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Anne of Denmark and her African servants

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The queen of Scotland and England had servants from Africa
Anne of Denmark and her African servant at Oatlands Palace, by Paul van Somer. The name of the servant has not yet been traced.

Anne of Denmark (1574–1619) was the wife of James VI and I, King of Scotland, and King of England after the Union of Crowns. In 1617, she was depicted in a painting by Paul van Somer with an African servant holding her horse at Oatlands Palace. There are archival records of Africans or people of African descent, often called "Moors" or "Moirs", in her service. One of the first publications to mention Anne of Denmark's "Moir" servant in Scotland was edited by James Thomson Gibson-Craig in 1828.

Norway and Denmark

James VI sailed to Norway to meet Anne of Denmark in October 1589, as his advisers thought it was time for him to marry and her older sister was already engaged.

John Allyne Gade, a 20th-century biographer of the queen's brother Christian IV of Denmark, wrote in 1927 of the detail of the royal couple seeing a dance performed by African men in the snow at Oslo. Some of the dancers died from the cold.

The surviving performers accompanied the royal party in their journey to Denmark and afterward to Scotland. The source of Gade's story is unknown. But earlier accounts attest to the newlyweds being entertained in Oslo by acrobats, recorded then as two "vautis". The "vautis" performed again, in the "close" or courtyard of a Danish palace.

Pageant in the streets of Edinburgh

Main article: Entry and coronation of Anne of Denmark

The couple arrived back to Scotland in May 1590. A few months later, a household list records that Anne of Denmark had a "Moir" servant in her household. It is unclear if he had already been in her service in Denmark. Soon after James and Anne arrived in Scotland, there was a pageant in the streets of Edinburgh to celebrate her arrival into the town on 19 May.

A contemporary description of the 1590 Entry and coronation of Anne in Edinburgh by a Danish observer distinguished between townspeople who had blackened their faces or wore black masks, and "an absolutely real and native blackamoor" leading the ushers or whifflers who made way for the royal convoy. The original Danish phrase was, "men en ret naturlig og inföd Morian var des Anförer". He carried a drawn sword ahead of the others who were dressed in sailor's tunics. These were men from Edinburgh in blackface makeup, or were wearing black masks. David Moysie wrote that there were "42 young men from the town all clad in white taffeta and visors of black colour, on their faces like Mores, all full of gold chains, that danced before her grace all the way". These performers, according to the poet John Burel, represented "Moirs" of "the Inds" who lived in comparative ease and comfort by the golden mountain of "SYNERDAS". They had come to salute Scotland's new queen and offer to her service their "most willing minds". They marched in front of her down the Canongate where she passed "intill hir Pallace", Holyroodhouse.

It is not known if the man who participated in the street pageant was the "Moir" subsequently listed as a member of Anne of Denmark's household. The "Moir", like the other gentlemen and servants, was allowed 3 pints of ale at dinner. He wore clothes of orange velvet and Spanish taffeta. The costume was similar to those made for others who served as "pages of the equerry". He was to eat with the three "lackeys" who attended the queen when she went riding with her companions, including Anna Kaas and, later, Margaret Vinstarr. The pages and lackeys were young men drawn from the Scottish and Danish gentry. Clothes were made for six pages and four lackeys at Anne's coronation on 17 May 1590, it was not recorded if the "Moir" was one these young men.

Clothes and livery for royal servants of African origin

Main article: African presence at the Scottish royal court
Clothes were bought for four pages and the "Moir" in October 1590, Treasurer's Accounts, National Records of Scotland.

Clothes for servants were made in October and November 1590 by two tailors who served the court, James Inglis and Alexander Miller. Costume for the "Moir" included an orange velvet "jupe" and breeches and a doublet of shot-silk Spanish taffeta festooned with white satin passementerie. His hat was of yellow Spanish taffeta lined with orange. Cloaks for the four pages were made of orange London cloth and their jupes of orange stemming, the velvet for the African servant came from the queen's own stock, paid for from the English subsidy. The jupes were lined with a cloth called "grey bukkessie". At least one of the pages, a young man, James Murray, had previously served the king and travelled to Denmark to join Anne's household in 1589. Clothes were also bought for the two Danish palfreymen and the Mecklenburg and Brunswick lackeys whose distinctive liveries underscored her royal identity.

