Misplaced Pages

Romani people

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.

Page version status

The latest pending revision is displayed on this page

This is an accepted version (list all), accepted on 5 December 2023. New changes may have been made. Indo-Aryan ethnic group Not to be confused with Roman people, a historical ethnic group, or Romanians. For other uses, see Romani (disambiguation). "Gypsy", "Gypsies", "Gipsy", and "Gipsies" redirect here. For other uses, see Gypsy (disambiguation) and Gipsy (disambiguation).

Ethnic group
Romani people
Romani flag created in 1933 and accepted at the 1971 World Romani Congress
Total population
2–12 million
United States1,000,000 estimated with Romani ancestry
Brazil800,000 (0.4%)
Spain750,000–1,500,000 (1.9–3.7%)
Romania569,500–1,850,000 (3.4–8.32%)
Turkey500,000–2,750,000 (3.8%)
France500,000–1,200,000
Bulgaria325,343–750,000 (4.9–10.3%)
Hungary309,632–870,000 (3.21–8.8%)
Argentina300,000
United Kingdom225,000 (0.4%)
Russia205,007–825,000 (0.6%)
Serbia147,604–600,000 (2.1–8.2%)
Italy120,000–180,000 (0.3%)
Greece111,000–300,000 (2.7%)
Germany105,000 (0.1%)
Slovakia105,738–490,000 (2.1–9.0%)
Iran2,000–110,000
North Macedonia46,433 (2.53%)
Sweden50,000–100,000
Ukraine47,587–260,000 (0.6%)
Portugal52,000 (0.5%)
Austria40,000–50,000 (0.6%)
Kosovo36,000 (2%)
Netherlands32,000–40,000 (0.2%)
Poland17,049–32,500 (0.1%)
Croatia16,975–35,000 (0.8%)
Mexico15,850
Chile15,000–20,000
Moldova12,778–107,100 (3.0%)
Finland10,000–12,000 est. (0.2%)
Bosnia and Herzegovina8,864–58,000 (1.5%)
Colombia2,649–8,000
Albania8,301
Belarus7,316–47,500 (0.5%)
Latvia7,193–12,500 (0.6%)
Canada5,255–80,000
Montenegro5,251–20,000 (3.7%)
Czech Republic5,199–40,370 (Romani speakers)–250,000 (1.9%)
Australia5,000–25,000
Slovenia3,246
Lithuania2,571
Denmark5,500
Ireland22,435
Georgia1,200
Belgium30,000
Cyprus1,250
Languages
Romani language, Para-Romani varieties, languages of native regions
Religion
Predominantly Christianity
Islam
Shaktism tradition of Hinduism
Romani mythology
Buddhism (minority)
Judaism (conversion through marriage to Jewish spouses)
Related ethnic groups
Ghorbati, Doms, Lom, Ḍoma, Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians; other Indo-Aryans
Part of a series on
Romani people
Flag of the Romani people
Romani people by sub-group
Romani diaspora by country

The Romani, also spelled Romany or Rromani (/ˈroʊməni/ ROH-mə-nee or /ˈrɒməni/ ROM-ə-nee), colloquially known as the Roma (sg.: Rom), are an Indo-Aryan ethnic group who traditionally lived a nomadic, itinerant lifestyle. Linguistic and genetic evidence suggests that the Romani originated in the Indian subcontinent; in particular, the region of present-day Rajasthan. Their subsequent westward migration, possibly in waves, is now believed by historians to have occurred around 1000 CE. Their original name is from the Sanskrit word डोम (doma) and means a member of a Dalit caste of travelling musicians and dancers. The Roma population moved west into the Persian Ghaznavid Empire and later into the Byzantine Empire. The Roma arrived in Europe around the 13th to 14th century. Although they are dispersed, their most concentrated populations are located in Europe, especially central, eastern, and southern Europe, as well as western Asia (mainly in Turkey and Iran).

In the English language, the Romani are widely known by the exonym Gypsies (or Gipsies), which is considered a pejorative by some Romani due to its connotations of illegality and irregularity as well as its historical use as a racial slur. In the United Kingdom, the term Gypsies is preferred by some of the English and Welsh Romanies, and is used to refer to them in official documentation. The attendees of the first World Romani Congress in 1971 unanimously voted to reject the use of all exonyms for the Romani, including Gypsy.

Since the 19th century, some Romani have also migrated to the Americas. There are an estimated one million Roma in the United States and between 800,000 and 1 million in Brazil, most of whose ancestors emigrated in the 19th century from eastern Europe. Brazilian Romani are mostly descendant from German/Italian Sinti (in the South/Southeast regions), and Roma and Calon people. Brazil also includes a notable Romani community descended from Sinti and Roma deportees from the Portuguese Empire during the Portuguese Inquisition. In migrations since the late 19th century, Romani have also moved to other countries in South America and Canada. Though often confused with Irish Travellers and the Yenish people in western Europe, the Romani are culturally different.

The Romani language is an Indo-Aryan language with strong Balkan and Greek influence. It is divided into several dialects, which together are estimated to have more than two million speakers. Because the language has traditionally been oral, many Romani are native speakers of the dominant language in their country of residence, or else of mixed languages combining the dominant language with a dialect of Romani in varieties sometimes called para-Romani.

Population and subgroups

Romani populations

There is no official or reliable count of the Romani populations worldwide. Many Romani refuse to register their ethnic identity in official censuses for a variety of reasons, such as fear of discrimination. Others are descendants of intermarriage with local populations, some who no longer identify only as Romani and some who do not identify as Romani at all. Then, too, some countries do not collect data by ethnicity.

Despite these challenges to getting an accurate picture of the Romani dispersal, there were an estimated 10 million in Europe (as of 2019), although some Romani organizations have given earlier estimates as high as 14 million. Significant Romani populations are found in the Balkans, in some central European states, in Spain, France, Russia and Ukraine. In the European Union, there are an estimated 6 million Romanis.

Outside Europe there may be several million more Romani, in particular in the Middle East and the Americas.

Romani subgroups

Three Finnish Romani women in Helsinki, Finland, in the 1930s

The Romani identify as distinct ethnicities based in part on territorial, cultural and dialectal differences, and self-designation.

Like the Roma in general, many different ethnonyms are given to subgroups of Roma. Sometimes a subgroup uses more than one endonym, is commonly known by an exonym or erroneously by the endonym of another subgroup. The only name approaching an all-encompassing self-description is Rom. Even when subgroups do not use the name, they all acknowledge a common origin and a dichotomy between themselves and Gadjo (non-Roma). For instance, while the main group of Roma in German-speaking countries refer to themselves as Sinti, their name for their original language is Romanes.

Subgroups have been described as, in part, a result of the castes and subcastes in India, which the founding population of Rom almost certainly experienced in their south Asian urheimat.

Debret, Jean-Baptiste (c. 1820), Interior of a gipsy's house in Brazil
Gypsies camping. Welsh Romanies near Swansea, 1953

Many groups use names apparently derived from the Romani word kalo or calo, meaning "black" or "absorbing all light". This closely resembles words for "black" or "dark" in Indo-Aryan languages (e.g., Sanskrit काल kāla: "black", "of a dark colour"). Likewise, the name of the Dom or Domba people of north India—with whom the Roma have genetic, cultural and linguistic links—has come to imply "dark-skinned" in some Indian languages. Hence, names such as kale and calé may have originated as an exonym or a euphemism for Roma.

Other endonyms for Romani include, for example:

Diaspora

Main article: Romani diaspora
Countries with a significant Romani population according to unofficial estimates.
  + 1,000,000   + 100,000   + 10,000

The Roma people have a number of distinct populations, the largest being the Roma, who reached Anatolia and the Balkans about the early 12th century from a migration out of northwestern India beginning about 600 years earlier. They settled in the areas that are now Turkey, Greece, Serbia, Romania, Moldova, Bulgaria, North Macedonia, Hungary, Slovakia and Spain, by order of volume.

From the Balkans, they migrated throughout Europe and Iberian Calé or Caló, and, in the 19th and later centuries, to the Americas. The Romani population in the United States is estimated at more than one million. Brazil has the second largest Romani population in the Americas, estimated at 800,000 by the 2011 census.

In Brazil, the Romani are mainly called ciganos by non-Romani Brazilians. Most of them belong to the ethnic subgroup Calés (Kale) of the Iberian peninsula. Juscelino Kubitschek, Brazil's president from 1956 to 1961, was 50% Czech Romani by his mother's bloodline, and Washington Luís, the last president of the First Brazilian Republic (1926–1930), had Portuguese Kale ancestry.

Persecution against the Romani has led to many of the cultural practices being extinguished, hidden or modified to survive in a country that has excluded them ethnically and culturally. The very common carnivals throughout Brazil are one of the few spaces in which the Romani can still express their cultural traditions, including the so-called "carnival wedding" in which a boy is disguised as a bride and the famous "Romaní dance", picturesquely simulated with the women of the town parading in their traditional attire.

Origin

Main article: History of the Romani people

Genetic findings suggest an Indian origin for Roma. Because Romani groups did not keep chronicles of their history or have oral accounts of it, most hypotheses about early Romani migration are based on linguistic theory. There is also no known record of Romani migration from India to Europe from medieval times that can be connected indisputably to Roma.

Shahnameh legend

According to a legend reported in the Persian epic poem, the Shahnameh, the Sasanian king Bahrām V Gōr learned towards the end of his reign (421–439) that the poor could not afford to enjoy music, and so he asked the king of India to send him ten thousand luris, lute-playing experts. When the luris arrived, Bahrām gave each one an ox, a donkey, and a donkey-load of wheat so they could live on agriculture and play music for free for the poor. However, the luris ate the oxen and the wheat and came back a year later with their cheeks hollowed by hunger. The king, angered with their having wasted what he had given them, ordered them to pack up their bags and go wandering around the world on their donkeys.

Linguistic evidence

Linguistic evidence has indisputably shown that the roots of the Romani language lie in India: the language has grammatical characteristics of Indian languages and shares with them a large part of the basic lexicon.

Romani and Domari share some similarities: agglutination of postpositions of the second layer (or case-marking clitics) to the nominal stem, concord markers for the past tense, the neutralisation of gender marking in the plural, and the use of the oblique case as an accusative. This has prompted much discussion about the relationships between these two languages. Domari was once thought to be a "sister language" of Romani, the two languages having split after the departure from the Indian subcontinent—but later research suggests that the differences between them are significant enough to treat them as two separate languages within the central zone (Hindustani) group of languages. The Dom and the Rom, therefore, likely descend from two migration waves from India separated by several centuries.

In phonology, the Romani language shares several isoglosses with the Central branch of Indo-Aryan languages, especially in the realization of some sounds of the Old Indo-Aryan. However, it also preserves several dental clusters. In regards to verb morphology, Romani follows exactly the same pattern of northwestern languages such as Kashmiri and Shina through the adoption of oblique enclitic pronouns as person markers, lending credence to the theory of their Central Indian origin and a subsequent migration to northwestern India. Though the retention of dental clusters suggests a break from central languages during the transition from Old to Middle Indo-Aryan, the overall morphology suggests that the language participated in some of the significant developments leading toward the emergence of New Indo-Aryan languages. The following table presents the numerals in the Romani, Domari and Lomavren languages, with the corresponding terms in Sanskrit, Hindi, Odia, and Sinhala to demonstrate the similarities. Note that the Romani numerals 7 through 9 have been borrowed from Greek.

LanguagesNumbers Romani Domari Lomavren Sanskrit Hindi Odia Sinhala
1 ekh, jekh yika yak, yek éka ēk ēkå eka
2 duj dī lui dvá dō dui deka
3 trin tærən tərin trí tīn tini thuna/thri
4 štar štar išdör catvā́raḥ cār cāri hathara/sathara
5 pandž pandž pendž páñca pā̃c pāñcå paha
6 šov šaš šeš ṣáṭ chaḥ chåå haya/saya   
7 ifta xaut haft saptá sāt sātå hata/satha
8 oxto xaišt hašt aṣṭá āṭh āṭhå ata
9 inja na nu náva nau nåå nawaya
10 deš des las dáśa das dåśå dahaya
20 biš wīs vist viṃśatí bīs kōṛiē wissa
100 šel saj saj śata sau såhē siiya/shathakaya

Genetic evidence

Two Gypsies by Francisco Iturrino

Genetic findings in 2012 suggest the Romani originated in northwestern India and migrated as a group. According to the study, the ancestors of present scheduled caste and scheduled tribe populations of northern India, traditionally referred to collectively as the Ḍoma, are the likely ancestral populations of modern European Roma.

In December 2012, additional findings appeared to confirm that the "Roma came from a single group that left northwestern India about 1,500 years ago". They reached the Balkans about 900 years ago and then spread throughout Europe. The team also found that the Roma displayed genetic isolation, as well as "differential gene flow in time and space with non-Romani Europeans".

Genetic research published in the European Journal of Human Genetics "has revealed that over 70% of males belong to a single lineage that appears unique to the Roma".

Genetic evidence supports the medieval migration from India. The Romani have been described as "a conglomerate of genetically isolated founder populations", while a number of common Mendelian disorders among Romanis from all over Europe indicates "a common origin and founder effect". A 2020 whole-genome study confirmed the northwest Indian origins, and also confirmed substantial Balkan and Middle Eastern ancestry.

A study from 2001 by Gresham et al. suggests "a limited number of related founders, compatible with a small group of migrants splitting from a distinct caste or tribal group". The same study found that "a single lineage... found across Romani populations, accounts for almost one-third of Romani males". A 2004 study by Morar et al. concluded that the Romani population "was founded approximately 32–40 generations ago, with secondary and tertiary founder events occurring approximately 16–25 generations ago".

Haplogroup H-M82 is a major lineage cluster in the Balkan Romani group, accounting for approximately 60% of the total. Haplogroup H is uncommon in Europe but present in the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka.

