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{{short description|Polysaccharide gum used as a food additive and thickener}} |
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{{ambox | text = This page contains a copy of the infobox ({{tl|chembox}}) taken from revid of page ] with values updated to verified values.}} |
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| Reference = <ref name="carl-roth">{{cite web|url=http://www.carl-roth.de/jsp/de-de/sdpdf/3557.PDF |title=Sicherheitsdatenblatt des Herstellers Carl-Roth |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2011-04-18}}</ref> |
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| Reference = <ref name="MSDS">{{cite web |url=http://www.carl-roth.de/jsp/de-de/sdpdf/3557.PDF |title=Sicherheitsdatenblatt des Herstellers Carl-Roth | trans-title = Safety data sheet from the manufacturer Carl-Roth | language = de |access-date=2011-04-18 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718205632/http://www.carl-roth.de/jsp/de-de/sdpdf/3557.PDF |archive-date=2011-07-18 }}</ref> |
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| OtherNames = E 415 |
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| OtherNames = E 415 |
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| ImageFile1 = Xanthan.svg |
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| CASNo = 11138-66-2 |
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| CASNo = 11138-66-2 |
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| EINECS = 234-394-2 |
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| Formula = C<sub>35</sub>H<sub>49</sub>O<sub>29</sub> (monomer) |
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| Formula = C<sub>35</sub>H<sub>49</sub>O<sub>29</sub> (monomer) |
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'''Xanthan gum''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|z|æ|n|θ|ə|n}}) is a ] with many industrial uses, including as a common ]. It is an effective ] and ] that prevents ingredients from separating. It can be produced from ] by ] and derives its name from the ] of ] used, '']''. |
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==History== |
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Xanthan gum was discovered by ] and her research team at the ], and brought into commercial production by ] under the trade name Kelzan in the early 1960s, remaining the only manufacuturer in the US.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Whistler RL, BeMiller JN |title=Industrial gums, polysaccharides and their derivatives |date=1973 |publisher=Academic Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-12-746252-3 |edition=2nd}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cpkelco.com/markets-served/household-products/products/kelzan-xanthan-gum/ |title=KELZAN Xanthan Gum - CP Kelco |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=Feb 18, 2019 |website=cpkelco.com |publisher=CP Kelco |access-date=Feb 18, 2019 |quote=CP Kelco offers a range of biopolymers to thicken, suspend and stabilize emulsions and other water-based systems. The KELZAN xanthan gum line of industrial products can be used to modify the texture of industrial products and to stabilize household cleaners, fabric care products, suspensions, oil-in-water emulsions and foams against separation.}}</ref> It was approved for use in foods in 1968 and is accepted as a safe ] in the US, Canada, European countries, and many other countries, with ] E415, and ] 11138-66-2. |
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Xanthan gum derives its name from the species of bacteria used during the fermentation process, '']''.<ref name="Barrere-1986">{{cite journal | vauthors = Barrere GC, Barber CE, Daniels MJ | title = Molecular cloning of genes involved in the production of the extracellular polysaccharide xanthan by Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris. | journal = International Journal of Biological Macromolecules | date = December 1986 | volume = 8 | issue = 6 | pages = 372–374 | doi = 10.1016/0141-8130(86)90058-9 }}</ref> |
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==Uses== |
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Addition of 1% of xanthan gum can produce a significant increase in the ] of a liquid.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Davidson RL | title = Handbook of Water-soluble Gums and Resins | publisher = McGraw Hill | year = 1980 | isbn = 978-0-07-015471-1}}</ref> |
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In foods, xanthan gum is a common ingredient in salad dressings and sauces. It helps to prevent oil separation by stabilizing the ], although it is not an ]. Xanthan gum also helps suspend solid particles, such as spices. Xanthan gum helps create the desired texture in many ice creams. Toothpaste often contains xanthan gum as a binder to keep the product uniform. Xanthan gum also helps thicken commercial egg substitutes made from egg whites, to replace the fat and emulsifiers found in yolks. It is also a preferred method of thickening liquids for those with swallowing disorders, since it does not change the color or flavor of foods or beverages at typical use levels.<ref name="Cuisine-2012">cuisine, m. (2014). Xanthan Gum. Retrieved from modernist cuisine: {{cite web |url=http://www.modernistcookingmadeeasy.com/info/modernist-ingredients/more/xanthan-gum |title=Xanthan Gum |access-date=2014-06-21 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140618041738/http://www.modernistcookingmadeeasy.com/info/modernist-ingredients/more/xanthan-gum |archive-date=2014-06-18 |date=2012-11-27 }}</ref> In ] baking, xanthan gum is used to give the dough or batter the stickiness that would otherwise be achieved with ]. In most foods, it is used at concentrations of 0.5% or less. Xanthan gum is used in a wide range of food products, such as sauces, dressings, meat and poultry products, bakery products, confectionery products, beverages, dairy products, and others. |