There seem to be no further records of wages or livery allowances to be paid to this individual in the National Records of Scotland. Little can be inferred from this; the Scottish lackey for the queen's gentlewomen, James Glen, worked for five years without pay, and another servant, Jens Pierson, a Danish man who looked after Anne of Denmark's horse had received no cash pay after twelve years service. An unpaid French stable worker, Guillaume Martin, ran away with his friend the queen's jeweller, Jacob Kroger. However, payments were made to the companions of the African servant, the queen's four pages and three lackeys, at the end of 1591. This money was the cash equivalent of their allocated "linen cloth" livery as members of the queen's household, calculated "according to the custom of Denmark". One list of payments mentions three keepers of the Queen's riding horse, naming "Williame Huntar", "George Kendo (or Keudo)", and "Johnne Broun", who received Scottish livery allowances.

The burial at Kilgour

The funeral of a man now known only as the "Moir" who died at Falkland Palace was held in July 1591
The "Yirdin" stone at the House of Falkland commemorates the old funeral route to Kilgour. "Yirdin" is a Scots word for burial.

An African servant at the Scottish court was buried at Falkland in July 1591. James VI paid £7-6s-8d for the costs. It is not clear if he was the participant in the 1590 Entry of Anne of Denmark. He may have been the person in the queen's household for whom clothes were bought, and such payments were not again recorded.

At this time the church and burial ground of Falkland parish was at Kilgour, to the west of the Palace and town. The benefice was counted as part of the Priory of Saint Andrews. It is known that coffins rested at a spot called the "Pillars of Hercules" on the way to Kilgour. A replacement church was built in Falkland town about thirty years later by the master mason John Mylne and his son, and the site of the old church is now a farm. Today, the parish church of Falkland is a Destination Hub on the St Margaret Pilgrim Journey. The Chapel Royal, in Falkland Palace, dedicated to Thomas the Apostle, was a separate foundation and is now open to the public and reserved for Catholic worship. The historian Bernadette Andrea notes that African people arriving in Scotland and Britain in the 16th-century may have followed the Islamic faith.

A page at the court of Queen Elizabeth

African servants were also present at court in England, a part of the household's public life. Elizabeth I had a page of African origin in 1574 and 1575. He was recorded when clothes were bought for him as "a littell Black a More". Probably a young boy, his clothes included a coat of cut white taffeta lined with tinsel, with gold and silver, and a similar doublet, and a carnation and silver costume with a decorative green doublet. He may have attended Elizabeth in her presence chamber, exhibited as a symbolic advertisement of royal power.

Baptism of Prince Henry at Stirling

Main article: Masque at the baptism of Prince Henry
A "More" at court performed at the feast at the baptism of Prince Henry at Stirling Castle in August 1594

At the feast following the baptism of her son Prince Henry on 30 August 1594 at Stirling Castle, a "Moore" dragged a pageant cart with six ladies holding desserts towards the dais or high table in the great hall. He pretended to pull the stage with chains or draught traces fashioned like gold chains. It was really winched or pushed by hidden workmen. His performance was a last-minute substitute for a lion. Perhaps this actor was the same Afro-Scot as the man in the pageant in the streets of Edinburgh in May 1590. The scene was described, in the Scots language:

there cam into the sight of thame all a blak More drawing as it seemed to the behalders a tabernacle ful of patisserye frutages and confections and in the sydis thairoff wer placed sax wemen quhilk represented a silent comedie, ... So this tabernacle, quhilk suld have bene drawen in by a lyon it self, yet becaus his presence might brought some feare to the nerrest it was thought gud the More suld supple that roume,

The women, in glittering costumes bought with money from Anne's dowry, represented Ceres, Fecundity, Faith, Concord, Liberality, and Perseverance (Assurance), celebrating Anne's statecraft and offering benefits in accord with Scottish masque traditions. The entertainment was written by William Fowler. His published description of the substitution of the African actor for the lion has been suggested by Edmond Malone and others as the source of an allusion in Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream. As the characters discuss their play of Pyramus and Thisbe, Snout wonders "Will not the ladies be afeard of the lion?".