A study of 444 people representing three ethnic groups in North Macedonia found mtDNA haplogroups M5a1 and H7a1a were dominant in Romanies (13.7% and 10.3%, respectively).

Y-DNA composition of Muslim Romani from Šuto Orizari Municipality in North Macedonia, based on 57 samples:

A Roma makes a complaint to a local magistrate in Hungary, by Sándor Bihari, 1886

Y-DNA Haplogroup H1a occurs in Romani at frequencies 7–70%. Unlike ethnic Hungarians, among Hungarian and Slovakian Romani subpopulations Haplogroup E-M78 and I1 usually occur above 10% and sometimes over 20%, while mong Slovakian and Tiszavasvari Romani, the dominant haplogroup is H1a; among Tokaj Romani it is Haplogroup J2a (23%); and among Taktaharkány Romani, it is Haplogroup I2a (21%).

Five rather consistent founder lineages throughout the subpopulations were found among Romani – J-M67 and J-M92 (J2), H-M52 (H1a1), and I-P259 (I1). Haplogroup I-P259 as H is not found at frequencies of over 3% among host populations, while haplogroups E and I are absent in south Asia. The lineages E-V13, I-P37 (I2a) and R-M17 (R1a) may represent gene flow from the host populations. Bulgarian, Romanian and Greek Romani are dominated by Haplogroup H-M82 (H1a1), while among Spanish Romani J2 is prevalent. In Serbia among Kosovo and Belgrade Romani Haplogroup H prevails, while among Vojvodina Romani, H drops to 7 percent and E-V13 rises to a prevailing level.

Among non-Roma Europeans, Haplogroup H is extremely rare, peaking at 7% among Albanians from Tirana and 11% among Bulgarian Turks. It occurs at 5% among Hungarians, although the carriers might be of Romani origin. Among non-Roma-speaking Europeans, it occurs at 2% among Slovaks, 2% among Croats, 1% among Macedonians from Skopje, 3% among Macedonian Albanians, 1% among Serbs from Belgrade, 3% among Bulgarians from Sofia, 1% among Austrians and Swiss, 3% among Romanians from Ploiești, and 1% among Turks.

The Ottoman occupation of the Balkans also left a significant genetic mark on the Y-DNA of the Romani there, creating a higher frequency of Haplogroups J and E3b in Roma populations from the region.

Full genome analysis

See also: Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia
The most common paternal haplogroup among Romani is the South Asian Y-chromosome H, most commonly found among Dravidian peoples.

A full genome autosomal DNA study on 186 Roma samples from Europe in 2019 found that modern Roma people are characterized by a common south Asian origin and a complex admixture from Balkan, Middle East, and Caucasus-derived ancestries. The autosomal genetic data links the proto-Roma to groups in northwest India (specifically Punjabi and Gujarati samples), as well as, Dravidian-speaking groups in southeastern India (specifically Irula). The paternal lineages of Roma are most common in southern and central India among Dravidian-speaking populations. The authors argue that this may point to a founder effect among the early Romani during their ethnogenesis or shortly after they migrated out of the Indian subcontinent. In addition, they theorized of a possible low-caste (Dalit) origin for the Proto-Roma, since they were genetically closer to the Punjabi cluster that lacks a common marker characteristic of high castes, which is West Euroasian admixing.

Possible migration route

The migration of the Romanis through the Middle East and Northern Africa to Europe

The Romani may have emerged from what is the modern Indian state of Rajasthan, migrating to the northwest (the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent) around 250 BCE. Their subsequent westward migration, possibly in waves, is now believed to have occurred beginning in about 500 CE. It has also been suggested that emigration from India may have taken place in the context of the raids by Mahmud of Ghazni. As these soldiers were defeated, they were moved west with their families into the Byzantine Empire. The author Ralph Lilley Turner theorised a central Indian origin of Romani followed by a migration to northwest India as it shares a number of ancient isoglosses with central Indo-Aryan languages in relation to realization of some sounds of Old Indo-Aryan. This is lent further credence by its sharing exactly the same pattern of northwestern languages such as Kashmiri and Shina through the adoption of oblique enclitic pronouns as person markers. The overall morphology suggests that Romani participated in some of the significant developments leading toward the emergence of New Indo-Aryan languages, thus indicating that the proto-Romani did not leave the Indian subcontinent until late in the second half of the first millennium.

In February 2016, during the International Roma Conference, then Indian Minister of External Affairs, Sushma Swaraj stated that the people of the Roma community were children of India. The conference ended with a recommendation to the government of India to recognize the Roma community spread across 30 countries as a part of the Indian diaspora.

Names

Main article: Names of the Romani people

Endonyms

Rom means husband in the Romani language. It has the variants dom and lom, which may be related to the Sanskrit words dam-pati (lord of the house, husband), dama (to subdue), lom (hair), lomaka (hairy), loman, roman (hairy), romaça (man with beard and long hair). Another possible origin is from Sanskrit डोम doma (member of a low caste of travelling musicians and dancers). Despite their presence in the country and neighboring nations, the word is not related in any way to the name of Romania.

Romani usage

In the Romani language, Rom is a masculine noun, meaning 'husband of the Roma ethnic group', with the plural Roma. The feminine of Rom in the Romani language is Romni/Romli/Romnije or Romlije. However, in most cases, in other languages Rom is now used for individuals regardless of gender.

Romani is the feminine adjective, while Romano is the masculine adjective. Some Romanies use Rom or Roma as an ethnic name, while others (such as the Sinti, or the Romanichal) do not use this term as a self-ascription for the entire ethnic group.

Sometimes, rom and romani are spelled with a double r, i.e., rrom and rromani. In this case rr is used to represent the phoneme /ʀ/ (also written as ř and rh), which in some Romani dialects has remained different from the one written with a single r. The rr spelling is common in certain institutions (such as the INALCO Institute in Paris), or used in certain countries, e.g., Romania, to distinguish from the endonym/homonym for Romanians (sg. român, pl. români).

In Norway, Romani is used exclusively for an older Northern Romani-speaking population (which arrived in the 16th century) while Rom/Romanes is used to describe Vlax Romani-speaking groups which have arrived since the 19th century.

English usage

A Romani wagon pictured in 2009 in Grandborough Fields in Warwickshire. Grandborough Fields Road is a popular spot for travelling people.

In the English language (according to the Oxford English Dictionary), Rom is a noun (with the plural Roma or Roms) and an adjective, while Romani (Romany) is also a noun (with the plural Romani, the Romani, Romanies, or Romanis) and an adjective. Both Rom and Romani have been in use in English since the 19th century as an alternative for Gypsy. Romani was sometimes spelled Rommany, but more often Romany, while today Romani is the most popular spelling. Occasionally, the double r spelling (e.g., Rroma, Rromani) mentioned above is also encountered in English texts.

The term Roma is increasingly encountered as a generic term for the Romani.

Because not all Romani use the word Romani as an adjective, the term became a noun for the entire ethnic group. Today, the term Romani is used by some organizations, including the United Nations and the US Library of Congress. However, the Council of Europe and other organizations consider that Roma is the correct term referring to all related groups, regardless of their country of origin, and recommend that Romani be restricted to the language and culture: Romani language, Romani culture. The United Kingdom government uses the term "Roma" as a sub-group of "White" in its ethnic classification system.

The standard assumption is that the demonyms of the Romani, Lom and Dom, share the same origin.

Other designations

Main article: Names of the Romani people
"Visiting Gipsies", article from Australian newspaper, The Australasian, 1898

The English term Gypsy (or Gipsy) originates from the Middle English gypcian, short for Egipcien. The Spanish term Gitano and French Gitan have similar etymologies. They are ultimately derived from the Greek Αιγύπτιοι (Aigyptioi), meaning Egyptian, via Latin. This designation owes its existence to the belief, common in the Middle Ages, that the Romani, or some related group (such as the middle eastern Dom people), were itinerant Egyptians. This belief appears to be derived from verses in the Biblical Book of Ezekiel (29: 6 and 12–13) which refer to the Egyptians being scattered among the nations by an angry God. According to one narrative, they were exiled from Egypt as punishment for allegedly harbouring the infant Jesus. In his book The Zincali: an account of the Gypsies of Spain, George Borrow notes that when they first appeared in Germany, it was under the character of Egyptians doing penance for their having refused hospitality to Mary and her son. As described in Victor Hugo's novel The Hunchback of Notre-Dame, the medieval French referred to the Romanies as Egyptiens.

This exonym is sometimes written with capital letter, to show that it designates an ethnic group. However, the word is sometimes considered derogatory because of its negative and stereotypical associations. The Council of Europe consider that "Gypsy" or equivalent terms, as well as administrative terms such as "Gens du Voyage" are not in line with European recommendations. In Britain, many Romani proudly identify as "Gypsies", and, as part of the Gypsy, Roma and Traveller grouping, this is the name used to describe all para-Romani groups in official contexts. In North America, the word Gypsy is most commonly used as a reference to Romani ethnicity, though lifestyle and fashion are at times also referenced by using this word.

Another designation of the Romani is Cingane (alt. Çingene, Tsinganoi, Zigar, Zigeuner, Tschingaren), likely deriving from the Persian word چنگانه (chingane), derived from the Turkic word çıgañ, meaning poor person. It is also possible that the origin of this word is Athinganoi, the name of a Christian sect with whom the Romani (or some related group) could have become associated with in the past.

History

Main article: History of the Romani people See also: Timeline of Romani history

Arrival in Europe

According to a 2012 genomic study, the Romani reached the Balkans as early as the 12th century. A document of 1068, describing an event in Constantinople, mentions "Atsingani", probably referring to Romani.

Later historical records of the Romani reaching southeastern Europe are from the 14th century: in 1322, after leaving Ireland on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, Irish Franciscan friar Symon Semeonis encountered a migrant group of Romani outside the town of Candia (modern Heraklion), in Crete, calling them "the descendants of Cain"; his account is the earliest surviving description by a western chronicler of the Romani in Europe.

In 1350, Ludolph of Saxony mentioned a similar people with a unique language whom he called Mandapolos, a word possibly derived from the Greek word mantes (meaning prophet or fortune teller).

In the 14th century, Romani are recorded in Venetian territories, including Methoni and Nafplio in the Peloponnese, and Corfu. Around 1360, a fiefdom called the Feudum Acinganorum was established in Corfu, which mainly used Romani serfs and to which the Romani on the island were subservient.

By the 1440s, they were recorded in Germany; and by the 16th century, Scotland and Sweden. Some Romani migrated from Persia through north Africa, reaching the Iberian Peninsula in the 15th century. The two currents met in France.

First arrival of the Romanies outside Bern in the 15th century, described by the chronicler as getoufte heiden ("baptized heathens") and drawn with dark skin and wearing Saracen-style clothing and weapons.

Early modern history

Globe icon.The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with Western and Central Europe and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this section, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new section, as appropriate. (May 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Gypsy Family in Prison, 1864 painting by Carl d´Unker. An actual imprisoned family in Germany served as the models. The reason for their imprisonment remains unknown.

Their early history shows a mixed reception. Although 1385 marks the first recorded transaction for a Romani slave in Wallachia, they were issued safe conduct by Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund in 1417. Romanis were ordered expelled from the Meissen region of Germany in 1416, Lucerne in 1471, Milan in 1493, France in 1504, Catalonia in 1512, Sweden in 1525, England in 1530 (see Egyptians Act 1530), and Denmark in 1536. From 1510 onwards, any Romani found in Switzerland were to be executed; while in England (beginning in 1554) and Denmark (beginning of 1589) any Romani which did not leave within a month were to be executed. Portugal began deportations of Romanis to its colonies in 1538.

A 1596 English statute gave Romanis special privileges that other wanderers lacked. France passed a similar law in 1683. Catherine the Great of Russia declared the Romanis "crown slaves" (a status superior to serfs), but also kept them out of certain parts of the capital. In 1595, Ștefan Răzvan overcame his birth into slavery, and became the Voivode (Prince) of Moldavia.

Since a royal edict by Charles II in 1695, Spanish Romanis had been restricted to certain towns. An official edict in 1717 restricted them to only 75 towns and districts, so that they would not be concentrated in any one region. In the Great Gypsy Round-up, Romani were arrested and imprisoned by the Spanish Monarchy in 1749.

During the latter part of the 17th century, around the Franco-Dutch War, both France and the Dutch Republic needed thousands of men to fight. Some recruitment took the form of rounding up vagrants and the poor to work the galleys and provide the armies' labour force. With this background, Romanis were targets of both the French and the Dutch.

After the wars, and into the first decade of the 18th century, Romanis were slaughtered with impunity throughout the Dutch Republic. Romanis, called 'heiden' by the Dutch, wandered throughout the rural areas of Europe and became the societal pariahs of the age. Heidenjachten, translated as "heathen hunt" happened throughout the Dutch Republic in an attempt to eradicate them.

Although some Romani could be kept as slaves in Wallachia and Moldavia until abolition in 1856, the majority traveled as free nomads with their wagons, as alluded to in the spoked wheel symbol in the Romani flag. Elsewhere in Europe, they were subjected to ethnic cleansing, abduction of their children, and forced labour. In England, Romani were sometimes expelled from small communities or hanged; in France, they were branded, and their heads were shaved; in Moravia and Bohemia, the women were marked by their ears being severed. As a result, large groups of the Romani moved to the East, toward Poland, which was more tolerant, and Russia, where the Romani were treated more fairly as long as they paid the annual taxes.

Modern history

Romani began emigrating to North America in colonial times, with small groups recorded in Virginia and French Louisiana. Larger-scale Roma emigration to the United States began in the 1860s, with Romanichal groups from Great Britain. The most significant number immigrated in the early 20th century, mainly from the Vlax group of Kalderash. Many Romani also settled in South America.