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In the ], xanthan gum is used in large quantities to thicken ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/Terms/x/xanthan_gum.aspx|website=www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com|title=Oilfield Glossary - xanthan gum|publisher=Schlumberger|access-date=30 April 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170212103749/http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/Terms/x/xanthan_gum.aspx|archive-date=12 February 2017}}</ref> These fluids carry the solids cut by the drilling bit to the surface. Xanthan gum provides improved "low end"{{clarification needed|date=October 2024}} ]. When circulation stops, the solids remain suspended in the drilling fluid. The widespread use of ] and the demand for good control of drilled solids has led to its expanded use. It has been added to ] poured underwater, to increase its viscosity and prevent ]. |
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In ], xanthan gum is used to prepare water gels.<ref name="Kumar-2018">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kumar A, Rao KM, Han SS | title = Application of xanthan gum as polysaccharide in tissue engineering: A review | journal = Carbohydrate Polymers | volume = 180 | pages = 128–144 | date = January 2018 | pmid = 29103488 | doi = 10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.10.009 }}</ref> It is also used in oil-in-water emulsions to enhance droplet ].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ye A, Hemar Y, Singh H | title = Influence of polysaccharides on the rate of coalescence in oil-in-water emulsions formed with highly hydrolyzed whey proteins | journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry | volume = 52 | issue = 17 | pages = 5491–5498 | date = August 2004 | pmid = 15315390 | doi = 10.1021/jf030762o | bibcode = 2004JAFC...52.5491Y }}</ref> Xanthan gum is under preliminary research for its potential uses in ] to construct ]s and ] supporting ] tissue formation.<ref name="Kumar-2018"/> Furthermore, thiolated xanthan gum (see ]s) has shown potential for ],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bhatia M, Ahuja M, Mehta H | title = Thiol derivatization of Xanthan gum and its evaluation as a mucoadhesive polymer | journal = Carbohydrate Polymers | volume = 131 | pages = 119–124 | date = October 2015 | pmid = 26256167 | doi = 10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.05.049 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Alhakamy NA, Naveen NR, Gorityala S, Kurakula M, Hosny KM, Safhi AY, Bukhary DM, Bukhary HA, Sabei FY, Mushtaq RY, Murshid SS | title = Development of Novel S-Protective Thiolated-Based Mucoadhesive Tablets for Repaglinide: Pharmacokinetic Study | journal = Polymers | volume = 14 | issue = 17 | pages = 3529 | date = August 2022 | pmid = 36080604 | pmc = 9460926 | doi = 10.3390/polym14173529 | doi-access = free }}</ref> since by the covalent attachment of thiol groups to this polysaccharide high mucoadhesive and permeation enhancing properties can be introduced.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Leichner C, Jelkmann M, Bernkop-Schnürch A | title = Thiolated polymers: Bioinspired polymers utilizing one of the most important bridging structures in nature | journal = Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews | volume = 151-152 | pages = 191–221 | date = 2019 | pmid = 31028759 | doi = 10.1016/j.addr.2019.04.007 | s2cid = 135464452 }}</ref> |
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===Shear thinning=== |
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The viscosity of xanthan gum solutions decreases with higher shear rates. This is called ] or pseudoplasticity. This means that a product subjected to shear, whether from mixing, shaking or chewing, will thin. This is similar to the behaviour of ]. When the shear forces are removed, the food will thicken again. In salad dressing, the addition of xanthan gum makes it thick enough at rest in the bottle to keep the mixture fairly homogeneous, but the shear forces generated by shaking and pouring thins it, so it can be easily poured. When it exits the bottle, the shear forces are removed and it thickens again, so it clings to the salad. The rheology of xanthan aqua solutions become visco-elastic at higher concentrations of xanthan gum in water.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Biroun MH, Haworth L, Abdolnezhad H, Khosravi A, Agrawal P, McHale G, Torun H, Semprebon C, Jabbari M, Fu YQ | title = Impact Dynamics of Non-Newtonian Droplets on Superhydrophobic Surfaces | journal = Langmuir | volume = 39 | issue = 16 | pages = 5793–5802 | date = April 2023 | pmid = 37041655 | pmc = 10134492 | doi = 10.1021/acs.langmuir.3c00043 }}</ref> |
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=== Concentrations used === |