Anne of Denmark in England

The man depicted in Paul van Somer's 1617 portrait of Anne of Denmark may have been a member of Anne of Denmark's household in England, a page, groomsman or groom rider of the royal stable. His costume may be the scarlet and gold livery of the House of Oldenburg, the royal dynasty of Denmark. His name has not yet been discovered. Records of the royal stable survive, naming some of the grooms and riders who attended Anne of Denmark and the fees and livery payments they received. Three years after Anne's death, the Earl of Salisbury gave six shillings to an African servant at Theobalds House, to "the blackemor att Theoballs".

The painting shows the queen with her dogs in the park at Oatlands Palace near Weybridge in Surrey. Anne of Denmark owned Italian greyhounds. The diplomat Ralph Winwood obtained special greyhounds for her hunting from Jacob van den Eynde, Governor of Woerden. The gate seen in the background was built by Inigo Jones who provided designs for the costumes and scenery of her masques. The portrait may have been intended to bolster Anne of Denmark's image as queen consort in the year her husband left her London for a return visit to Scotland. The inclusion of the African groom in the picture may have been intended to heighten the queen's authority and regal stature, "by gazing towards her with an air of servitude and adoration, he invites the viewer to follow suit and defer to the queen consort of England".

Material culture and theatre

Main article: The Masque of Blackness

A pair of earrings made for Anne of Denmark by George Heriot survives in a private collection. They feature the enamelled face of an African man. The earrings were itemised by Heriot in 1609 as "two pendants made as more's heads and all sett with diamonds, price £70." They may reflect her fascination with the representation of African people in the theatre, as in her Masque of Blackness performed on 6 January 1605. Perhaps her personal participation in that masque, and the performances in 1590 and 1594 evoked a queenly identity based on the mythical figure of Scota, a daughter of an Egyptian pharaoh and foundation figure in Scottish national identity whose name is based on the Greek word for darkness, skotos, σκότος.

Ben Jonson, author of the masque, credited the impersonation of African characters in The Masque of Blackness to "her majesty's will". The queen and eleven ladies appeared in blackface as the daughters of "Father Niger". The character was a personification of the River Niger and his daughters may have represented the waters of the Niger Delta. The daughters of Niger would turn white in the climate of newly united Britain. In 1610 Anne of Denmark returned to the theme of rivers, this time the rivers of Wales, for the investiture of her son Prince Henry as Prince of Wales in the masque Tethys' Festival.

Kim F. Hall draws attention to The Masque of Blackness and the documented reactions of its audience, in the context of the "growth of actual contact with Africans, Native Americans, and other ethnically different foreigners" and, referring to Shakespeare's Dark Lady sonnets, a "collision of the dark lady tradition with the actual African difference encountered in the quest for empire". A "pride in the revival of ancient Britain is continually yoked to the glorification of whiteness". Sujata Iyengar reads Anne of Denmark's decision to disguise herself and her ladies as "Blackamores" as a revival of Scottish court drama, and a desire for a "new coronation" and an assertion of her power in England. Iyengar emphasises that the role of King James in the masque was to whiten the complexions of the twelve dancers, a Sun King reflecting the Solomon of the Song of Songs.

Barbara Kiefer Lewalski identified the use of African disguise as a subversion of her husband's authority. Susan Dunn-Hensley reviews recent scholarship of The Masque at Blackness as in part, an articulation of Anne of Denmark's independence from her husband. Pascale Aebischer discusses how recent critics confront such racist myths generated in the context of the Union of the Crowns of England and Scotland and the subsequent Jacobean debate on the Union.