Sinti and other Romani about to be deported from Germany, 22 May 1940

World War II

Main article: Romani Holocaust

During World War II and the Holocaust, the Nazis committed a systematic genocide against the Romani. In the Romani language, this genocide is known as the Porajmos. Romanies were marked for extermination and sentenced to forced labor and imprisonment in concentration camps. They were often killed on sight, especially by the Einsatzgruppen (paramilitary death squads) on the Eastern Front. The total number of victims has been variously estimated at between 220,000 and 1,500,000.

The Romani were also persecuted in Nazi puppet states. In the Independent State of Croatia, the Ustaša killed almost the entire Roma population of 25,000. The concentration camp system of Jasenovac, run by the Ustaša militia and the Croat political police, was responsible for the deaths of between 15,000 and 20,000 Roma.

Post-1945

In Czechoslovakia, they were labeled a "socially degraded stratum", and Romani women were sterilized as part of a state policy to reduce their population. This policy was implemented with large financial incentives, threats of denying future welfare payments, with misinformation, or after administering drugs.

An official inquiry from the Czech Republic, resulting in a report (December 2005), concluded that the Communist authorities had practised an assimilation policy towards Romanis, which "included efforts by social services to control the birth rate in the Romani community. The problem of sexual sterilisation carried out in the Czech Republic, either with improper motivation or illegally, exists," said the Czech Public Defender of Rights, recommending state compensation for women affected between 1973 and 1991. New cases were revealed up until 2004, in both the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Germany, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland "all have histories of coercive sterilization of minorities and other groups".

Society and traditional culture

Main article: Romani society and culture
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Münster, Sebastian (1552), "A Gipsy Family", The Cosmographia (facsimile of a woodcut), Basle
Nomadic Roma family traveling in Moldavia, 1837

The traditional Romanies place a high value on the extended family. Virginity is essential in unmarried women. Both men and women often marry young; there has been controversy in several countries over the Romani practice of child marriage. Romani law establishes that the man's family must pay a bride price to the bride's parents, but only traditional families still follow it.

Once married, the woman joins the husband's family, where her main job is to tend to her husband's and her children's needs and take care of her in-laws. The power structure in the traditional Romani household has at its top the oldest man or grandfather, and men, in general, have more authority than women. Women gain respect and power as they get older. Young wives begin gaining authority once they have children.

Traditionally, as can be seen on paintings and photos, some Roma men wear shoulder-length hair and a mustache, as well as an earring. Roma women generally have long hair, and Xoraxane Roma women often dye it blonde with henna.

Romani social behavior is strictly regulated by Indian social customs ("marime" or "marhime"), still respected by most Roma (and by most older generations of Sinti). This regulation affects many aspects of life and is applied to actions, people and things: parts of the human body are considered impure: the genital organs (because they produce emissions) and the rest of the lower body. Clothes for the lower body, as well as the clothes of menstruating women, are washed separately. Items used for eating are also washed in a different place. Childbirth is considered impure and must occur outside the dwelling place. The mother is deemed to be impure for forty days after giving birth.

Death is considered impure, and affects the whole family of the dead, who remain impure for a period of time. In contrast to the practice of cremating the dead, Romani dead must be buried. Cremation and burial are both known from the time of the Rigveda, and both are widely practiced in Hinduism today (the general tendency is for Hindus to practice cremation, though some communities in modern-day south India tend to bury their dead). Animals that are considered to be having unclean habits are not eaten by the community.

Belonging and exclusion

Main articles: Romanipen and Gadjo (non-Romani)

In Romani philosophy, Romanipen (also romanypen, romanipe, romanype, romanimos, romaimos, romaniya) is the totality of the Romani spirit, Romani culture, Romani Law, being a Romani, a set of Romani strains.

An ethnic Romani is considered a gadjo in the Romani society if they have no Romanipen. Sometimes a non-Romani may be considered a Romani if they do have Romanipen. Usually this is an adopted child. It has been hypothesized that this owes more to a framework of culture than a simple adherence to historically received rules.

Religion

Christian Romanies during the pilgrimage to Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer in France, 1980s
Two Orthodox Christian Romanies in Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Romani and bear (Belgrade, Banovo brdo, 1980s)

Most Romani are Christian, but many are faithful Muslims; some retained their ancient faith of Hinduism from their original homeland of India, while others have their own religion and political organization. Theravada Buddhism influenced by the Dalit Buddhist movement have become popular in recent times among Hungarian Roma.

Some Roma practice witchcraft and palmistry.

Beliefs

The modern-day Romani adopted Christianity or Islam depending on the regions through which they had migrated. Muslim Roma are found in Turkey, the Balkans; Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Greece, North Macedonia, Kosovo, Serbia, Crimea, Iran, and Bulgaria, and in the Middle East, Egypt, Iraq and Iran, forming a very significant proportion of the Romani. In neighboring countries such as Romania and Greece, most Romani inhabitants follow the practice of Orthodoxy. It is likely that the adherence to differing religions prevented families from engaging in intermarriage.

Members of the Cofradía de los Gitanos parading the "throne" of Mary of the O during the Holy Week in Malaga, Spain

Deities and saints

Blessed Ceferino Giménez Malla is recently considered a patron saint of the Romani in Roman Catholicism. Saint Sarah, or Sara e Kali, has also been venerated as a patron saint in her shrine at Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer, France. Since the turn of the 21st century, Sara e Kali is understood to have been Kali, an Indian deity brought from India by the refugee ancestors of the Roma people; as the Roma became Christianized, she was absorbed in a syncretic way and venerated as a saint.

Gypsy fortune-teller in Poland, by Antoni Kozakiewicz, 1884

Saint Sarah is now increasingly being considered as "a Romani Goddess, the Protectress of the Roma" and an "indisputable link with Mother India".

Balkans

Costume of a Romani woman
Gipsy Woman, Stanisław Masłowski, watercolour, 1877

For the Roma communities that have resided in the Balkans for numerous centuries, often referred to as "Turkish Gypsies", the following histories apply for religious beliefs:

  • Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro – Islam is the dominant religion among the Roma.
  • Bulgaria – In northwestern Bulgaria, in addition to Sofia and Kyustendil, Christianity is the dominant faith among the Romani, and a major conversion to Eastern Orthodox Christianity among the Romani has occurred. In southeastern Bulgaria, Islam is the dominant religion among the Romani, with a smaller section of the Romani declaring themselves as "Turks", continuing to mix ethnicity with Islam.
Margarita Cansino (later known as Rita Hayworth) with her father and dance partner Eduardo Cansino, 1933
  • Croatia – After the Second World War, a large number of Muslim Roma relocated to Croatia, the majority moving from Kosovo. Their language differs from those living in Međimurje and those who survived Ustaše genocide.
  • Greece – The descendants of groups, such as Sepečides or Sevljara, Kalpazaja, Filipidži and others, living in Athens, Thessaloniki, central Greece and Greek Macedonia are mostly Orthodox Christians, with Islamic beliefs held by a minority of the population. Following the Peace Treaty of Lausanne of 1923, many Muslim Roma moved to Turkey in the subsequent population exchange between Turkey and Greece.
Muslim Romanies in Bosnia and Herzegovina (around 1900)

Other regions

In Ukraine and Russia, the Roma populations are also Muslim as the families of Balkan migrants continue to live in these locations. Their ancestors settled on the Crimean peninsula during the 17th and 18th centuries, but some migrated to Ukraine, southern Russia and the Povolzhie (along the Volga River). Formally, Islam is the religion that these communities align with and the people are recognized for their staunch preservation of the Romani language and identity.

In Poland and Slovakia, Romani populations are Roman Catholic, many times adopting and following local, cultural Catholicism as a syncretic system of belief that incorporates distinct Roma beliefs and cultural aspects. For example, many Polish Roma delay their Church wedding due to the belief that sacramental marriage is accompanied by divine ratification, creating a virtually indissoluble union until the couple consummate, after which the sacramental marriage is dissoluble only by the death of a spouse. Therefore, for Polish Roma, once married, one can't ever divorce. Another aspect of Polish Roma's Catholicism is a tradition of pilgrimage to the Jasna Góra Monastery.

Most Eastern European Romanies are Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, or Muslim. Those in Western Europe and the United States are mostly Roman Catholic or Protestant – in southern Spain, many Romanies are Pentecostal, but this is a small minority that has emerged in contemporary times. In Egypt, the Romani are split into Christian and Muslim populations.

Music

Main article: Romani music
27 June 2009: Fanfare Ciocărlia live in Athens
Street performance during the Khamoro World Roma Festival in Prague, 2007

Romani music plays an important role in central and eastern European countries such as Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Albania, Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia and Romania, and the style and performance practices of Romani musicians have influenced European classical composers such as Franz Liszt and Johannes Brahms. The lăutari who perform at traditional Romanian weddings are virtually all Romani.

Probably the most internationally prominent contemporary performers in the lăutari tradition are Taraful Haiducilor. Bulgaria's popular "wedding music", too, is almost exclusively performed by Romani musicians such as Ivo Papasov, a virtuoso clarinetist closely associated with this genre and Bulgarian pop-folk singer Azis.

Many famous classical musicians, such as the Hungarian pianist Georges Cziffra, are Romani, as are many prominent performers of manele. Zdob și Zdub, one of the most prominent rock bands in Moldova, although not Romanies themselves, draw heavily on Romani music, as do Spitalul de Urgență in Romania, Shantel in Germany, Goran Bregović in Serbia, Darko Rundek in Croatia, Beirut and Gogol Bordello in the United States.

Another tradition of Romani music is the genre of the Romani brass band, with such notable practitioners as Boban Marković of Serbia, and the brass lăutari groups Fanfare Ciocărlia and Fanfare din Cozmesti of Romania.

The distinctive sound of Romani music has also strongly influenced bolero, jazz, and flamenco (especially cante jondo) in Spain.

Dances such as the flamenco and bolero of Spain were influenced by the Romani. Antonio Cansino blended Romani and Spanish flamenco and is credited with creating modern-day Spanish dance. The Dancing Cansinos popularized flamenco and bolero dancing in the United States. Famous dancer and actress, Rita Hayworth, is the granddaughter of Antonio Cansino.

European-style gypsy jazz ("jazz Manouche" or "Sinti jazz") is still widely practiced among the original creators (the Romanie People); one who acknowledged this artistic debt was guitarist Django Reinhardt. Contemporary artists in this tradition known internationally include Stochelo Rosenberg, Biréli Lagrène, Jimmy Rosenberg, Paulus Schäfer and Tchavolo Schmitt.

The Romani in Turkey have achieved musical acclaim from national and local audiences. Local performers usually perform for special holidays. Their music is usually performed on instruments such as the darbuka, gırnata and cümbüş.

Folklore

Main article: Romani mythology

Romani folktales and legends are known as paramichia. A hero among the Vlach Roma is Mundro Salamon, or Wise Solomon. Other Romani groups call this hero O Godjiaver Yanko.

The Roma believe in the mulo or mullo, which means "one who is dead". These beings are the Roma's version of the vampire.

Cuisine

Main article: Romani cuisine

The Roma believe that some foods are auspicious, or lucky (baxtalo), such as foods with pungent tastes like garlic, lemon, tomato, and peppers, and fermented foods such as sauerkraut, pickles and sour cream. Hedgehogs are a delicacy among some Roma.

Contemporary art and culture

Romani contemporary art emerged at the climax of the process that began in Central and Eastern Europe in the late 1980s, when the interpretation of the cultural practice of minorities was enabled by a paradigm shift, commonly referred to in specialist literature as the "cultural turn". The idea of the cultural turn was introduced; and this was also the time when the notion of cultural democracy became crystallized in the debates carried on at various public forums. Civil society gained strength, and civil politics appeared, which is a prerequisite for cultural democracy. This shift of attitude in scholarly circles derived from concerns specific not only to ethnicity but also to society, gender and class.

Language

Main article: Romani language

Most Romani speak one of several dialects of the Romani language, an Indo-Aryan language, with roots in Sanskrit. They also often speak the languages of the countries they live in. Typically, they also incorporate loanwords and calques into Romani from the languages of those countries and especially words for terms that the Romani language does not have. Most of the Ciganos of Portugal, the Gitanos of Spain, the Romanichal of the UK, and Scandinavian Travellers have lost their knowledge of pure Romani, and speak the mixed languages Caló, Angloromany, and Scandoromani, respectively. Most of the Romani language-speaking communities in these regions consist of later immigrants from eastern or central Europe.

There are no concrete statistics for the number of Romani speakers, both in Europe and globally. However, a conservative estimate is 3.5 million speakers in Europe and a further 500,000 elsewhere, though the actual number may be considerably higher. This makes Romani the second-largest minority language in Europe, behind Catalan.

In regards to the diversity of dialects, Romani works in the same way as most other European languages. Cross-dialect communication is dominated by the following features:

  • All Romani speakers are bilingual, accustomed to borrowing words or phrases from a second language; this makes it difficult to communicate with Romanis from different countries
  • Romani was traditionally a language shared between extended family and a close-knit community. This has resulted in the inability to comprehend dialects from other countries, and is why Romani is sometimes considered to be several different languages.
  • There is no tradition or literary standard for Romani speakers to use as a guideline for their language use.

Persecutions

Main article: Anti-Romani sentiment

Historical persecution

Six Romani women in jail, Los Angeles, California, 1940

One of the most enduring persecutions against the Romani was their enslavement. Slavery was widely practiced in medieval Europe, including the territory of present-day Romania from before the founding of the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in the 13th–14th centuries. Legislation decreed that all the Romani living in these states, as well as any others who immigrated there, were classified as slaves. Slavery was gradually abolished during the 1840s and 1850s.

The exact origins of slavery in the Danubian Principalities are not known. There is some debate over whether the Romani came to Wallachia and Moldavia as free men or were brought there as slaves. Historian Nicolae Iorga associated the Roma people's arrival with the 1241 Mongol invasion of Europe and he also considered their enslavement a vestige of that era, in which the Romanians took the Roma from the Mongols and preserved their status as slaves so they could use their labor. Other historians believe that the Romani were enslaved while they were being captured during the battles with the Tatars. The practice of enslaving prisoners of war may have also been adopted from the Mongols.