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The greater the concentration of xanthan gum in a liquid, the thicker the liquid will become. An emulsion can be formed with as little as 0.1% (by weight). Increasing the concentration of gum gives a thicker, more stable emulsion up to 1% xanthan gum. A teaspoon of xanthan gum weighs about 2.5 grams and brings one cup (250{{nbsp}}ml) of water to a 1% concentration.<ref name="Cuisine-2012"/><ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Rubenzahl M |url=http://feedme.typepad.com/my_weblog/2016/01/xanthan-gum-magical-food-thickener.html |title=Xanthan gum: Get past the weird and it's magical |access-date=2016-01-02 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304214324/http://feedme.typepad.com/my_weblog/2016/01/xanthan-gum-magical-food-thickener.html |archive-date=2016-03-04 }} Tests and measurements of xanthan gum </ref> |
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To make a foam, 0.2–0.8% xanthan gum is typically used. Larger amounts result in larger bubbles and denser foam. Egg white powder (0.2–2.0%) with 0.1–0.4% xanthan gum yields bubbles similar to soap bubbles. |
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==Safety== |
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According to a 2017 safety review by a scientific panel of the ] (EFSA), xanthan gum (European food additive number E 415) is extensively digested during ] ], and causes no ]s, even at high intake amounts.<ref name="Mortensen-2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mortensen A, Aguilar F, Crebelli R, Di Domenico A, Frutos MJ, Galtier P, Gott D, Gundert-Remy U, Lambré C, Leblanc JC, Lindtner O, Moldeus P, Mosesso P, Oskarsson A, Parent-Massin D, Stankovic I, Waalkens-Berendsen I, Woutersen RA, Wright M, Younes M, Brimer L, Christodoulidou A, Lodi F, Gelgelova P, Dusemund B | title = Re-evaluation of xanthan gum (E 415) as a food additive | journal = EFSA Journal | volume = 15 | issue = 7 | pages = e04909 | date = July 2017 | pmid = 32625570 | pmc = 7009887 | doi = 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4909 | publisher = European Food Safety Authority | doi-access = free }}</ref> The EFSA panel found no concern about ] from long-term consumption.<ref name="Mortensen-2017"/> The EFSA concluded that there is no safety concern for the general population when xanthan gum is consumed as a ].<ref name="Mortensen-2017"/> |
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==Preparation== |
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Xanthan gum is produced by the ] of ] and ].<ref name="Barrere-1986" /> The medium is well-aerated and stirred, and the xanthan polymer is produced extracellularly into the medium. After one to four days, the polymer is ] from the medium by the addition of ], and the precipitate is dried and milled to give a powder that is readily soluble in water or brine.<ref name="Mortensen-2017"/> |
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It is composed of pentasaccharide repeat units, comprising glucose, ], and ] in the ] 2:2:1.<ref name="Mortensen-2017"/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = García-Ochoa F, Santos VE, Casas JA, Gómez E | title = Xanthan gum: production, recovery, and properties | journal = Biotechnology Advances | volume = 18 | issue = 7 | pages = 549–579 | date = November 2000 | pmid = 14538095 | doi = 10.1016/S0734-9750(00)00050-1 }}</ref> |
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A strain of ''X. campestris'' that will grow on lactose has been developed – which allows it to be used to process ], a waste product of cheese production. This can produce 30 g/L of xanthan gum for every 40 g/L of whey powder. Whey-derived xanthan gum is commonly used in many commercial products, such as shampoos and salad dressings.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Tortora GJ, Funke BR, Case CL | date = 2010 | title = Microbiology: An Introduction | edition = 10th | location = San Francisco | publisher = Benjamin Cummings | pages = 801 }}</ref> |
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===Detail of the biosynthesis=== |
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Synthesis originates from glucose as substrate for synthesis of the sugar nucleotides precursors ], UDP-glucuronate, and ] that are required for building the pentasaccharide repeat unit.<ref name="Mortensen-2017"/> This links the synthesis of xanthan to ]. The repeat units are built up at undecaprenylphosphate lipid carriers that are anchored in the ].{{citation needed|date=April 2017}} |
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Specific ]s sequentially transfer the sugar moieties of the nucleotide sugar xanthan precursors to the lipid carriers. ] and pyruvyl residues are added as non-carbohydrate decorations. Mature repeat units are polymerized and exported in a way resembling the Wzy-dependent polysaccharide synthesis mechanism of ]. Products of the gum gene cluster drive synthesis, polymerization, and export of the repeat unit.<ref name="Becker-2009">{{cite book | vauthors = Becker A, Vorhölter FJ |year=2009|chapter=Xanthan Biosynthesis by Xanthomonas Bacteria: An Overview of the Current Biochemical and Genomic Data | veditors = Rehm BH |title=Microbial Production of Biopolymers and Polymer Precursors|publisher=Caister Academic Press|isbn = 978-1-904455-36-3}}</ref> |
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== References == |
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{{Reflist}} |
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{{carbohydrates}} |
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