References

  1. Bindman, David (2010). "The Black Presence in British Art: Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries". The Image of the Black in Western Art, Volume III: From the "Age of Discovery" to the Age of Abolition, Part 1: Artists of the Renaissance and Baroque. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674052611.
  2. Karen Hearn, Dynasties: Painting in Tudor and Jacobean England 1530–1630 (London: Tate Gallery, 1995), pp. 206–7: Sarah Ayres, 'Introduction', 'Court Historian', 24:2 (London, 2020), p. 105.
  3. See, 'Mor(e), Moir', Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue
  4. Nandini Das, João Vicente Melo, Haig Z. Smith, Lauren Working, Blackamoor/Moor, Keywords of Identity, Race, and Human Mobility in Early Modern England (Amsterdam, 2021), pp. 40-50
  5. Papers Relative to the Marriage of James VI, Edinburgh, 1828
  6. Ethel Carleton Williams, Anne of Denmark (London, 1970), pp. 20, 207 fn. 20.
  7. Imtiaz Habib, Black Lives in the English Archives, 1500–1677: Imprints of the Invisible (Routledge, 2008), pp. 230, 316.
  8. John Gade, Christian IV, King of Denmark and Norway (Boston, 1927), pp. 39-40.
  9. Kim F. Hall, Things of Darkness: Economies of Race and Gender in Early Modern England (Cornell University Press, 1996), p. 128.
  10. Ethel C. Williams, Anne of Denmark (London: Longman, 1970), p. 21.
  11. Sujata Iyengar, Shades of Difference: Mythologies of Skin Color in Early Modern England (Philadelphia, 2005), p. 82: David Stevenson, Scotland's Last Royal Wedding: The Marriage of James VI and Anne of Denmark (Edinburgh: John Donald, 1997), p. 128 fn. 12: Clare McManus, Women on the Renaissance stage: Anna of Denmark and Female Masquing in the Stuart Court, 1590-1619 (Manchester, 2002), p. 76.
  12. Miles Kerr-Peterson & Michael Pearce, 'James VI's English Subsidy and Danish Dowry Accounts', Scottish History Society Miscellany XVI (Woodbridge, 2020), p. 51, British Library Add. MS 22,958 f.12r-v., 'gevin to the two vautis that fansit in the cloiss'; 'And of sex scoir daleris to the tua vautis that was in Upslo'.
  13. Kaufmann, Miranda (28 August 2013). "The Other Man in Red". MirandaKaufmann.com. Retrieved 2022-05-27.
  14. Giovanna Guidicini, Performing Spaces: Triumphal Entries and Festivals in Early Modern Scotland (Brepols Publishers, 2020): Martin Wiggins & Catherine Richardson, British Drama 1533–1642: A Catalogue 1590–1597, vol. 3 (Oxford, 2013), pp. 27–30.
  15. Marguerite Wood, Extracts from the Records of the Burgh of Edinburgh, 1589–1603 (Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1927), p. 332, "Item, payit for xvij maskis ... to the moiris ... for painting the young men".
  16. David Stevenson, Scotland's Last Royal Wedding (Edinburgh, 1997), p. 109.
  17. Sujata Iyengar, Shades of Difference: Mythologies of Skin Color in Early Modern England (Philadelphia, 2005), pp. 82–3.
  18. P. A. Munch, "Prindsesse Annas, Giftermaal med Kong Jacob d. 6te af Skotland", Norske Samlinger, 1 (1852), pp. 493–494.
  19. David Stevenson, Scotland's Last Royal Wedding (Edinburgh, 1997), p. 109.
  20. David Moysie, Memoirs of the Affairs of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1830), pp. 83–4, 151, modernised here