Some Romani may have been slaves of the Mongols or the Tatars or they may have served as auxiliary troops in the Mongol or Tatar armies, but most of them migrated from south of the Danube at the end of the 14th century, some time after the founding of Wallachia. By then, the institution of slavery was already established in Moldavia and it was possibly established in both principalities. After the Roma migrated into the area, slavery became a widespread practice among the majority of the population. The Tatar slaves, smaller in numbers, were eventually merged into the Roma population.

Some branches of the Romani reached western Europe in the 15th century, fleeing from the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans as refugees. Although the Romani were refugees from the conflicts in southeastern Europe, they were often suspected of being associated with the Ottoman invasion by certain populations in the West because their physical appearance was exotic. (The Imperial Diet at Landau and Freiburg in 1496–1498 declared that the Romani were spies for the Turks). In western Europe, such suspicions and discrimination against people who constituted a visible minority resulted in persecution, often violent, with attempts to commit ethnic cleansing until the modern era. In times of social tension, the Romani suffered as scapegoats; for instance, they were accused of bringing the plague during times of epidemics.

On 30 July 1749, Spain conducted The Great Roundup of Romani (Gitanos) in its territory. The Spanish Crown ordered a nationwide raid that led to the break-up of families because all able-bodied men were interned in forced labor camps in an attempt to commit ethnic cleansing. The measure was eventually reversed and the Romanis were freed as protests began to erupt in different communities, sedentary Romanis were highly esteemed and protected in rural Spain.

Later in the 19th century, Romani immigration was forbidden on a racial basis in areas outside Europe, mostly in the English-speaking world. In 1880, Argentina prohibited immigration by Roma, as did the United States in 1885.

Forced assimilation

Deportation of Roma from Asperg, Germany, 1940 (photograph by the Rassenhygienische Forschungsstelle)

In the Habsburg monarchy under Maria Theresa (1740–1780), a series of decrees tried to integrate the Romanies to get them to permanently settle, removed their rights to horse and wagon ownership (1754) to reduce citizen-mobility, renamed them "New Citizens" and obliged Romani boys into military service just as any other citizens were if they had no trade (1761, and Revision 1770), required them to register with the local authorities (1767), and another decree prohibited marriages between Romanies (1773) to integrate them into the local population. Her successor Josef II prohibited the wearing of traditional Romani clothing along with the use of the Romani language, both of which were punishable by flogging. During this time, the schools were obliged to register and integrate Romani children; this policy was the first of the modern policies of integration. In Spain, attempts to assimilate the Gitanos were under way as early as 1619, when the Gitanos were forcibly settled, the use of the Romani language was prohibited, Gitano men and women were sent to separate workhouses and their children were sent to orphanages. King Charles III took a more progressive approach to Gitano assimilation, proclaiming that they had the same rights as Spanish citizens and ending the official denigration of them which was based on their race. While he prohibited their nomadic lifestyle, their use of the Calo language, the manufacture and wearing of Romani clothing, their trade in horses and other itinerant trades, he also forbade any form of discrimination against them and he also forbade the guilds from barring them. The use of the word gitano was also forbidden to further their assimilation, it was replaced with "New Castilian", a designation which was also applied to former Jews and Muslims.

Most historians believe that Charles III's pragmática failed for three main reasons, reasons which were ultimately derived from its implementation outside major cities as well as in marginal areas: The difficulty which the Gitano community faced in changing its nomadic lifestyle, the marginal lifestyle to which the community had been driven by society and the serious difficulties of applying the pragmática in the fields of education and work. One author ascribes its failure to the overall rejection of the integration of the Gitanos by the wider population.

Other policies of forced assimilation were implemented in other countries, one of these countries was Norway, where a law which permitted the state to remove children from their parents and place them in state institutions was passed in 1896. This resulted in some 1,500 Romani children being taken from their parents in the 20th century.

Porajmos (Romani Holocaust)

Main article: Romani Holocaust

During World War II and The Holocaust, the persecution of the Romanis reached a peak during the Romani Holocaust (the Porajmos), the genocide which was perpetrated against them by Nazi Germany. In 1935, the Romani who lived in Germany lost their citizenship when it was stripped from them by the Nuremberg laws, after that, they were subjected to violence and imprisonment in concentration camps. During the war, the policy was extended to areas under German occupation, and it was also implemented by other axis countries, most notably, by the Independent State of Croatia, Romania, and Hungary. Since 1942 Romanis were subjected to genocide in extermination camps.

Because no accurate pre-war census figures exist for the Romanis, the actual number of Romani victims who were killed in the Romani Holocaust cannot be assessed. Most estimates of the number of Romani victims who were killed in the Romani Holocaust range from 200,000 to 500,000, but other estimates vary broadly from 90,000 to as high as 4,000,000. Lower estimates do not include those Romanis who were killed in all Axis-controlled countries. A detailed study by Sybil Milton, a former senior historian at the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum contained an estimate of at least 220,000, possibly as many as 500,000. Ian Hancock, Director of the Program of Romani Studies and the Romani Archives and Documentation Center at the University of Texas at Austin, argues in favour of a higher figure of between 500,000 and 1,500,000.

In central Europe, the extermination in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was so thorough that the Bohemian Romani language became extinct.

Contemporary issues

Main article: Anti-Romani sentiment § Contemporary antiziganism
Distribution of the Romani in Europe (2007 Council of Europe "average estimates", totalling 9.8 million)
Antiziganist protests in Sofia, Bulgaria, 2011

In Europe, Romani are associated with poverty, blamed for high crime rates, and accused of behaving in ways that are considered antisocial or inappropriate by the rest of the European population. Partly for this reason, discrimination against the Romani has continued to be practiced to the present day, although efforts are being made to address it.

Amnesty International reports continued to document instances of Antizigan discrimination during the late 20th century, particularly in Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, and Kosovo. The European Union has recognized that discrimination against Romani must be addressed, and with the national Roma integration strategy they encourage member states to work towards greater Romani inclusion and upholding the rights of the Romani in the European Union.

*projections for Serbia also include up to 97.000 Roma IDPs in Serbia
Roma estimate percentage of population in European countries
Country Percent
Bulgaria   10.33%
North Macedonia   9.59%
Slovakia   9.17%
Romania   8.32%
Serbia*   8.18%
Hungary   7.05%
Turkey   5.97%
Spain   3.21%
Albania   3.18%
Montenegro   2.95%
Moldova   2.49%
Greece   2.47%
Czech Republic   1.96%
Kosovo   1.47%

In eastern Europe, Roma children often attend Roma Special Schools, separate from non-Roma children; these schools tend to offer a lower quality of education than the traditional education options accessible by non-Roma children, putting the Roma children at an educational disadvantage.

The Romanis of Kosovo have been severely persecuted by ethnic Albanians since the end of the Kosovo War, and for the most part, the region's Romani community has been annihilated.

Czechoslovakia carried out a policy of sterilization of Romani women, starting in 1973. The dissidents of the Charter 77 denounced it in 1977–78 as a genocide, but the practice continued through the Velvet Revolution of 1989. A 2005 report by the Czech Republic's independent ombudsman, Otakar Motejl, identified dozens of cases of coercive sterilization between 1979 and 2001, and called for criminal investigations and possible prosecution against several health care workers and administrators.

In 2008, following the rape and subsequent murder of an Italian woman in Rome at the hands of a young man from a local Romani encampment, the Italian government declared that Italy's Romani population represented a national security risk and it also declared that it was required to take swift action to address the emergenza nomadi (nomad emergency). Specifically, officials in the Italian government accused the Romanies of being responsible for rising crime rates in urban areas.

The 2008 deaths of Cristina and Violetta Djeordsevic, two Roma children who drowned while Italian beach-goers remained unperturbed, brought international attention to the relationship between Italians and the Roma people. Reviewing the situation in 2012, one Belgian magazine observed:

On International Roma Day, which falls on 8 April, the significant proportion of Europe's 12 million Roma who live in deplorable conditions will not have much to celebrate. And poverty is not the only worry for the community. Ethnic tensions are on the rise. In 2008, Roma camps came under attack in Italy, intimidation by racist parliamentarians is the norm in Hungary. Speaking in 1993, Václav Havel prophetically remarked that "the treatment of the Roma is a litmus test for democracy": and democracy has been found wanting. The consequences of the transition to capitalism have been disastrous for the Roma. Under communism they had jobs, free housing and schooling. Now many are unemployed, many are losing their homes and racism is increasingly rewarded with impunity.

The 2016 Pew Research poll found that Italians, in particular, hold strong anti-Roma views, with 82% of Italians expressing negative opinions about Roma. In Greece, 67%, in Hungary 64%, in France 61%, in Spain 49%, in Poland 47%, in the UK 45%, in Sweden 42%, in Germany 40%, and in the Netherlands 37% had an unfavourable view of Roma. The 2019 Pew Research poll found that 83% of Italians, 76% of Slovaks, 72% of Greeks, 68% of Bulgarians, 66% of Czechs, 61% of Lithuanians, 61% of Hungarians, 54% of Ukrainians, 52% of Russians, 51% of Poles, 44% of French, 40% of Spaniards, and 37% of Germans held unfavorable views of Roma. IRES published in 2020 a survey which revealed that 72% of Romanians have a negative opinion about them.

As of 2019, reports of anti-Roma incidents are increasing across Europe. Discrimination against Roma remains widespread in Kosovo, Romania, Slovakia, Bulgaria, and the Czech Republic. Roma communities across Ukraine have been the target of violent attacks.

Roma refugees fleeing the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine have faced discrimination in Europe, including in Poland, the Czech Republic, and Moldova.

Concerning employment, on average, across the European states which were surveyed, 16% of Roma women were in paid work in 2016 compared to a third of men.

Forced repatriation

Main article: Expulsion of Romani people from France

In the summer of 2010, French authorities demolished at least 51 Roma camps and began the process of repatriating their residents to their countries of origin. This followed tensions between the French state and Roma communities, which had been heightened after a traveller drove through a French police checkpoint, hit an officer, attempted to hit two more officers, and was then shot and killed by the police. In retaliation a group of Roma, armed with hatchets and iron bars, attacked the police station of Saint-Aignan, toppled traffic lights and road signs and burned three cars. The French government has been accused of perpetrating these actions to pursue its political agenda. EU Justice Commissioner Viviane Reding stated that the European Commission should take legal action against France over the issue, calling the deportations "a disgrace". A leaked file dated 5 August, sent from the Interior Ministry to regional police chiefs, included the instruction: "Three hundred camps or illegal settlements must be cleared within three months, Roma camps are a priority."

Organizations and projects

Artistic representations

Main article: Romani people in fiction

Many depictions of the Romani in literature and art present romanticized narratives of the mystical powers of fortune telling or as people who have an irascible or passionate temper paired with an indomitable love of freedom and a habit of criminality. The Romani were a popular subject in Venetian painting from the time of Giorgione at the start of the 16th century. The inclusion of such a figure adds an exotic oriental flavor to scenes. A Venetian Renaissance painting by Paris Bordone (c. 1530, Strasbourg) of the Holy Family in Egypt makes Elizabeth a Romani fortune-teller; the scene is otherwise located in a distinctly European landscape.

Particularly notable are classics like the story Carmen by Prosper Mérimée and the opera based on it by Georges Bizet, Victor Hugo's The Hunchback of Notre Dame, Herge's The Castafiore Emerald, Miguel de Cervantes' La Gitanilla and George Borrow's Lavengro and The Romany Rye. The Romani were also depicted in A Midsummer Night's Dream, As You Like It, Othello and The Tempest, all by William Shakespeare.

The Romani were also heavily romanticized in the Soviet Union, a classic example being the 1975 film Tabor ukhodit v Nebo. A more realistic depiction of contemporary Romani in the Balkans, featuring Romani lay actors speaking in their native dialects, although still playing with established clichés of a Romani penchant for both magic and crime, was presented by Emir Kusturica in his Time of the Gypsies (1988) and Black Cat, White Cat (1998). The films of Tony Gatlif, a French director of Romani ethnicity, like Les Princes (1983), Latcho Drom (1993) and Gadjo Dilo (1997) also portray Romani life.

See also

General

Lists

Other

Notes

  1. 5,400 per 2000 census.
  2. This is a census figure. Some 736,981 (10% of the population) did not declare any ethnicity. There was not any option for a person to declare multiple ethnicities. In a report Archived 25 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine of the census' authors, the ethnic results of this census are identified as a "gross manipulation".
  3. This is a census figure. There was an option to declare multiple ethnicities, so this figure includes Romani of multiple backgrounds. According to the 2016 microcensus 99.1% of Hungarian Romani declared Hungarian ethnic identity also.
  4. Approximate estimate
  5. ^ This is a census figure.
  6. This is a census figure. Some 368,136 (5.1% of the population) did not declare any ethnicity. There was not any option for a person to declare multiple ethnicities.
  7. This is a census figure. Some 408,777 (7.5% of the population) did not declare any ethnicity. There was not any option for a person to declare multiple ethnicities.
  8. This is a census figure. Less than 1% of the population did not declare any ethnicity.
  9. This is a census figure including Romani, Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians.
  10. This is a census figure. There was an additional 3,368 Balkan Egyptians. 390,938 (1% of the population) did not declare any ethnicity. The census is regarded as unreliable by the Council of Europe
  11. This is a census figure. Some 25% of the population did not declare any ethnicity.
  12. This is a census figure.



  14. The Welsh language alphabet lacks the letter k.
  15. Muslim Romas were excluded from the Deportation of Muslims from Greece's new conquered territory following the First Balkan War and presently form the majority of Greece's native Muslim population.

