtKB/Swiss-Prot P16041 (NEU3_ONCKE)">{{cite web | title = Vasotocin-neurophysin VT, UniProtKB/Swiss-Prot P24787 (NEUV_CHICK) | url=https://www.uniprot.org/uniprot/P24787}}</ref> The existence of two AVT preprohormones with different sequences in fishes (such as ], Oncorhynchus keta<ref name="pmid2298304">{{cite journal |vauthors=Heierhorst J, Mahlmann S, Morley SD, Coe IR, Sherwood NM, Richter D | title = Molecular cloning of two distinct vasotocin precursor cDNAs from chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) suggests an ancient gene duplication | journal = FEBS Lett. | volume = 260 | issue = 2 | pages = 301–4 |date=January 1990 | pmid = 2298304 | doi=10.1016/0014-5793(90)80129-7| s2cid = 24247029 }}</ref>) is evidence for gene duplication.

==Physiological effects==

AVT combines both antidiuretic and reproductive activities similar to those of oxytocin and vasopressin. The physiological actions of AVT in birds are mediated through diverse receptor subtypes VT1, VT2, VT3 and VT4.<ref name="Jurkevich">Jurkevich A, Grossmann R (2003). Vasotocin and reproductive functions of the domestic chicken. Domest Anim Endocrinol. 25(1):93-9. {{PMID|12963102}}</ref> AVT and synthetic analogs injected into monkeys cause reabsorption of osmotically free water and changes in excretion of sodium and potassium ions in the kidneys.<ref name="Buravkova">Buravkova LB, Larina IM, Korolkov VI, Dobrokhotov IV, Grigorev AI (2003). Bull Exp Biol Med. 142(6):714-6. {{PMID|17603678}}</ref> AVT produces distinct effects on the reproductive functions of male and female domestic chickens. In laying hens, AVT synthesised in magnocellular diencephalic neurons is released into circulation in a highly coordinated manner, contributing to the peripheral control of oviposition. In males, parvocellular AVT cells located in the limbic system (bed nucleus of stria terminalis) express AVT. This expression is sensitive to gonadal steroids and is correlated with sexual differentiation of masculine behavior such as courtship vocalization and copulation.<ref name="Jurkevich" />

==Behavioral effects==

Several animal studies have been conducted that explore the behavioral effects of AVT. The main findings of these studies have revealed that AVT plays an integral role in the ] behavior and ] in non-mammalian vertebrates.

In a study conducted with ]es,<ref>Kabelik D, Klatt JD, Kingsbury MA, Goodson JL. Endogenous vasotocin exerts contexts-dependent behavioral effects in semi-naturalistic colony environment. Hormones and Behavior. 2009;56(1): 101-107.</ref> increased levels of AVT were linked to an increase in aggressive, competitive behavior in non-paired male finches, but were subsequently related to an increase in defensive behavior after the ]es had been paired. However, this study also found that blocking AVT receptors did not directly affect pair bonding ability. The shift in behaviors were explained by the location of the release of AVT in the brain. Competitive aggressive behavior was found to be linked with AVT release in the BSTm, whereas defensive, nest-protecting behavior was linked with AVT release in the neurons of the ] and ].

In a study conducted with male ], AVT was found to have an effect on later social interactions amongst the species. Immediately after injection with AVT, the ]s displayed less aggressive behavior (pecking). However, the next day, the ] that were injected with AVT displayed more dominant behavior towards familiar birds, but not unfamiliar birds. This study shows that AVT may play a role in establishing social hierarchy.<ref>Riters LV, and Panksepp J. Effects of vasotocin on aggressive behavior in male Japanese quail. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2006; 807(1): 478-480.</ref>

A study that investigated the role of social construction and AVT compared territorial and non-territorial species of tropical ] ].<ref>Semsar K, Kandel FLM, Godwin J. Manipulations of the AVT system shift social status and related courtship behavior in the Bluehead Wrasse. Hormones and Behavior. 2001; 40(1): 21-31.</ref> Experimenters administered Manning compound, an AVT agonist to the fish and found that, after treatment, non-territorial species displayed more territorial behavior whereas territorial species displayed less territorial behavior.

Research suggests that the effects of AVT on ] may be influenced by the social construction of the species. For example, in a study done with ],<ref>Backström T, and Winberg S. Arginine vasotocin influence on aggressive behavior and dominance in rainbow trout. Physiology and Behavior. 2009; 96(3): 470-475.</ref> increased levels of AVT were associated with more subordinate behavior. It is currently hypothesized that the contrasting effects of AVT are related to the distinction between territorial versus colonial social systems. In a territorial species, such as ], AVT is linked to less dominant behavior. This may be due to the differences in the distribution of AVT receptors in territorial and colonial species.


==Sources== ==Sources==
{{reflist|2}} {{Reflist|2}}


==External links== ==External links==
* {{MeshName|Vasotocin}} * {{MeshName|Vasotocin}}


{{Oxytocin and vasopressin receptor modulators}}
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