  21. The word "Synerdas" is obscure, it may be formed from the Hellenistic "synedrion", a convocation or council of advisors, in these two stanzas contrasting the "most willing minds" of the people of the pageant with those who dwell in Faunus' wilderness. See Jeffrey Walker, Rhetoric and Poetics in Antiquity (Oxford, 2000), p. 50. Some of the verses and themes of the entertainment seem to have been composed by Hercules Rollock.
  22. Clare McManus, Women on the Renaissance stage: Anna of Denmark and Female Masquing in the Stuart Court, 1590–1619 (Manchester, 2002), p. 78.
  23. Steven Veerapen, The Wisest Fool: The Lavish Life of James VI and I (Birlinn, 2023), p. 156: James Thomson Gibson-Craig, Papers Relative to the Marriage of James VI (Edinburgh, 1828), "Discription", pp. v–vi. "THE DISCRIPTION OF THE QVEENS MAIESTIES MAIST HONORABLE ENTRY INTO THE TOVN OF EDINBVRGH, VPON THE 19. DAY OF MAII. 1590" (Edinburgh: Robert Waldegrave, ?1596), STC (2nd ed.) / 4105.
  24. James Thomson Gibson-Craig, Papers Relative to the Marriage of James VI (Edinburgh, 1828), Appendix, pp. 21, 28, 36.
  25. Michael Pearce, "Anna of Denmark: Fashioning a Danish Court in Scotland", The Court Historian, 24:2 (2019), pp. 143–4. doi:10.1080/14629712.2019.1626110
  26. This transaction was printed, in Papers relative to the marriage of King James the Sixth of Scotland, with the Princess Anna of Denmark (Edinburgh, 1828), p.21
  27. Clara Steeholm & Hardy Steeholm, James I of England: The Wisest Fool in Christendom (New York, 1938), p. 142: 'Stemming', Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue
  28. Miles Kerr-Peterson & Michael Pearce, 'James VI's English Subsidy and Danish Dowry Accounts, 1588-1596', Scottish History Society Miscellany XVI (Woodbridge, 2020), p. 78: Jemma Field, 'Dressing a Queen: The Wardrobe of Anna of Denmark at the Scottish Court of King James VI, 1590–1603', The Court Historian, 24:2 (2019), pp. 154-5
  29. 'Buckasie', Dictionary of the Older Scotland Tongue
  30. National Records of Scotland E21/67 f.227v October 1590 and E35/13 pp. 17-18 November 1590, see external links.
  31. William Dunn Macray, 'Report on Archives in Denmark', 47th Report of the Deputy Keeper of the Public Records (London, 1886), p. 38
  32. Jemma Field, Anna of Denmark: The Material and Visual Culture of the Stuart Courts (Manchester, 2020), p. 133: Michael Pearce, 'Anna of Denmark: Fashioning a Danish Court in Scotland', The Court Historian, 24:2 (2019), pp. 143-4: James Thomson Gibson-Craig, Papers Relative to the Marriage of King James the Sixth of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1836), p. 21.
  33. Michael Pearce, 'Anna of Denmark: Fashioning a Danish Court in Scotland', The Court Historian, 24:2 (2019), pp. 143-4: National Records of Scotland E23/11 nos. 40 & 41, for Jens Pierson, and National Library of Scotland Adv. MS 34.2.17 f.130r. and NRS PS1/67 ff.86v-87r., for James Glen: Rosalind K. Marshall, Scottish Queens: 1034-1714 (John Donald: Edinburgh, 2007), p. 149.
  34. George Powell McNeill, Exchequer Rolls of Scotland, vol. 22 (Edinburgh, 1903), pp. xliii, 121 See also NRS E34/44 regarding the queen's stable payments.
  35. Jemma Field, Anna of Denmark: The Material and Visual Culture of the Stuart Courts (Manchester, 2020), p. 132: Michael Pearce, 'Anna of Denmark: Fashioning a Danish Court in Scotland', The Court Historian, 24:2 (2019), p. 143, citing NLS Adv. MS.34.2.17: James VI wrote to Chancellor Maitland on the subject of paying two (departing) members of the queen's household with "either money or clothes" in April 1591, Calendar State Papers Scotland, 10 (Edinburgh, 1936), p. 509 no. 577.