References

  1. Lewis, M. Paul, ed. (2009). "Ethnologue: Languages of the World" (online) (16th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL. Retrieved 15 September 2010. Ian Hancock's 1987 estimate for 'all Gypsies in the world' was 6 to 11 million.
  2. "EU demands action to tackle Roma poverty". BBC News. 5 April 2011.
  3. "The Roma". Nationalia. Retrieved 20 November 2015.
  4. "Rom". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 15 September 2010. ... estimates of the total world Roma population range from two million to five million.
  5. Smith, J. (2008). The marginalization of shadow minorities (Roma) and its impact on opportunities (Doctoral dissertation, Purdue University).
  6. ^ Kayla Webley (13 October 2010). "Hounded in Europe, Roma in the U.S. Keep a Low Profile". Time. Retrieved 3 October 2015. Today, estimates put the number of Roma in the U.S. at about one million.
  7. "Falta de políticas públicas para ciganos é desafio para o governo" [Lack of public policy for Romani is a challenge for the administration] (in Portuguese). R7. 2011. Archived from the original on 11 January 2012. Retrieved 22 January 2012. The Special Secretariat for the Promotion of Racial Equality estimates the number of "ciganos" (Romanis) in Brazil at 800,000 (2011). The 2010 IBGE Brazilian National Census encountered Romani camps in 291 of Brazil's 5,565 municipalities.
  8. "Roma integration in Spain". European Commission. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
  9. ^ "Roma and Travellers Team. Tools and Texts of Reference. Estimates on Roma population in European countries (excel spreadsheet)". rm.coe.int Council of Europe Roma and Travellers Division.
  10. "Estimated by the Society for Threatened Peoples". Society for Threatened Peoples. 17 May 2007. Archived from the original on 16 August 2021.
  11. "The Situation of Roma in Spain" (PDF). Open Society Institute. 2002. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 December 2007. Retrieved 15 September 2010. The Spanish government estimates the number of Gitanos to be a maximum of 650,000.
  12. ^ "Diagnóstico social de la comunidad gitana en España: Un análisis contrastado de la Encuesta del CIS a Hogares de Población Gitana 2007" (PDF). mscbs.gob.es. 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 August 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Tabla 1. La comunidad gitana de España en el contexto de la población romaní de la Unión Europea. Población Romaní: 750.000 Por 100 habitantes: 1.87% se podrían llegar a barajar cifras de 1.100.000 personas
  13. "Primele rezultate ale Recensământului 2022: Populația României a scăzut la 19.053.815 locuitori" [The first results of the 2022 Census: Romania's population decreased to 19,053,815 inhabitants]. HotNews (in Romanian). 30 December 2022.
  14. "Funding, strategy, facts and figures and contact details for national Roma contact points in Romania".
  15. Schleifer, Yigal (22 July 2005). "Roma rights organizations work to ease prejudice in Turkey". Archived from the original on 10 October 2012. Retrieved 17 June 2014.
  16. "Türkiye'deki Kürtlerin sayısı!" [The number of Kurds in Turkey!] (in Turkish). 6 June 2008. Retrieved 2 January 2016.
  17. "Türkiye'deki Çingene nüfusu tam bilinmiyor. 2, hatta 5 milyon gibi rakamlar dolaşıyor Çingenelerin arasında". Hurriyet (in Turkish). TR. 8 May 2005. Retrieved 2 January 2016.
  18. "Situation of Roma in France at crisis proportions". EurActiv Network. 7 December 2005. Retrieved 21 October 2015. According to the report, the settled Gypsy population in France is officially estimated at around 500,000, although other estimates say that the actual figure is much closer to 1.2 million.
  19. Gorce, Bernard (22 July 2010). "Roms, gens du voyage, deux réalités différentes". La Croix. Retrieved 21 October 2016. The ban prevents statistics on ethnicity to give a precise figure of French Roma, but we often quote the number 350,000. For travellers, the administration counted 160,000 circulation titles in 2006 issued to people aged 16 to 80 years. Among the travellers, some have chosen to buy a family plot where they dock their caravans around a local section (authorized since the Besson Act of 1990).
  20. Население по местоживеене, възраст и етническа група [Population by place of residence, age and ethnic group]. Bulgarian National Statistical Institute (in Bulgarian). Archived from the original on 2 June 2012. Retrieved 22 June 2015. Self declared
  21. "Roma Integration – 2014 Commission Assessment: Questions and Answers" (Press release). Brussels: European Commission. 4 April 2014. Retrieved 28 April 2016. EU and Council of Europe estimates
  22. Vukovich, Gabriella (2018). Mikrocenzus 2016 – 12. Nemzetiségi adatok [2016 microcensus – 12. Ethnic data] (PDF) (in Hungarian). Budapest: Hungarian Central Statistical Office. ISBN 978-963-235-542-9. Retrieved 9 January 2019.
  23. János, Pénzes; Patrik, Tátrai; Zoltán, Pásztor István (2018). "A roma népesség területi megoszlásának változása Magyarországon az elmúlt évtizedekben" [Changes in the Spatial Distribution of the Roma Population in Hungary During the Last Decades] (PDF). Területi Statisztika (in Hungarian). 58 (1): 3–26. doi:10.15196/TS580101. S2CID 197566729.
  24. ^ Hazel Marsh. "The Roma Gypsies of Latin America". www.latinolife.co.uk. Archived from the original on 23 April 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2017.
  25. "Emerging Romani Voices from Latin America". European Roma Rights Centre. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
  26. "Roma integration in the United Kingdom". European Commission – European Commission.
  27. "RME", Ethnologue
  28. Попис становништва, домаћинстава и станова 2011. у Републици Србији: Национална припадност [Census of population. Households and apartments in 2011 in the Republic of Serbia: Ethnicity] (PDF) (in Serbian). State Statistical Service of the Republic of Serbia. 29 November 2012. p. 8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 July 2018. Retrieved 17 July 2017.
  29. "Serbia: Country Profile 2011–2012" (PDF). European Roma Rights Centre. p. 7. Retrieved 17 July 2017.
  30. "Giornata Internazionale dei rom e sinti: presentato il Rapporto Annuale 2014 (PDF)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 February 2017. Retrieved 23 December 2015.
  31. "Premier Tsipras Hosts Roma Delegation for International Romani Day". greekreporter – place. Nick Kampouris. 9 April 2019.
  32. "Greece NGO". Greek Helsinki Monitor. LV: Minelres.
  33. "Roma in Deutschland", Regionale Dynamik, Berlin-Institut für Bevölkerung und Entwicklung, archived from the original on 29 April 2017, retrieved 21 February 2013
  34. "Roma integration in Slovakia". European Commission – European Commission.
  35. "Population and Housing Census. Resident population by nationality" (PDF). SK: Statistics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 July 2007.
  36. "Po deviatich rokoch spočítali Rómov, na Slovensku ich žije viac ako 400-tisíc". SME (in Slovak). SK: SITA. 25 September 2013. Retrieved 25 September 2013.
  37. "Gypsy". www.iranian.com. Archived from the original on 15 May 2017.
  38. "GYPSY i. Gypsies of Persia". Encyclopædia Iranica. 12 December 2002.
  39. "Total resident population, households and dwellings in the Republic of North Macedonia, census 2021" (PDF). State Statistical Office of the Republic of North Macedonia. pp. 32–33. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
  40. "Sametingen. Information about minorities in Sweden", Minoritet (in Swedish), IMCMS, archived from the original on 26 March 2017, retrieved 30 March 2013
  41. Всеукраїнський перепис населення '2001: Розподіл населення за національністю та рідною мовою [Ukrainian Census, 2001: Distribution of population by nationality and mother tongue] (in Ukrainian). UA: State Statistics Service of Ukraine. 2003. Retrieved 15 September 2017.
  42. ^ Roma /Gypsies: A European Minority Archived 15 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Minority Rights Group International.
  43. "Comunidade cigana em Portugal". 25 October 2022.
  44. "Etwa 40.000 Roma und Sinti leben in Österreich". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 17 August 2022.
  45. Kenrick, Donald (2007). Historical Dictionary of the Gypsies (Romanies) (2nd ed.). Scarecrow Press. p. 142. ISBN 978-0-8108-6440-5.
  46. "Poland – Gypsies". Country studies. US. Retrieved 28 August 2015.
  47. "Population by Ethnicity – Delailed Classification, 2011 Census". Croatian Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 21 June 2015.
  48. Emilio Godoy (12 October 2010). "Gypsies, or How to Be Invisible in Mexico". Inter Press Service. Retrieved 30 July 2016.
  49. 2004 census
  50. "Suomen romanit – Finitiko romaseele" (PDF). Government of Finland. Retrieved 8 January 2020.
  51. 1991 census
  52. "Población Gitana o Rrom de Colombia Resultados del Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda 2018" [Gypsy or Rom Population of Colombia Results of the National Population and Housing Census 2018] (PDF). dane.gov.co (in Spanish). Bogota. 16 October 2019.
  53. "Albanian census 2011". instat.gov.al. Archived from the original (XLS) on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 7 December 2015.
  54. "Republic of Belarus, 2009 Census: Population by Ethnicity and Native Language" (PDF) (in Russian). Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 September 2010. Retrieved 21 April 2018.
  55. "Roma in Canada fact sheet" (PDF). home.cogeco.ca. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 June 2007.
  56. Statistics Canada (8 May 2013). "2011 National Household Survey: Data tables". Retrieved 11 February 2014.
  57. "Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in Montenegro 2011" (PDF). 12 July 2011. Retrieved 13 July 2011.
  58. "Sčítání lidu, domů a bytů". czso.cz.
  59. "Roma integration in the Czech Republic". European Commission – European Commission.
  60. Yvonne Slee. "A History of Australian Romanies, now and then". Australia: Open ABC. Archived from the original on 11 August 2016. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
  61. "Denmark". European Commission.
  62. "Belgium".
  63. "Cyprus".
  64. ^ Gall, Timothy L, ed. (1998), Worldmark Encyclopedia of Culture & Daily Life, vol. 4. Europe, Cleveland, OH: Eastword, pp. 316, 318, 'Religion: An underlay of Hinduism with an overlay of either Christianity or Islam (host country religion)'; Roma religious beliefs are rooted in Hinduism. Roma believe in a universal balance, called kuntari... Despite a 1,000-year separation from India, Roma still practice 'shaktism', the worship of a god through his female consort...
  65. ^ Vishvapani (29 November 2011). "Hungary's Gypsy Buddhists & Religious Discrimination". www.wiseattention.org. Retrieved 4 June 2021.
  66. ^ Bhalesain, Pravin (2011). "Gypsies embracing Buddhism:A step forward for Building a Harmonious Society in Europe" (PDF). Undv.org/Vesak2011/Panel2. Retrieved 4 June 2021.
  67. Hancock, Ian (10 November 2023). Danger! Educated Gypsy: Selected Essays. Univ of Hertfordshire Press. p. 112. ISBN 9781902806990.
  68. ^ Marinov, Aleksandar G. (3 October 2019). Inward Looking: The Impact of Migration on Romanipe from the Romani Perspective. Berghahn Books. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-78920-362-2. It is unclear what made this people leave the Indian sub-continent but they are generally believed to have originated from central India, possibly in the modern Indian state of Rajasthan, migrating to the northwest around 250 BC.
  69. Hancock 2002, p. xx: 'While a nine century removal from India has diluted Indian biological connection to the extent that for some Romani groups, it may be hardly representative today, Sarren (1976:72) concluded that we still remain together, genetically, Asian rather than European'
  70. Simon Broughton; Mark Ellingham; Richard Trillo (1999). World Music: Africa, Europe and the Middle East. Rough Guides. p. 147. ISBN 978-1-85828-635-8. Retrieved 8 December 2015.
  71. Silverman, Carol (24 May 2012). Romani Routes: Cultural Politics and Balkan Music in Diaspora. OUP USA. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-19-530094-9.
  72. Snodgrass, Mary Ellen (8 August 2016). The Encyclopedia of World Folk Dance. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 260. ISBN 978-1-4422-5749-8.
  73. Hancock 2002, p. 9: '…the separation from India took place no earlier than the year 1000'
  74. Matras, Yaron (2005). "Romani" (PDF). In Brown, Keith (ed.). Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (2 ed.). Oxford: Elsevier. p. 2. ISBN 9780080547848. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 November 2022. Retrieved 25 May 2023.
  75. Cole, Jeffrey (2011). "Roma". Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia. United Kingdom: ABC-CLIO. p. 297. ISBN 9781598843033.
  76. Rama Sharma (1995). Bhangi, Scavenger in Indian Society: Marginality, Identity, and Politicization of the Community. M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. p. 126. ISBN 978-8185880709.
  77. ^ Hancock, Ian; Dowd, Siobhan; Djurić, Rajko (2004). The Roads of the Roma: a PEN anthology of Gypsy Writers. Hatfield, United Kingdom: University of Hertfordshire Press. pp. 14–15. ISBN 978-0-900458-90-3.
  78. "Migrations of the Romani People" (PDF).
  79. Kenrick, Donald (5 July 2007). Historical Dictionary of the Gypsies (Romanies) (2nd ed.). Scarecrow Press. p. xxxvii. ISBN 978-0-8108-6440-5.
  80. Gaster, Moses (1911). "Gipsies" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 37–43.
  81. Randall, Kay. "What's in a Name? Professor take on roles of Romani activist and spokesperson to improve plight of their ethnic group". Archived from the original on 5 February 2005. Retrieved 30 January 2013.
  82. ^ Pickering (2010). "The Romani" (PDF). Northern Michigan University. p. 1. Retrieved 24 May 2021.
  83. Bambauer, Nikki (2 August 2018). "The Plight of the Romani People-Europe's Most Persecuted Minority". JFCS Holocaust Center. The Romani people are frequently referred to as "gypsies," but many of them consider this exonym a derogatory term.
  84. Alison McFadden; Lindsay Siebelt; Anna Gavine; Karl Atkin; Kerry Bell; Nicola Innes; Helen Jones; Cath Jackson; Haggi Haggi; Steve MacGillivray (February 2018). "Gypsy, Roma and Traveller access to and engagement with health services: a systematic review". European Journal of Public Health. 28 (1): 74–81. doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckx226. PMID 29346666.
  85. ^ "Gypsy, Roma and Irish Traveller ethnicity summary". gov.uk. His Majesty's Government. Retrieved 24 May 2023.
  86. Corrêa Teixeira, Rodrigo. "A história dos ciganos no Brasil" (PDF). Dhnet.org.br. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
  87. Matras, Yaron (2015). The Romani Gypsies. Harvard University Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-674-36838-5.
  88. Sutherland 1986, p. 14.
  89. Matras 2002, p. 2240.
  90. Matras 2002, p. 239.
  91. "Romani" (PDF). Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Oxford: Elsevier. p. 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 30 August 2009. In some regions of Europe, especially the western margins (Britain, the Iberian peninsula), Romani-speaking communities have given up their language in favor of the majority language, but have retained Romani-derived vocabulary as an in-group code. Such codes, for instance Angloromani (Britain), Caló (Spain), or Rommani (Scandinavia) are usually referred to as Para-Romani varieties.
  92. "European effort spotlights plight of the Roma", USA Today, 1 February 2005
  93. Chiriac, Marian (29 September 2004). "It Now Suits the EU to Help the Roma". Other-news.info. Archived from the original on 15 September 2017. Retrieved 14 September 2017.
  94. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-friction-easteurope-roma-facts-idUSTRE57C04G20090813/
  95. "Roma integration in the EU". European Commission. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
  96. "Compilation of population estimates". Council of Europe. Archived from the original on 22 June 2007.
  97. "Roma Travellers Statistics" at the Wayback Machine (archived 6 October 2009), Council of Europe, compilation of population estimates. Archived from the original, 6 October 2009.
  98. "Roma ghettos in the heart of the EU". El País. 6 September 2019.
  99. Pan, Christoph; Pfeil, Beate Sibylle (2003). National Minorities in Europe: Handbook. Braumüller. p. 27f. ISBN 978-3-7003-1443-1.
  100. Liégois, Jean-Pierre (2007), Roms en Europe, Éditions du Conseil de l'Europe
  101. Hancock 2001, p. 2.
  102. Matras 2002, p. 5.
  103. Dosoftei, Alin (24 December 2007). "Names of the Romani People". Desicritics. Archived from the original on 7 May 2008. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
  104. Bessonov, N; Demeter, N, Ethnic groups of Gypsies, RU: Zigane, archived from the original on 29 April 2007
  105. ^ Hübshmanová 2003.
  106. Horvátová, Jana (2002). Kapitoly z dějin Romů (PDF) (in Czech). Praha: Lidové noviny. p. 12. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 March 2005. Mnohočetnost romských skupin je patrně pozůstatkem diferenciace Romů do původních indických kast a podkast.
  107. N. Rai et al., 2012, "The Phylogeography of Y-Chromosome Haplogroup H1a1a-M82 Reveals the Likely Indian Origin of the European Romani Populations" (23 September 2016)
  108. Isabel Fonseca, Bury Me Standing: The Gypsies and their Journey, Random House, p. 100.
  109. Hancock, Ian (2010). Danger! Educated Gypsy: Selected Essays. Univ of Hertfordshire Press. pp. 130–. ISBN 978-1-907396-30-4.
  110. ^ Jurová, Anna (2003). Vaščka, Michal; Jurásková, Martina; Nicholson, Tom (eds.). "From Leaving The Homeland to the First Assimilation Measures" (PDF). Čačipen Pal O Roma – A Global Report on Roma in Slovakia. Slovakia: 17. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 7 September 2013. the Sinti lived in German territory, the Manusha in France, the Romanitsel in England, the Kale in Spain and Portugal, and the Kaale in Finland.
  111. "RomArchive". www.romarchive.eu. Retrieved 12 June 2022.
  112. Wisely, Andrew (2019). "War against "Internal Enemies": Dr. Franz Lucas's Sterilization of Sinti and Roma in Ravensbrück Men's Camp in January 1945". Central European History. 52 (4): 654. doi:10.1017/S0008938919000852. S2CID 214237801. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 September 2022. Retrieved 21 September 2022.
  113. Lewy, Guenter (April 1999). "Himmler and the 'Racially Pure Gypsies'". Journal of Contemporary History. 34 (2): 201–214. doi:10.1177/002200949903400202. ISSN 0022-0094. PMID 21977563. S2CID 37085059. One spokesman was to serve the Lalleri Gypsies, a closely-knit tribe originally from the German-speaking part of Bohemia and Moravia that in 1939 had become a German protectorate.
  114. "GENOCIDE OF EUROPEAN ROMA (GYPSIES), 1939–1945". Romacenter.org. Retrieved 22 February 2023. In the autumn of 1941, German police authorities deported 5,007 Sinti and Lalleri Gypsies from Austria to the ghetto for Jews in Lodz, where they resided in a segregated section
  115. "Romani language and alphabet". Omniglot. Archived from the original on 6 June 2013. Retrieved 10 December 2013.
  116. ^ Research Directorate (2001). "Romania: Traditional Roma name for the various Roma clans and description of their traditional occupations; whether these occupations still exist today; distinguishing characteristics of the clans". Canada: Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada. Retrieved 27 July 2021.
  117. Crowe, David (1995). A History of the Gypsies of Eastern Europe and Russia. New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 123. ISBN 978-1-349-60671-9.
  118. Dicționarul etimologic român (in Romanian), quoted in DEX-online (see lemma rudár, rudári, s.m. followed by both definitions: "gold-miner" and "wood crafter").
  119. Sztaki, HU
  120. Dex online, RO
  121. "Vlax Romani: Churari (Speech variety #16036)". Global recordings. Retrieved 10 December 2013.
  122. Boyle, Paul; Halfacree, Keith H.; Robinson, Vaughan (2014), Exploring Contemporary Migration, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-317-89086-7
  123. Jurová, Anna (2003). Vaščka, Michal; Jurásková, Martina; Nicholson, Tom (eds.). "From Leaving The Homeland to the First Assimilation Measures" (PDF). Čačipen Pal O Roma – A Global Report on Roma in Slovakia. Slovak Republic: 17. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 7 September 2013. The word "manush" is also included in all dialects of Romany. It means man, while "Manusha" equals people. This word has the same form and meaning in Sanskrit as well, and is almost identical in other Indian languages.
  124. Gypsy Studies – Cigány Tanulmányok (PDF), HU: Forraykatalin, archived from the original (PDF) on 13 May 2015, retrieved 9 July 2015
  125. ^ Kalaydjieva, Luba; Gresham, David; Calafell, Francesc (2 April 2001). "Genetic studies of the Roma (Gypsies): A Review". BMC Medical Genetics. 2 (5): 5. doi:10.1186/1471-2350-2-5. PMC 31389. PMID 11299048.
  126. ^ Mendizabal, Isabel; Lao, Oscar; Marigorta, Urko M.; Wollstein, Andreas; Gusmão, Leonor; Ferak, Vladimir; Ioana, Mihai; Jordanova, Albena; Kaneva, Radka; Kouvatsi, Anastasia; Kučinskas, Vaidutis; Makukh, Halyna; Metspalu, Andres; Netea, Mihai G.; de Pablo, Rosario; Pamjav, Horolma; Radojkovic, Dragica; Rolleston, Sarah J.H.; Sertic, Jadranka; Macek, Milan; Comas, David; Kayser, Manfred (December 2012). "Reconstructing the Population History of European Romani from Genome-wide Data". Current Biology. 22 (24): 2342–2349. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2012.10.039. PMID 23219723.
  127. ^ Sindya N. Bhanoo (11 December 2012). "Genomic Study Traces Roma to Northern India". The New York Times.
  128. "Today, estimates put the number of Roma in the U.S. at about one million."
  129. "Brazil: Fatal altercation between police and Romani family launches campaign of mass murder against local Roma".
  130. Amaral, Fernanda Pattaro (15 October 2014). A Orillas Del Mar (in Spanish). Clube de Autores. ISBN 978-1-5024-2120-3. Retrieved 10 December 2022.
  131. Current Biology.
  132. Hübschmannová, Milena (2002). "Origin of Roma". RomBase. Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz. Archived from the original on 7 April 2022. Retrieved 3 September 2013.
  133. Matras 2002, p. 14.
  134. Digard, Jean-Pierre. "GYPSY i. Gypies of Persia". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 22 July 2013.
  135. Šebková, Hana; Žlnayová, Edita (1998), Nástin mluvnice slovenské romštiny (pro pedagogické účely) (PDF), Ústí nad Labem: Pedagogická fakulta Univerzity J. E. Purkyně v Ústí nad Labem, p. 4, ISBN 978-80-7044-205-0, archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016
  136. Matras 2002, p. 48.
  137. "What is Domari?". University of Manchester. Romani Linguistics and Romani Language Projects. Archived from the original on 10 April 2016. Retrieved 23 July 2008.
  138. "On romani origins and identity". Radoc. Archived from the original on 17 July 2011. Retrieved 23 July 2008.
  139. ^ "Romani" (PDF). Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Oxford: Elsevier. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 30 August 2009.
  140. Hancock, Ian (2007). "On Romani Origins and Identity". RADOC.net. Archived from the original on 17 July 2011.
  141. "5 Intriguing Facts About the Roma". Live Science. 23 October 2013.
  142. N Rai; G Chaubey; R Tamang; A K Pathak; V K Singh; et al. (2012). "The Phylogeography of Y-Chromosome Haplogroup H1a1a-M82 Reveals the Likely Indian Origin of the European Romani Populations". PLOS ONE. 7 (11): e48477. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...748477R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0048477. PMC 3509117. PMID 23209554.
  143. "Romani have Indian ancestry". Nature. 492 (7428): 156. 2012. doi:10.1038/492156c. S2CID 256746341.
  144. "Origin of the Romani People Pinned Down". Live Science. 6 December 2012.
  145. Font-Porterias, N.; Arauna, L. R.; Poveda, A.; Bianco, E.; Rebato, E.; Prata, M. J.; Calafell, F.; Comas, D. (2019). "European Roma groups show complex West Eurasian admixture footprints and a common South Asian genetic origin". PLOS Genetics. 15 (9): e1008417. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1008417. PMC 6779411. PMID 31545809.
  146. Kalaydjieva, Luba; Calafell, Francesc; Jobling, Mark A; Angelicheva, Dora; de Knijff, Peter; Rosser, Zoe H; Hurles, Matthew; Underhill, Peter; Tournev, Ivailo; Marushiakova, Elena; Popov, Vesselin (2011), "Patterns of inter- and intra-group genetic diversity in the Vlax Roma as revealed by Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA lineages" (PDF), European Journal of Human Genetics, 9 (2): 97–104, doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5200597, PMID 11313742, S2CID 21432405, archived from the original (PDF) on 9 December 2014
  147. Bianco, Erica; Laval, Guillaume; Font-Porterias, Neus; García-Fernández, Carla; Dobon, Begoña; Sabido-Vera, Rubén; Sukarova Stefanovska, Emilija; Kučinskas, Vaidutis; Makukh, Halyna; Pamjav, Horolma; Quintana-Murci, Lluis; Netea, Mihai G.; Bertranpetit, Jaume; Calafell, Francesc; Comas, David (2020). "Recent Common Origin, Reduced Population Size, and Marked Admixture Have Shaped European Roma Genomes". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 37 (11): 3175–3187. doi:10.1093/molbev/msaa156. PMID 32589725.
  148. ^ Gresham, D; Morar, B; Underhill, PA; Passarino, G; Lin, AA; Wise, C; Angelicheva, D; Calafell, F; Oefner, PJ; Shen, Peidong; Tournev, Ivailo; De Pablo, Rosario; Kuĉinskas, Vaidutis; Perez-Lezaun, Anna; Marushiakova, Elena; Popov, Vesselin; Kalaydjieva, Luba (2001). "Origins and Divergence of the Roma (Gypsies)". American Journal of Human Genetics. 69 (6): 1314–31. doi:10.1086/324681. PMC 1235543. PMID 11704928.
  149. Morar, Bharti; Gresham, David; Angelicheva, Dora; Tournev, Ivailo; Gooding, Rebecca; Guergueltcheva, Velina; Schmidt, Carolin; Abicht, Angela; Lochmüller, Hanns; Tordai, Attila; Kalmár, Lajos; Nagy, Melinda; Karcagi, Veronika; Jeanpierre, Marc; Herczegfalvi, Agnes; Beeson, David; Venkataraman, Viswanathan; Warwick Carter, Kim; Reeve, Jeff; de Pablo, Rosario; Kučinskas, Vaidutis; Kalaydjieva, Luba (October 2004). "Mutation History of the Roma/Gypsies". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 75 (4): 596–609. doi:10.1086/424759. PMC 1182047. PMID 15322984.
  150. ^ Peričić, Marijana; Lauc, Lovorka Barać; Klarić, Irena Martinović; Rootsi, Siiri; Janićijević, Branka; Rudan, Igor; Terzić, Rifet; Čolak, Ivanka; Kvesić, Ante; Popović, Dan; Šijački, Ana; Behluli, Ibrahim; Đorđević, Dobrivoje; Efremovska, Ljudmila; Bajec, Đorđe D.; Stefanović, Branislav D.; Villems, Richard; Rudan, Pavao (October 2005). "High-Resolution Phylogenetic Analysis of Southeastern Europe Traces Major Episodes of Paternal Gene Flow Among Slavic Populations". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 22 (10): 1964–1975. doi:10.1093/molbev/msi185. PMID 15944443.
  151. Jankova-Ajanovska, R; Zimmermann, B; Huber, G; Röck, AW; Bodner, M; Jakovski, Z; Janeska, B; Duma, A; Parson, W (16 June 2016). "Mitochondrial DNA control region analysis of three ethnic groups in the Republic of Macedonia". Forensic Science International. Genetics. 13: 1–2. doi:10.1016/j.fsigen.2014.06.013. PMC 4234079. PMID 25051224.
  152. ^ "Y chromosonal haplogroup distributionanddiversities in seven populations investigated". S009.radikal.ru. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 September 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
  153. ^ Martínez-Cruz, Begoña; Mendizabal, Isabel; Harmant, Christine; de Pablo, Rosario; Ioana, Mihai; Angelicheva, Dora; Kouvatsi, Anastasia; Makukh, Halyna; Netea, Mihai G; Pamjav, Horolma; Zalán, Andrea; Tournev, Ivailo; Marushiakova, Elena; Popov, Vesselin; Bertranpetit, Jaume; Kalaydjieva, Luba; Quintana-Murci, Lluis; Comas, David (June 2016). "Origins, admixture and founder lineages in European Roma". European Journal of Human Genetics. 24 (6): 937–943. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2015.201. PMC 4867443. PMID 26374132.
  154. Regueiro, Maria; Stanojevic, Aleksandar; Chennakrishnaiah, Shilpa; Rivera, Luis; Varljen, Tatjana; Alempijevic, Djordje; Stojkovic, Oliver; Simms, Tanya; Gayden, Tenzin; Herrera, Rene J. (January 2011). "Divergent patrilineal signals in three Roma populations". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 144 (1): 80–91. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21372. PMID 20878647.
  155. Bosch, E.; Calafell, F.; Gonzalez-Neira, A.; Flaiz, C.; Mateu, E.; Scheil, H.-G.; Huckenbeck, W.; Efremovska, L.; Mikerezi, I.; Xirotiris, N.; Grasa, C.; Schmidt, H.; Comas, D. (July 2006). "Paternal and maternal lineages in the Balkans show a homogeneous landscape over linguistic barriers, except for the isolated Aromuns". Annals of Human Genetics. 70 (4): 459–487. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1809.2005.00251.x. PMID 16759179. S2CID 23156886.
  156. ^ Petrejcíková, Eva; Soták, Miroslav; Bernasovská, Jarmila; Bernasovský, Ivan; Sovicová, Adriana; Bôziková, Alexandra; Boronová, Iveta; Gabriková, Dana; Švícková, Petra; Maceková, Sona; Cverhová, Valéria (2010). "The genetic structure of the Slovak population revealed by Y-chromosome polymorphisms". Anthropological Science. 118 (1): 23–30. doi:10.1537/ase.090203. S2CID 83899895.
  157. "Croatian national reference Y-STR haplotype database" (PDF). Draganprimorac.com. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
  158. "Y Chromosome Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms Typing by SNaPshot Minisequencing" (PDF). Bjmg.edu.mk. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
  159. Karachanak, S; Grugni, V; Fornarino, S; Nesheva, D; Al-Zahery, N; Battaglia, V; Carossa, V; Yordanov, Y; Torroni, A; Galabov, AS; Toncheva, D; Semino, O (2013). "Y-chromosome diversity in modern Bulgarians: new clues about their ancestry". PLOS ONE. 8 (3): e56779. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...856779K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0056779. PMC 3590186. PMID 23483890.
  160. "Participate to the DNA ancestry project for Germany, Austria and Switzerland". Eupedia.com. 10 January 2014. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
  161. Bánfai, Zsolt; Melegh, Béla I.; Sümegi, Katalin; Hadzsiev, Kinga; Miseta, Attila; Kásler, Miklós; Melegh, Béla (13 June 2019). "Revealing the Genetic Impact of the Ottoman Occupation on Ethnic Groups of East-Central Europe and on the Roma Population of the Area". Frontiers in Genetics. 10: 558. doi:10.3389/fgene.2019.00558. PMC 6585392. PMID 31263480.
  162. Font-Porterias, Neus; Arauna, Lara R.; Poveda, Alaitz; Bianco, Erica; Rebato, Esther; Prata, Maria Joao; Calafell, Francesc; Comas, David (23 September 2019). "European Roma groups show complex West Eurasian admixture footprints and a common South Asian genetic origin". PLOS Genetics. 15 (9): e1008417. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1008417. ISSN 1553-7390. PMC 6779411. PMID 31545809.
  163. Taylor, Becky (2014). Another Darkness Another Dawn. London UK: Reaktion Books Ltd. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-78023-257-7.
  164. "Romas are India's children: Sushma Swaraj". India.com. 12 February 2016. Retrieved 3 September 2017.
  165. "Can Romas be part of Indian diaspora?". khaleejtimes.com. 29 February 2016. Retrieved 4 March 2016.
  166. "Rom/Romni, Romano/Romani".
  167. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rom
  168. Cherata, Lucian. "ETIMOLOGIA CUVINTELOR "ȚIGAN" sI "(R)ROM"". Scritube (in Romanian). Retrieved 17 February 2017.
  169. ^ "Roma, Sinti, Gypsies, Travellers...The Correct Terminology about Roma", In Other Words project, Web Observatory & Review for Discrimination alerts & Stereotypes deconstruction, archived from the original on 5 October 2012
  170. Hancock 2002, p. xix.
  171. ^ Hancock 2002, p. xxi.
  172. "Romani og romanes". Språkrådet (in Norwegian Bokmål).
  173. OED "Romany" first use 1812 in a slang dictionary; "Rom" and "Roma" as plural, first uses by George Burrow in the Introduction to his The Zincali (1846 edition), also using "Rommany"
  174. Marushiakova, Elena; Popov, Vesselin (2001), "Historical and ethnographic background; gypsies, Roma, Sinti", in Guy, Will (ed.), Between Past and Future: The Roma of Central and Eastern Europe , UK: University of Hertfordshire Press, p. 52
  175. Klimova-Alexander, Illona (2005), The Romani Voice in World Politics: The United Nations and Non-State Actors, Burlington, VT: Ashgate, p. 13
  176. Rothéa, Xavier. "Les Roms, une nation sans territoire?". Theyliewedie.org (in French). Retrieved 31 July 2008.
  177. ^ Garner, Bryan A (2011). Dictionary of Legal Usage. Oxford University Press. pp. 400–. ISBN 978-0-19-538420-8.
  178. O'Nions, Helen (2007). Minority rights protection in international law: the Roma of Europe. Ashgate. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-4094-9092-0.
  179. Hancock 2002, p. xx.
  180. "List of ethnic groups". www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk. Retrieved 26 May 2022.
  181. "Dom: The Gypsy community in Jerusalem". The Institute for Middle East Understanding. 13 February 2007. Archived from the original on 23 May 2007. Retrieved 17 September 2010.
  182. Harper, Douglas (13 February 2007). "Etymology of Romani". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 17 September 2010.
  183. Soulis, G (1961), The Gypsies in the Byzantine Empire and the Balkans in the Late Middle Ages, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Trustees for Harvard University, pp. 15, 141–65
  184. ^ White, Karin (1999). "Metal-workers, agriculturists, acrobats, military-people and fortune-tellers: Roma (Gypsies) in and around the Byzantine empire". Golden Horn. 7 (2). Archived from the original on 20 March 2001. Retrieved 26 August 2007.
  185. Fraser 1992.
  186. Hancock, Ian (1995). A Handbook of Vlax Romani. Slavica Publishers. p. 17.
  187. Pocket guide to English usage. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster. 1998. p. 178. ISBN 978-0-87779-514-8.
  188. Wedeck, H.E.; Baskin, Wade (1973). Dictionary of gypsy life and lore. New York: Philosophical Library. ISBN 978-0-8065-2985-1.
  189. Report in Roma Educational Needs in Ireland (PDF), Pavee point, archived from the original (PDF) on 5 November 2013