  36. See, National Library of Scotland Adv. MS 34.2.17.
  37. 'Ȝerding', Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue
  38. Imtiaz Habib, Black Lives in the English Archives, 1500–1677: Imprints of the Invisible (Routledge, 2008), pp. 230, 317: National Records of Scotland, Treasurer’s Accounts July 1591 E22/8 fol.121r., "Item be his maiesties spetiall command for the buriall of a moir in Falkland & expensis thairupoun, vij li vj s viij d", See REED transcriptions, edited by Sarah Carpenter, Royal Court of Scotland 1590-1592, includes the costume records The burial record is cited in DOST: Mor(e), Moir
  39. Jemma Field, Anna of Denmark: The Material and Visual Culture of the Stuart Courts (Manchester, 2020), pp. 169-71.
  40. Michael Pearce, 'Anna of Denmark: Fashioning a Danish Court in Scotland', The Court Historian, 24:2 (2019) p. 144. The finances of the royal households were carefully reviewed in the winter 1591/2 and surviving papers do not mention the "Moir". See NLS Adv. MS 34.2.17., and other documents.
  41. Simon Taylor, Place-Names of Fife: Central Fife between the Rivers Leven and Eden (Donington: Shaun Tyas, 2005), p. 168.
  42. James Kirk, The Books of Assumption of the Thirds of Benefices: Scottish Ecclesiactical Rentals at the Reformation (Oxford, 1995), p.9.
  43. Falkland Old Parish Church, POWIS
  44. Falkland, Parish (aka Kilgour), Saints in Scottish Place-Names
  45. Deborah Howard, Scottish Architecture: Reformation to Restoration 1560-1660 (Edinburgh, 1995), pp. 186-8.
  46. Kilgour Parish Church, Corpus of Scottish Medieval Parish Churches
  47. Viator, 'Fifoaeana', Blackwood's Magazine, Volume 10 (Edinburgh: August 1821), p. 68.
  48. Falkland Parish Church, Scotland's Churches Trust and see external links.
  49. Register of the Privy Seal of Scotland, vol. 5:2 (Edinburgh, 1957), p. 61 no. 2676:VIPA Falkland Palace
  50. POWIS database, Chapel Royal in Falkland Palace
  51. Bernadette Andrea, 'Black Skin, The Queen's Masques: Africanist Ambivalence and Feminine Author(ity) in the Masques of "Blackness" and "Beauty"', English Literary Renaissance, 29:2 (Spring 1999), pp. 246-281.
  52. Imtiaz Habib, Black Lives in the English Archives, 1500–1677: Imprints of the Invisible (Routledge, 2008), pp. 72-3: Janet Arnold, Queen Elizabeth's Wardrobe Unlock'd (Maney, 1988), p. 106.
  53. David M. Bergeron, The Duke of Lennox, 1574-1624: A Jacobean Courtier's Life (Edinburgh, 2022), p. 46.
  54. Henry Meikle, John Craigie, James Purves, The Works of William Fowler: Secretary to Queen Anne, Wife of James VI, vol. 2 (STS: Edinburgh, 1940), p. 188
  55. Clare McManus, Women on the Renaissance stage: Anna of Denmark and Female Masquing in the Stuart Court, 1590-1619 (Manchester, 2002), pp. 84-5.
  56. Sujata Iyengar, Shades of Difference: Mythologies of Skin Color in Early Modern England (Philadelphia, 2005), p. 83.
  57. Annie I. Cameron, Warrender Papers, vol. 2 (Edinburgh: Scottish History Society, 1932), pp. 260-1
  58. David Masson, Register of the Privy Council of Scotland, vol. 5 (Edinburgh, 1882), pp. 151-2.
  59. Clare McManus, Women on the Renaissance stage: Anna of Denmark and Female Masquing in the Stuart Court, 1590-1619 (Manchester, 2002), pp. 84-7: Michael Bath, Emblems in Scotland: Motifs and Meanings (Brill, Leiden, 2018), pp. 102-3.
  60. Anthony Holden, William Shakespeare: His Life and Work (London, 1999).
  61. Sara Ayres, 'A Mirror for the Prince? Anne of Denmark in Hunting Costume with Her Dogs (1617) by Paul van Somer', Journal of Historians of Netherlandish Art, 12:2, 2020
  62. HMC 6th Report, Sir R. Graham (London, 1877), pp. 323-7, these records are now held by the British Library.
  63. G. Dyfnallt Owen, HMC Salisbury Hatfield, vol. 22 (London, 1971), p. 165.
  64. Jemma Foeld, 'Anna of Denmark: A late portrait by Paul van Somer', Britiah Art Journal 18:2 (2017), p. 50.
  65. Oliver Millar, The Tudor, Stuart and Early Georgian Pictures in the Collection of Her Majesty the Queen, vol. 1 (London, 1963), pp. 81-83.
  66. HMC (45) Buccleuch, vol. 1 (London, 1899), p. 110
  67. Lesley Mickel, 'Glorious Spangs and Rich Embroidery: Costume in The Masque of Blackness and Hymenaei', Studies in the Literary Imagination, 36:2 (2003).
  68. Jemma Field, 'Anna of Denmark: A late portrait by Paul van Somer', Britiah Art Journal 18:2 (2017), p. 55.
  69. Daniel Packer, 'Jewels of 'Blacknesse' at the Jacobean Court', Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, vol. 75 (2012), pp. 201-222 at p. 201-2, 221.
  70. Anthony Gerard Barthelemy, Black Face, Maligned Race: The Representation of Blacks in English Drama from Shakespeare to Southerne (Louisiana State UP, 1987), pp. 20-30.
  71. Dympna Callaghan, Shakespeare Without Women: Representing gender and race on the Renaissance stage (Routledge, 2000), pp. 81-2.
  72. Martin Butler, The Stuart Court Masque and Political Culture (Cambridge, 2008), p. 114: For William Stewart's 16th-century version of the Scota legend, William Turnbull, Buik of the Croniclis of Scotland, vol. 1 (London, 1858), pp. 8-16
  73. Charles Wemyss, Noble House of Scotland (Prestel Verlag, 2014), p. 28: Clare McManus, Women on the Renaissance stage: Anna of Denmark and Female Masquing in the Stuart Court, 1590-1619 (Manchester, 2002), p. 77.
  74. John Nichols, Progresses of King James the First, vol. 1 (London, 1828), pp. 479-480
  75. Barbara Kiefer Lewalski, Writing Women in Jacobean England (Harvard UP, 1993), pp. 31-2.
  76. Martin Butler, The Stuart Court Masque and Political Culture (Cambridge, 2008), pp. 110-1.
  77. Martin Butler, The Stuart Court Masque and Political Culture (Cambridge, 2008), p. 134.
  78. Kim F. Hall, Things of Darkness: Economies of Race and Gender in Early Modern England (Cornell University Press, 1996), p. 129.
  79. Kim F. Hall, 'Sexual Politics and Cultural Identity in The Masque of Blackness', Sue-Ellen Case & Janelle G. Reinelt, The Performance of Power: Theatrical Discourse and Politics (University of Iowa, 1991), pp. 4-6.
  80. Kim F. Hall, Things of Darkness: Economies of Race and Gender in Early Modern England (Cornell University Press, 1996), pp. 126-133.
  81. Sujata Iyengar, Shades of Difference: Mythologies of Skin Color in Early Modern England (Philadelphia, 2005), pp. 82, 189.
  82. Barbara Kiefer Lewalski, Writing Women in Jacobean England (Harvard UP, 1993), pp. 31-2.
  83. Susan Dunn-Hensley, Anna of Denmark and Henrietta Maria, Virgins, Witches, and Catholic Queens (Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), pp. 87-91.
  84. Pascale Aebischer, Jacobean Drama (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), pp. 110-8.

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