  190. House of Commons Women & Equalities Committee (5 April 2019). "Tackling inequalities faced by Gypsy, Roma and Traveller communities". UK Parliament. Retrieved 13 May 2021.
  191. "Gypsy". The Free Dictionary.
  192. "Etymology of the Turkish word Çingene". Nişanyan Sözlük.
  193. Starr, J. (1936), An Eastern Christian Sect: the Athinganoi, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Trustees for Harvard University, pp. 29, 93–106
  194. Bates, Karina. "A Brief History of the Rom". Archived from the original on 10 August 2007. Retrieved 26 August 2007.
  195. "Book Reviews" (PDF). Population Studies. 48 (2): 365–72. July 1994. doi:10.1080/0032472031000147856.
  196. ^ Bereznay, András (2021). Historical Atlas of the Gypsies: Romani History in Maps. Méry Ratio. p. 18/1. ISBN 978-615-6284-10-5.
  197. "Arrival in Europe".
  198. Anfuso, Linda (24 February 1994). "gypsies". Newsgroup: rec.org.sca. Usenet: PaN9Hc2w165w@tinhat.stonemarche.org. Archived from the original on 24 August 2007. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
  199. Keil, Charles; Blau, Dick; Keil, Angeliki; Feld, Steven (9 December 2002). Bright Balkan Morning: Romani Lives and the Power of Music in Greek Macedonia. Wesleyan University Press. pp. 50–51. ISBN 978-0-8195-6488-7.
  200. Dr Ian Law; Dr Sarah Swann (28 January 2013). Ethnicity and Education in England and Europe: Gangstas, Geeks and Gorjas. Ashgate Publishing. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-4094-9484-3. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
  201. Ernst Hĺkon Jahr (1992). Language Contact: Theoretical and Empirical Studies. Walter de Gruyter. p. 42. ISBN 978-3-11-012802-4. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
  202. Simon Broughton; Mark Ellingham; Richard Trillo (1999). World Music: Africa, Europe and the Middle East. Rough Guides. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-85828-635-8. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
  203. Schilling, Diebold the Elder (1480s). Spiezer Schilling. Bern. p. 749.
  204. ^ Kenrick, Donald (5 July 2007). Historical Dictionary of the Gypsies (Romanis) (2nd ed.). Scarecrow Press. pp. xx–xxii. ISBN 978-0-8108-6440-5.
  205. Davies, Norman (1996). Europe: A History. Oxford University Press. pp. 387–88. ISBN 978-0-19-820171-7.
  206. Antonio Gómez Alfaro. "The Great "Gypsy" Round-up in Spain" (PDF). p. 4.
  207. "Western Europe".
  208. Taylor, Becky (2014). Another Darkness Another Dawn. London UK: Reaktion Books Ltd. p. 72. ISBN 978-1-78023-257-7.
  209. Hancock 2001, p. 25.
  210. Radu, Delia (8 July 2009), "'On the Road': Centuries of Roma History", World Service, BBC
  211. Hancock, Ian. "Romanies and the holocaust: a reevaluation and an overview". Radoc.net. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 14 February 2009.
  212. "United States Holocaust Memorial Museum". Retrieved 2 December 2012.
  213. Hancock, Ian (2005). "True Romanies and the Holocaust: A Re-evaluation and an overview". The Historiography of the Holocaust. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 383–96. ISBN 978-1-4039-9927-6. Archived from the original on 9 June 2019. Retrieved 14 February 2009.
  214. "GENOCIDE OF EUROPEAN ROMA (GYPSIES), 1939–1945". Holocaust Encyclopedia. Retrieved 27 January 2018.
  215. Silverman 1995.
  216. Helsinki Watch 1991.
  217. ^ Denysenko, Marina (12 March 2007). "Sterilised Roma accuse Czechs". BBC News. Retrieved 15 September 2017.
  218. Thomas, Jeffrey (16 August 2006). "Coercive Sterilization of Romani Women Examined at Hearing: New report focuses on Czech Republic and Slovakia". Washington File. Bureau of International Information Programs, U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 13 February 2008.
  219. "Gypsy child couple separated". 2 October 2003. Retrieved 8 August 2022.
  220. Surdu, Laura; Surdu, Mihai (2006). "Family Life". Broadening the Agenda: 31–42.
  222. Weyrauch, Walter Otto (2001), Gypsy Law: Romani Legal Traditions and Culture, University of California Press, p. 210, ISBN 978-0-520-22186-4, Rom have preserved and modified Indian caste system
  223. "INTRODUCTION TO ROMA CULTURE" (PDF).
  224. "Romani Customs and Traditions: Death Rituals and Customs". Patrin Web Journal. Archived from the original on 21 August 2007. Retrieved 26 August 2007.
  225. Knipe, David M. (1991). "The Journey of a Lifebody". hindugateway.com. Archived from the original on 30 September 2008. Retrieved 26 May 2008.
  226. Hancock 2001, p. 81.
  227. Aleksandar G. Marinov (3 October 2019). Inward Looking: The Impact of Migration on Romanipe from the Romani Perspective. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-78920-362-2.
  228. Saul, Nicholas; Tebbut, Susan (2005). Saul, Nicholas; Tebbutt, Susan (eds.). The Role of the Romanies: Images and Counter-Images of 'Gypsies'/Romanies in European Cultures. Liverpool University Press. pp. 218–219. ISBN 978-0-85323-689-4.
  229. The Columbia Encyclopedia (8th ed.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. 2018 – via Credo Reference.
  230. G. L. Lewis (1991), "ČINGĀNE", The Encyclopaedia of Islam, vol. 2 (2nd ed.), Brill, pp. 40a–41b, ISBN 978-90-04-07026-4
  231. Palmer, Michael D.; Burgess, Stanley M. (13 April 2020). The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Religion and Social Justice. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-119-57210-7.
  232. "Restless Beings Project: Roma Engage". Restless Beings. 2008–2012. Archived from the original on 1 January 2013. Retrieved 26 December 2012.
  233. Boretzky, Norbert (1995). Romani in Contact: The History, Structure and Sociology of a Language. Amsterdam, NL: John Benjamins. p. 70.
  234. "Blessed Ceferino Gimenez Malla 1861–1936". Visit the Saviour. Voveo. December 2012. Retrieved 26 December 2012.
  235. ^ Lee, Ronald (2002). "The Romani Goddess Kali Sara". Romano Kapachi. Retrieved 26 December 2012.
  236. Ian Hancock (2001). "Romani ("Gypsy") Religion". In Jeff Kaplan; Bron Taylor; Samuel S. Hill (eds.). The Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature. Archived from the original on 25 September 2011. Retrieved 12 October 2023 – via Radoc.
  237. ^ Marushiakova, Elena; Popov, Veselin (2012). "Roma Muslims in the Balkans". Education of Roma Children in Europe. Council of Europe. Archived from the original on 13 April 2012. Retrieved 26 December 2012.
  238. "Population dupa etnia si religie, pe medii" [Population by ethnicity and religion (on average)] (PDF) (in Romanian). Romanian National Institute of Statistics. 2002. Retrieved 3 October 2015.
  239. "Wiara po romsku".
  240. Liégeois, Jean-Pierre (1 January 1994). Roma, Gypsies, Travellers. Council of Europe. ISBN 978-92-871-2349-7.
  241. Eliopoulos, Nicholas C (2006), Gypsy Council, Xlibris Corporation, p. 460, ISBN 978-1-4653-3036-9
  242. Area Handbook for Romania – Volume 550, Issue 160. p. 100.
  243. Marketing in a Multicultural World: Ethnicity, Nationalism, and Cultural Identity.
  244. ""Perverting the Taste of the People": Lăutari and the Balkan Question in Romania".
  245. Alan Ashton-Smith (2017). Gypsy Music: The Balkans and Beyond. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-78023-865-4.
  246. Rethinking (In)Security in the European Union: The Migration-Identity-Security Nexus. p. 148.
  247. Martinez, Emma (24 February 2011), Flamenco: All You Wanted to Know (Google books), Mel Bay Publications, p. 21, ISBN 978-1-60974-470-0
  248. Hancock 2002, p. 129.
  249. Gypsy Jazz: In Search of Django Reinhardt and the Soul of Gypsy Swing.
  250. Cümbüş means fun, Birger Gesthuisen investigates the short history of a 20th-century folk instrument, Rootsworld
  251. "Gypsies".
  252. "Gypsy Legends on Vampires".
  253. "Romani Cuisine and Cultural Persistence". Paste. 27 June 2016.
  254. "Gypsies | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 5 December 2022.
  255. "Meet Your Neighbors" (PDF). opensourcefoundations.org.
  256. Brogyanyi, Bela; Lipp, Reiner (6 May 1993). Comparative-Historical Linguistics. John Benjamins. ISBN 978-90-272-7698-8.
  257. Gordon, Raymond G Jr., ed. (2005). "Caló: A language of Spain". Ethnologue: Languages of the World (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 978-1-55671-159-6.
  258. ^ Matras, Yaron. "Romani Linguistics and Romani Language Projects". Humanities. The University of Manchester. Archived from the original on 6 November 2018. Retrieved 24 February 2015.
  259. ^ Matras, Yaron (October 2005). "The status of Romani in Europe" (PDF). Report Submitted to the Council of Europe's Language Policy Division: 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 May 2019. Retrieved 4 March 2015.
  260. ^ Achim 2004, p. .
  261. Grigore, Delia; Petcuț, Petre; Sandu, Mariana (2005). Istoria și tradițiile minorității rromani (in Romanian). Bucharest: Sigma. p. 36.
  262. Ștefănescu, Ștefan (1991), Istoria medie a României (in Romanian), vol. I, Bucharest: Editura Universității din București
  263. "Gypsy/Roma European migrations from 15th century till nowadays". academia.edu.
  264. ^ "Timeline of Romani History". Patrin Web Journal. Archived from the original on 11 November 2007. Retrieved 26 August 2007.
  265. "Cap. 2: 2.1 Apuntes sobre la situación de la comunidad gitana en la sociedad Española – Anexo III. 'Gitanos malos, gitanos buenos'" [Chap. 2: 2.1 Notes on the situation of the gypsy community in Spanish society – Affix III. 'Bad gypsies, good gypsies']. The Barañí Project – Roma Women (in Spanish). 29 February 2000. Archived from the original on 12 July 2001. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
  266. Taylor, Becky (2014). Another Darkness Another Dawn. London UK: Reaktion Books Ltd. p. 105. ISBN 978-1-78023-257-7.
  267. ^ Samer, Helmut (December 2001). "Maria Theresia and Joseph II: Policies of Assimilation in the Age of Enlightened Absolutism". Rombase. Karl-Franzens-Universitaet Graz. Archived from the original on 6 April 2015. Retrieved 3 October 2015.
  268. Fraser, Angus (2005). Los gitanos. Ariel. ISBN 978-84-344-6780-4.
  269. Texto de la pragmática en la Novísima Recopilación. Ley XI, pg. 367 y ss.
  270. "Gitanos. History and Cultural Relations". World Culture Encyclopedia. Retrieved 26 August 2007.
  271. Kenrick, Donald. "Roma in Norway". Patrin Web Journal. Archived from the original on 29 April 2013. Retrieved 13 March 2012.
  272. "The Church of Norway and the Roma of Norway". World Council of Churches. 3 September 2002.
  273. "Genocide of European Roma (Gypsies), 1939–1945".
  274. Re. Holocaust Victim Assets Litigation (Swiss Banks) Special Master's Proposals (PDF), 11 September 2000, archived from the original (PDF) on 9 April 2004
  275. Stone, D, ed. (2004), "Romanies and the Holocaust: A Reevaluation and an Overview", The Historiography of the Holocaust (article), Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave, archived from the original on 13 November 2013, retrieved 14 February 2009
  276. "Council of Europe website". Archived from the original on 21 February 2009. Retrieved 6 October 2009. European Roma and Travellers Forum (ERTF). 2007. Archived from the original Archived 21 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine on 6 July 2007.
  277. Bilefsky, Dan (19 October 2013). "Are the Roma primitive or just poor?". The New York Times (review).
  278. "Demolita la 'bidonville' di Ponte Mammolo" [The 'slum' of Mammolo Bridge demolished]. il Giornale (in Italian). IT. 5 December 2007. Retrieved 14 September 2017.
  279. Di Caro, Paola (4 November 2007). "Fini: impossibile integrarsi con chi ruba" [Fini: it's impossible to integrate those who steal]. Corriere della Sera (in Italian). Retrieved 14 September 2017.
  280. "European effort spotlights plight of the Roma". USA Today. 1 February 2005. Retrieved 10 May 2013.
  281. "Europe must break cycle of discrimination facing Roma" (Press release). Amnesty International. 7 April 2010. Retrieved 2 January 2016.
  282. "Europe Roma". Amnesty International. February 2002. Archived from the original on 12 October 2007. Retrieved 6 May 2009.
  283. Colin Woodard (13 February 2008). "Hungary's anti-Roma militia grows". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 15 September 2010.
  284. "Roma". SI: Human Rights Press Point. Archived from the original on 10 March 2012. Retrieved 6 May 2009.
  285. Polansky, Paul (June 2005). "Results of an Enquiry into the Situation of Roma und Ashkali in Kosovo (Dec.2004 to May 2005) – Roma and Ashkali in Kosovo: Persecuted, driven out, poisoned". GFBV. Archived from the original on 6 August 2007. Retrieved 6 May 2009.
  286. "National Roma Integration Strategies: a first step in the implementation of the EU Framework" (PDF). European Commission. 21 May 2012. Retrieved 3 May 2014.
  287. Alexander, Harriet (17 February 2014). "Roma on the rubbish dump". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 21 February 2014.
  288. Relief, UN (2010). "Roma in Serbia (excluding Kosovo) on 1 January 2009" (PDF). UN Relief. 8 (1).
  289. Ringold, Dena; Orenstein, Mitchell Alexander; Wilkens, Erika (2005). Roma in an Expanding Europe – Breaking the Poverty Cycle. World Bank. ISBN 0-8213-5457-4.
  290. Cahn, Claude (1 January 2007). "Birth of a Nation: Kosovo and the Persecution of Pariah Minorities". German Law Journal. 8 (1): 81–94. doi:10.1017/S2071832200005423. S2CID 141025735.
  291. Bricker, Mindy Kay (12 June 2006). "For Gypsies, Eugenics is a Modern Problem / Czech Practice Dates to Soviet Era". Newsdesk.
  292. "Final Statement of the Public Defender of Rights in the Matter of Sterilisations Performed in Contravention of the Law and Proposed Remedial Measures". The Office of The Public Defender of Rights, Czech Republic. 23 December 2005. Archived from the original on 28 November 2007. Retrieved 15 September 2010.
  293. Hooper, John (2 November 2007). "Italian woman's murder prompts expulsion threat to Romanians". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 14 September 2017.
  294. de Zulueta, Tana (30 March 2009). "Italy's new ghetto?". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 14 September 2017.
  295. "Italy fingerprints thousands of Gypsies". NBC News. 4 July 2008. Retrieved 15 July 2022.
  296. Kooijman, Hellen (6 April 2012). "Bleak horizon". EU: Presseurop. Archived from the original on 7 April 2012. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
  297. "The gypsy in my soul: Sinti and Roma in the Netherlands". Radio Netherlands Archives. 19 September 1999.
  298. "Negative opinions about Roma, Muslims in several European nations". Pew Research Center. 11 July 2016.
  299. "European Public Opinion Three Decades After the Fall of Communism — 6. Minority groups". Pew Research Center. 14 October 2019.
  300. "Sondaj IRES: 7 din 10 români nu au încredere în romi". Radio Free Europe Romania (in Romanian). 8 February 2020.
  301. "We need to talk about the rising wave of anti-Roma attacks in Europe". The Independent. 28 July 2019.
  302. "Unemployment keeps Kosovo's Roma on the margins". Deutsche Welle. 17 February 2018.
  303. "To Europe's shame, Roma remain stigmatised outsiders – even when they live in mansions". The Conversation. 25 April 2019.
  304. "Discrimination against Roma remains widespread in Slovakia says Amnesty International report". The Slovak Spectator. 22 February 2018.
  305. "Anti-Roma protests take place in Bulgarian city of Gabrovo". The Associated Press. 12 April 2019.
  306. "'Everybody hates us': on Sofia's streets, Roma face racism every day". The Guardian. 20 October 2019.
  307. "Roma ghettos in the heart of the EU". El País. 6 September 2019.
  308. "Zpráva o stavu romské menšiny: V Česku bylo loni podle odhadů 830 ghett se 127 tisíci obyvateli". iROZHLAS (in Czech). 12 October 2019. Retrieved 28 July 2020.
  309. "Deadly Attack Escalates Violent Trend Against Ukrainian Roma". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 25 June 2018.
  310. "Attacked and abandoned: Ukraine's forgotten Roma". Al-Jazeera. 23 November 2018.
  311. "'Meet us before you reject us': Ukraine's Roma refugees face closed doors in Poland". The Guardian. 10 May 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
  312. "Roma refugees from Ukraine face Czech xenophobia". EU Observer. 17 May 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
  313. "Undocumented Roma Refugees Facing Discrimination As They Flee Ukraine". Vice. 23 March 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
  314. "Roma people: 10 ways Europe's biggest minority faces discrimination". Reuters. 8 April 2019.
  315. "France sends Roma Gypsies back to Romania". BBC News. 20 August 2010. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
  316. "Troops patrol French village of Saint-Aignan after riot". BBC. 10 July 2010. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
  317. "Q&A: France Roma expulsions". BBC. 15 September 2010. Retrieved 16 September 2010.
  318. "France Begins Controversial Roma Deportations". Der Spiegel. 19 August 2010. Retrieved 20 August 2010.
  319. "EU may take legal action against France over Roma". BBC News. 14 September 2010. Retrieved 15 September 2010.
  320. "The Gypsy Lore Society" (Journal).
  321. Jacquot, Dominique (2006). Le musée des Beaux-Arts de Strasbourg — Cinq siècles de peinture. Strasbourg: Éditions des Musées de Strasbourg. p. 76. ISBN 978-2-901833-78-9.

Sources

  • Achim, Viorel (2004). The Roma in Romanian History. Budapest: Central European University Press. ISBN 978-963-9241-84-8.
  • Fraser, Angus (1992), The Gypsies, Oxford, UK: Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-631-15967-4
  • Hancock, Ian (2001), Ame sam e rromane džene, New York: The Open Society Institute
  • Hancock, Ian (2002) . Ame Sam E Rromane Dz̆ene. Univ of Hertfordshire Press. ISBN 978-1-902806-19-8.
  • Helsinki Watch (1991), Struggling for Ethnic Identity: Czechoslovakia's Endangered Gypsies, New York: Helsinki Watch
  • Hübshmanová, Milena (2003). "Roma – Sub Ethnic Groups". Rombase. Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz. Archived from the original on 11 December 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2015.
  • Lemon, Alaina (2000). Between Two Fires: Gypsy Performance and Romani Memory from Pushkin to Post-Socialism. Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-2456-0.
  • Matras, Yaron; Popov, Vesselin (2001). Gypsies in the Ottoman Empire. Hatfield: University of Hertfordshire Press.
  • Matras, Yaron (2005). Romani: A Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-02330-6.
  • Matras, Yaron (2002). Romani: A Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-63165-5.
  • "Gypsies, The World's Outsiders", National Geographic, pp. 72–101, April 2001
  • Nemeth, David J. (2002). The Gypsy-American. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen.
  • Sutherland, Ann (1986). Gypsies: The Hidden Americans. Waveland. ISBN 978-0-88133-235-3.
  • Silverman, Carol (1995). "Persecution and Politicization: Roma (Gypsies) of Eastern Europe". Cultural Survival Quarterly.

Further reading

External links

European countries Roma links

Non-governmental organisations

Museums and libraries

Romani topics
History
Population
Society and culture
Politics and advocacy
Studies
Categories: