Misplaced Pages

Bio-based building materials

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (August 2024)
Possible solution to carbon emissions in construction

Bio-based building materials incorporate biomass, which is derived from renewable materials of biological origin such as plants, (normally co-products from the agro-industrial and forestry sector), animals, enzymes, and microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and yeast.

Today bio-based materials can represent a possible key-strategy to address the significant environmental impact of the construction sector, which accounts for around 40% of global carbon emissions.

Bio-materials samples. From the left: spruce shives, shredded textile wastes, rice husks and an example of mycelium composite

Embodied carbon and operational carbon of buildings

Building impacts belong to two distinct but interrelated types of carbon emissions: operational and embodied carbon. Operational carbon includes emissions related to the building's functioning, such as lighting and heating; embodied carbon encompasses emissions resulting from the physical construction of buildings, including the processing of materials, material waste, transportation, assembly, and disassembly. While research and policy over the past decades have primarily focused on reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions during building operations, by enacting, for instance, the EU Energy Performance of Buildings Directive, the embodied carbon associated with building materials has only recently gained significant attention. This tendency has consequently resulted in a growing interest in the use of low-carbon bio-based materials.

Bio-materials and their co-products offer various benefits: they are renewable, often locally available and during the plant’s growth carbon is sequestered, which enhances the production of possible alternative bio-components. This means that when bio-based construction materials are used as buildings’ components, their lifespan is usually defined by the building’s service life and results in a temporary reduction of the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere. During this time, carbon is stored in the building and its emissions are thus slowed down.

Researchers proved that incorporating a larger share of bio-materials can reduce a building's embodied energy by about 20%. Looking at the wider perspective, studies demonstrated that the use of bio-based materials in the built environment would have the potential to reduce over 320,000 tons of carbon dioxide emissions by 2050, which is set as target date by European Union to reach carbon neutrality. Moreover, with buildings becoming more energy-efficient, the embodied impacts from producing and installing new materials contribute significantly to total lifecycle emissions, ranging from 10% to as much as 80% in highly efficient buildings. This scenario highlights the potential for bio-based materials to have a substantial impact on reducing overall building energy emissions.

Embodied and operational carbon of buildings. Operational carbon include all the emissions related to the correct functioning of the building. The embodied carbon, instead, include emissions produced by building materials through their entire life, from their production to their disposal.

From traditional to innovative building applications

Bio-based building materials can be classified depending on their natural origins and on their physical properties, which influence their behaviour when applied to the building system. According to their chemical structure and to their characteristic of being renewable, bio-based materials can be divided into lignocellulosic materials, which come from forestry, vegetation, agriculture; protein-based materials, coming from farming, such as wool and feathers; earth; living materials made of micro-organisms such as mycelium and algae.

Natural materials have been traditionally used in architecture since the vernacular period. Presently, these materials stand out through innovative applications, while novel bio-materials, such as living materials, and bio-wastes, enter the discussion intending to enhance circular business models.

Eco-sustainable 3D printed house "Tecla", designed by Mario Cucinella Architects and Wasp.

Timber and earth

Among bio-materials, timber, as part of a long, preindustrial history of buildings, has always received the main attention from policy and industry and, in recent years, it has been mainly advocated by researchers and policymakers to replace concrete, iron and steel in the construction sector. Indeed, modular timber construction, such as Plywood, Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL), Panels, Cross Laminated Timber (CLT), allows for storing a significant amount of carbon in the structure (50% of the mass) and releases significant less GHGs into the atmosphere compared with mineral-based construction. Moreover, wood is considered highly recyclable, as it enables several reuse options.

However, it is important to consider that the climate benefit associated with biogenic carbon storage is only achieved when replaced by the growth of another tree, which normally takes decades. Therefore, even if still representing a renewable resource, within a short time horizon, such as 2050, timber construction can't be climate neutral. Moreover, in the European context, studies have shown that there is an insufficient quantity of timber to meet the expected demand if there were to be a complete shift towards a timber-based built environment.

Due to its strength, durability, non-combustibility, and ability to enhance indoor air quality, also rammed earth has been largely used in construction, starting from the 16th and 17th centuries. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, however, standardizing earthen materials became difficult, making it challenging to utilize them as effectively as concrete and bricks.

Nowadays, because of low embodied carbon, availability, safety, and thermal characteristics of these building materials, they become a particularly attractive alternatives to more traditional ones. Moreover, there is the potentiality to circumvent disadvantages, such as on-site weather-dependency, by using prefabricated elements and innovative manufacturing processes. In this regard, the Austrian company Erden has developed a technique to prefabricate rammed earth wall elements that can be stacked to construct large-scale buildings. The Belgian BC Materials, instead, transforms excavated earth into building materials, with the production of earth blocks masonry, plasters and paints.

Moreover, the use of additive manufacturing enters the debate as a method with the potentiality to enhance the level of quality in detailing, accuracy, finishing, and reproducibility, while reducing labour needs and increasing in pace. In this regard, a recent collaboration between Mario Cucinella Architects and Wasp, an Italian company specialised in 3D printing, has resulted in the first 3D-printed, fully circular housing constructions made by earth, called TECLA.

An example of hempcrete wall

Fast-growing bio-materials

Unlike timber, fast-growing materials are bio-resources that have rapid growth, making them readily available for harvest and use in a very short period. Fast-growing materials are typically derived from agricultural by-products, such as hemp, straw, flax, kenaf, and several species of reed, but can also include trees like bamboo and eucalyptus. Due to their short crops rotation periods, these materials, when used, are directly compensated by the regrowth of the new plants and, overall, this results in a cooling effect on the atmosphere.

Over last decades, various construction projects displayed their versatility by using them for many different applications, going from structural components crafted from bamboo to finishing materials like plaster, flooring, siding, roofing shingles, acoustic and thermal panels.

Several studies document their applications in the built environment both as loose materials and as part of a bio-mixture, such as flax concrete, rice husks concrete, straw fibers concrete, or bamboo bio-concrete. Among the others, hempcrete, made of lime and hemp shives, stands out due to its structural and insulating features, while enabling large carbon savings.

In this context, several start-ups and innovative enterprises, such as RiceHouse, Ecological Building System, and Strawcture, have already entered the market with competitive bio-composite alternatives, available either as loose materials or bound by natural or artificial binders.

External surface of a mycelium composite made with rice-husks

Living building materials: mycelium and algae

Algae and mycelium are gaining interest as a research field for building applications.

Algae are mainly discussed for their application on building facades for energy production through the development of bio-reactive façades. The SolarLeaf pilot project, implemented by Arup in Hamburg in 2013, marks the first real-world application of this technology in a residential context, showcasing its potential applicability to both new and existing buildings.

Due to its ability to act as a natural binder instead, mycelium, the vegetative part of fungi, is used as the binding agent of many composite materials. Over last years, the research on the topic has been exponential, due to the total biodegradability of the binder and to its ability to valorize waste material, by degrading them and using them as substrates for their growth.

Different temporary projects have displayed the structural capacities of mycelium, both as monolithic and discrete separated elements. Mycelium bricks were tested in 2014 with the construction of the Hi-fi tower, built at the Museum of Modern Art of New York by Arup and Living architecture. Monolithic structures such as El Monolito Micelio or the BioKnit pavilion, were developed instead to grow mycelium either on-site or in a growing chamber in a single piece.

The absence of established methods for producing large-scale mycelium-based composite components, primarily due to the low structural capabilities of such composites and various technological and design limitations, represents today the main obstacle to its industrial scalability for building applications.

However, the Italian MOGU and the American Ecovative are two mycelium companies that were capable of scaling production to industrial levels, manufacturing and selling acoustic panels for indoor spaces. In this context, the project developed by the collaboration between Arup and the universities of Leuven (BE), Kassel (DE) and the Kalrsruher Institut für Technologie, named HOME, aims to advance the upscaling of mycelium-based composites by developing prototypes and using diverse manufacturing processes for indoor acoustic insulation.

Insulating panel developed during MATE.ria tessile project at Politecnico di Milano.

Post-consumer bio-wastes: closing the loop

Textile, papers and food wastes are also gaining progressive interest for buildings’ applications, as circular strategies enabling up-cycling processes and facilitating an effective transition toward a carbon-neutral society.

Literature documents building components developed from food wastes coming from olive pruning, almond skin wastes, coffee beans and pea pods for the realization of acoustic panels and thermal insulating panels.

In the same way, research has also focused on the reuse of cardboard and waste paper to enable the realisation of bio-composite panels. In this regard, the thermal properties of cellulose fibers sourced from paper and cardboard waste have been tested and found to be particularly effective, achieving a thermal conductivity of 0.042 W·m−1·K−1, which is comparable to traditional materials.

Due to the large waste generation caused by the fashion and clothing, several studies and various research projects, such as the RECYdress project (2022) and MATE.ria tessile (2023), both conducted at Politecnico di Milano, have been developed to investigate textiles treatments and their use as secondary raw materials in the building sector. Indeed, residual flows of textile are estimated to have a recycling potential of about 16 kWh of energy saved for each kilogram of textile.

In this regard, the Waste Framework Directive, which manages in Europe textile wastes obliging member states to ensure the separate collection of textiles for re-use and recycling, might be implemented in 2025 to promote extended producer responsibility schemes. This would require fashion brands and textile producers to pay fees in order to help fund the textile waste collection and treatment costs.

Several products leveraging recycled textiles for insulation are already available on the market. Inno-Therm, a company from Great Britain, produces insulation from recycled industrial cotton material-denim. Similarly, Le Relais, a French recycling company, which collects 45000 tons of used textiles annually, developed a thermal insulation product called Mettise. The product contains at least 85% recycled fibers and consists of cotton (70%), wool / acrylic (15%) and polyester (15%).

Current criticalities

To enable the wide utilization of bio-based materials in the built environment, there are several critical issues that require further investigation.

Performance and industrial scalability

According to several researchers, one of the main issues of bio-based materials when applied to the construction sector is their required and expected performances, which shall be comparable to the ones of traditional engineered building materials. Extensive research is thus currently on-going to address the challenges allied with long-term durability, reliability, serviceability, properties and sustainable production.

A policy framework for bio-building materials

In the European context, in the framework of meeting climate mitigation objectives before 2050, European Union is trying to implement, among other measures, the production and utilization of bio-based materials in many diverse sectors and segments of society through regulations such as The European Industrial Strategy, the EU Biotechnology and Biomanufacturing Initiative and the Circular Action Plan.

However, as traditional materials still dominate the construction sector, there is a lack of understanding among some policymakers and developers regarding biomaterials. According to Göswein, the presence of a legal framework would reassure investors and insurance companies and enhance the promotion of circular economy dynamics.

See also

References

  1. Bourbia, S.; Kazeoui, H.; Belarbi, R. (2023). "A review on recent research on bio-based building materials and their applications". Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy. 12 (2): 117–139. Bibcode:2023MRSE...12..117B. doi:10.1007/s40243-023-00234-7.
  2. Sherwood, James; Clark, James; Farmer, Thomas; Herrero-Davila, Lorenzo; Moity, Laurianne (2016-12-29). "Recirculation: A New Concept to Drive Innovation in Sustainable Product Design for Bio-Based Products". Molecules. 22 (1): 48. doi:10.3390/molecules22010048. ISSN 1420-3049. PMC 6155919. PMID 28036077.
  3. Oosterveer, Peter (25 August 2021). "How the built environment must respond to the IPCC's 2021 climate change report". WBCSD. Retrieved 10 July 2024.
  4. "Operational & Embodied Carbon. Explainer Guide" (PDF). UK Green Building Council. Retrieved 2024-07-11.
  5. "Energy Performance of Buildings Directive". energy.ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 10 July 2024.
  6. Piccardo, Chiara; Dodoo, Ambrose; Gustavsson, Leif; Tettey, Uniben (2020). "Retrofitting with different building materials: Life-cycle primary energy implications". Energy. 192: 116648. Bibcode:2020Ene...19216648P. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2019.116648.
  7. Mirabella, Nadia; RöCk, Martin; Ruschi Mendes SAADE, Marcella; Spirinckx, Carolin; Bosmans, Marc; Allacker, Karen; Passer, Alexander (2018-08-12). "Strategies to Improve the Energy Performance of Buildings: A Review of Their Life Cycle Impact". Buildings. 8 (8): 105. doi:10.3390/buildings8080105. ISSN 2075-5309.
  8. Röck, Martin; Saade, Marcella Ruschi Mendes; Balouktsi, Maria; Rasmussen, Freja Nygaard; Birgisdottir, Harpa; Frischknecht, Rolf; Habert, Guillaume; Lützkendorf, Thomas; Passer, Alexander (2020). "Embodied GHG emissions of buildings – The hidden challenge for effective climate change mitigation". Applied Energy. 258: 114107. Bibcode:2020ApEn..25814107R. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.114107. hdl:20.500.11850/381047.
  9. Mouton, Lise; Allacker, Karen; Röck, Martin (2023). "Bio-based building material solutions for environmental benefits over conventional construction products – Life cycle assessment of regenerative design strategies (1/2)". Energy and Buildings. 282: 112767. Bibcode:2023EneBu.28212767M. doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2022.112767. ISSN 0378-7788.
  10. ^ Churkina, Galina; Organschi, Alan; Reyer, Christopher P. O.; Ruff, Andrew; Vinke, Kira; Liu, Zhu; Reck, Barbara K.; Graedel, T. E.; Schellnhuber, Hans Joachim (2020-01-27). "Buildings as a global carbon sink". Nature Sustainability. 3 (4): 269–276. Bibcode:2020NatSu...3..269C. doi:10.1038/s41893-019-0462-4. ISSN 2398-9629.
  11. Rockström, Johan; Gaffney, Owen; Rogelj, Joeri; Meinshausen, Malte; Nakicenovic, Nebojsa; Schellnhuber, Hans Joachim (2017-03-24). "A roadmap for rapid decarbonization". Science. 355 (6331): 1269–1271. Bibcode:2017Sci...355.1269R. doi:10.1126/science.aah3443. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 28336628.
  12. Breton, Charles; Blanchet, Pierre; Amor, Ben; Beauregard, Robert; Chang, Wen Shao (2018). "Assessing the Climate Change Impacts of Biogenic Carbon in Buildings: A Critical Review of Two Main Dynamic Approaches". Sustainability. 10 (6): 2020. doi:10.3390/su10062020. hdl:20.500.11794/30525.
  13. Mequignon, Marc; Adolphe, Luc; Thellier, Françoise; Ait Haddou, Hassan (2013). "Impact of the lifespan of building external walls on greenhouse gas index". Building and Environment. 59: 654–661. Bibcode:2013BuEnv..59..654M. doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2012.09.020. ISSN 0360-1323.
  14. Gustavsson, Leif; Haus, Sylvia; Lundblad, Mattias; Lundström, Anders; Ortiz, Carina A.; Sathre, Roger; Truong, Nguyen Le; Wikberg, Per-Erik (2017). "Climate change effects of forestry and substitution of carbon-intensive materials and fossil fuels". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 67: 612–624. Bibcode:2017RSERv..67..612G. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016.09.056. ISSN 1364-0321.
  15. Thormark, C. (2006). "The effect of material choice on the total energy need and recycling potential of a building". Building and Environment. 41 (8): 1019–1026. Bibcode:2006BuEnv..41.1019T. doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.04.026.
  16. Chen, Lin; Zhang, Yubing; Chen, Zhonghao; Dong, Yitong; Jiang, Yushan; Hua, Jianmin; Liu, Yunfei; Osman, Ahmed I.; Farghali, Mohamed; Huang, Lepeng; Rooney, David W.; Yap, Pow-Seng (2024). "Biomaterials technology and policies in the building sector: a review". Environmental Chemistry Letters. 22 (2): 715–750. Bibcode:2024EnvCL..22..715C. doi:10.1007/s10311-023-01689-w. ISSN 1610-3661.
  17. ^ Röck, Martin; Saade, Marcella; Ruschi, Mendes; Balouktsi, Maria; Rasmussen, Freja Nygaard; Birgisdottir, Harpa; Frischknecht, Rolf; Habert, Guillaume; Lützkendorf, Thomas; Passer, Alexander (2020). "Embodied GHG emissions of buildings – The hidden challenge for effective climate change mitigation". Applied Energy. 258. Bibcode:2020ApEn..25814107R. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.114107. hdl:20.500.11850/381047.
  18. Rosa Latapie, Séverine; Abou-Chakra, Ariane; Sabathier, Vincent (2023). "Microstructure of Bio-Based Building Materials: New Insights into the Hysteresis Phenomenon and Its Consequences". Buildings. 13 (7): 1650. doi:10.3390/buildings13071650. ISSN 2075-5309.
  19. Castellano, Giorgio; Paoletti, Ingrid Maria; Malighetti, Laura Elisabetta; Carcassi, Olga Beatrice; Pradella, Federica; Pittau, Francesco (2023), Amziane, Sofiane; Merta, Ildiko; Page, Jonathan (eds.), "Bio-based Solutions for the Retrofit of the Existing Building Stock: A Systematic Review", Bio-Based Building Materials, vol. 45, Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland, pp. 399–419, doi:10.1007/978-3-031-33465-8_31, ISBN 978-3-031-33464-1, retrieved 2024-07-11
  20. Morel, Jean-Claude; Charef, Rabia; Hamard, Erwan; Fabbri, Antonin; Beckett, Chris; Bui, Quoc-Bao (2021-09-27). "Earth as construction material in the circular economy context: practitioner perspectives on barriers to overcome". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 376 (1834): 20200182. doi:10.1098/rstb.2020.0182. ISSN 0962-8436. PMC 8349625. PMID 34365821.
  21. ^ Chayaamor-Heil, Natasha; Perricone, Valentina; Gruber, Petra; Guéna, François (2023-07-01). "Bioinspired, biobased and living material designs: a review of recent research in architecture and construction". Bioinspiration & Biomimetics. 18 (4): 041001. Bibcode:2023BiBi...18d1001C. doi:10.1088/1748-3190/acd82e. ISSN 1748-3182. PMID 37220762.
  22. ^ Chiusoli, Alberto (2021-01-21). "3D printed house TECLA - Eco-housing". 3D Printers | WASP. Retrieved 2024-07-11.
  23. ^ Bennai, Fares; Ferroukhi, Mohammed Yacine; Benmahiddine, Ferhat; Belarbi, Rafik; Nouviaire, Armelle (2022-01-17). "Assessment of hygrothermal performance of hemp concrete compared to conventional building materials at overall building scale". Construction and Building Materials. 316: 126007. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.126007. ISSN 0950-0618.
  24. ^ Bennai, F.; Issaadi, N.; Abahri, K.; Belarbi, R.; Tahakourt, A. (2018). "Experimental characterization of thermal and hygric properties of hemp concrete with consideration of the material age evolution". Heat and Mass Transfer. 54 (4): 1189–1197. Bibcode:2018HMT....54.1189B. doi:10.1007/s00231-017-2221-2. ISSN 0947-7411.
  25. Churkina, Galina; Organschi, Alan; Reyer, Christopher P.O.; Ruff, Andrew; Vinke, Kira; Liu, Zhu; Reck, Barbara K.; Graedel, T. E.; Schellnhuber, K.; Hans, Joachim (2020). "Buildings as a global carbon sink". Nature Sustainability. 3 (4): 269–276. Bibcode:2020NatSu...3..269C. doi:10.1038/s41893-019-0462-4.
  26. Mishra, Abhijeet; Humpenöder, Florian; Churkina, Galina; Reyer, Christopher P.O.; Beier, Felicitas; Bodirsky, Benjamin Leon; Schellnhuber, Hans Joachim; Lotze-campen, Hermann; Popp, Alexander (2022). "Land use change and carbon emissions of a transformation to timber cities". Nature Communications. 13 (1): 4889. Bibcode:2022NatCo..13.4889M. doi:10.1038/s41467-022-32244-w. PMC 9427734. PMID 36042197.
  27. Pittau, Francesco; Malighetti, Laura E.; Iannaccone, Giuliana; Masera, Gabriele (2017). "Prefabrication as Large-scale Efficient Strategy for the Energy Retrofit of the Housing Stock: An Italian Case Study". Procedia Engineering. 180: 1160–1169. doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2017.04.276. hdl:11311/1024876.
  28. Heeren, N.; Mutel, C.; Steubing, B.; Ostermeyer, Y.; Wallbaum, H.; Hellweg, S. (2015). "Environmental Impact of Buildings - what Matters?". Environmental Science and Technology. 49 (16): 9832–9841. Bibcode:2015EnST...49.9832H. doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b01735. hdl:20.500.11850/103124. PMID 26176213.
  29. Sandak, Anna; Sandak, Jakub; Brzezicki, Marcin; Kutnar, Andreja (2019). Environmental Footprints and Eco-design of Products and Processes Bio-based Building Skin. Singapore: Springer Open. doi:10.1007/978-981-13-3747-5. ISBN 978-981-13-3746-8.
  30. Hawkins, W.; Cooper, S.; Allen, S.; Roynon, J.; Ibell, T. (2021). "Embodied carbon assessment using a dynamic climate model: Case-study comparison of a concrete, steel and timber building structure". Structures. 33: 90–98. doi:10.1016/j.istruc.2020.12.013.
  31. Göswein, Verena; Arehart, Jay; Phan-huy, Catherine; Pomponi, Francesco; Habert, Guillaume (2022). "Barriers and opportunities of fast-growing biobased material use in buildings". Buildings and Cities. 3 (1): 745–755. doi:10.5334/bc.254. hdl:20.500.11850/587227.
  32. ^ Boltshauser, Roger; Maillard, Nadia; Veillon, Cyril; Anger, Romain; Brumaud, Coralie; Heckhausen, Philip, eds. (2020). Pisé - Stampflehm: Tradition und Potenzial (2. überarbeitete Auflage ed.). Zürich: Triest. ISBN 978-3-03863-028-9.
  33. Ben-Alon, Lola; Loftness, Vivian; Harries, Kent A.; DiPietro, Gwen; Hameen, Erica Cochran (2019). "Cradle to site Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of natural vs conventional building materials: A case study on cob earthen material". Building and Environment. 160: 106150. Bibcode:2019BuEnv.16006150B. doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.05.028.
  34. ^ Maierdan, Yierfan; Cui, Qi; Chen, Bing; Aminul Haque, M.; Yiming, Ayizekeranmu (2021). "Effect of varying water content and extreme weather conditions on the mechanical performance of sludge bricks solidified/stabilized by hemihydrate phosphogypsum, slag, and cement". Construction and Building Materials. 310: 125286. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.125286.
  35. Maierdan, Yierfan; Gu, Kang; Chen, Bing; Haque, M. Aminul; Zhang, Ying; Zhao, Ling (2022). "Recycling of heavy metal contaminated river sludge into unfired green bricks: Strength, water resistance, and heavy metals leaching behavior – A laboratory simulation study". Journal of Cleaner Production. 342: 130882. Bibcode:2022JCPro.34230882M. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.130882.
  36. "ERDEN". www.erden.at. Retrieved 2024-07-11.
  37. "BC Materials". BC Materials. Retrieved 2024-07-11.
  38. Pajonk, Adam; Prieto, Alejandro; Blum, Ulrich; Knaack, Ulrich (2022). "Multi-material additive manufacturing in architecture and construction: A review". Journal of Building Engineering. 45: 103603. doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2021.103603.
  39. Correa, David; Papadopoulou, Athina; Guberan, Christophe; Jhaveri, Nynika; Reichert, Steffen; Menges, Achim; Tibbits, Skylar (2015). "3D-Printed Wood: Programming Hygroscopic Material Transformations". 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing. 2 (3): 106–116. doi:10.1089/3dp.2015.0022. hdl:1721.1/104845. ISSN 2329-7662.
  40. "Mario Cucinella Architects". www.mcarchitects.it. Retrieved 2024-07-11.
  41. "3D printers for sale online | WASP". 3D Printers | WASP. Retrieved 2024-07-11.
  42. ^ Cosentino, Livia; Fernandes, Jorge; Mateus, Ricardo (2024). "Fast-Growing Bio-Based Construction Materials as an Approach to Accelerate United Nations Sustainable Development Goals". Applied Sciences. 14 (11): 4850. doi:10.3390/app14114850.
  43. Cosentino, Livia; Fernandes, Jorge; Mateus, Ricardo (2024-06-03). "Fast-Growing Bio-Based Construction Materials as an Approach to Accelerate United Nations Sustainable Development Goals". Applied Sciences. 14 (11): 4850. doi:10.3390/app14114850. ISSN 2076-3417.
  44. Göswein, Verena; Reichmann, Jana; Habert, Guillaume; Pittau, Francesco (2021). "Land availability in Europe for a radical shift toward bio-based construction". Sustainable Cities and Society. 70. Bibcode:2021SusCS..7002929G. doi:10.1016/j.scs.2021.102929. hdl:11311/1170056.
  45. Shea, A.; Wall, K.; Walker, P. (2013). "Evaluation of the thermal performance of an innovative prefabricated natural plant fibre building system" (PDF). Building Service Engineering Research and Technology. 34 (4): 369–380. doi:10.1177/0143624412450023.
  46. Costes, Jean-Philippe; Evrard, Arnaud; Biot, Benjamin; Keutgen, Gauthier; Daras, Amaury; Dubois, Samuel; Lebeau, Frederic; Courard, Luc (2017). "Thermal Conductivity of Straw Bales: Full Size Measurements Considering the Direction of the Heat Flow". Buildings. 7 (4): 11. doi:10.3390/buildings7010011. hdl:10985/11615.
  47. Garas, G.; Allam, M.; El Dessuky, R. (2009). "Straw Bale Construction As an Economic Environmental Building Alternative-a Case Study". ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences. 4 (9): 54–59. ISSN 1819-6608.
  48. Benmahiddine, Ferhat; Cherif, Rachid; Bennai, Fares; Belarbi, Rafik; Tahakourt, Abdelkader; Abahri, Kamilia (2020). "Effect of flax shives content and size on the hygrothermal and mechanical properties of flax concrete". Construction and Building Materials. 262: 120077. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120077. ISSN 0950-0618.
  49. Chabannes, Morgan; Bénézet, Jean-Charles; Clerc, Laurent; Garcia-Diaz, Eric (2014). "Use of raw rice husk as natural aggregate in a lightweight insulating concrete: An innovative application". Construction and Building Materials. 70: 428–438. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.07.025. ISSN 0950-0618.
  50. Wang, Guihua; Han, Yan (2018-08-07). "Research on the Performance of Straw Fiber Concrete". IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. 394 (3): 032080. Bibcode:2018MS&E..394c2080W. doi:10.1088/1757-899X/394/3/032080. ISSN 1757-899X.
  51. Correa de Melo, Pedro; Caldas, Lucas Rosse; Masera, Gabriele; Pittau, Francesco (2023). "The potential of carbon storage in bio-based solutions to mitigate the climate impact of social housing development in Brazil". Journal of Cleaner Production. 433: 139862. Bibcode:2023JCPro.43339862C. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.139862. hdl:11311/1256523. ISSN 0959-6526.
  52. Rahim, M.; Douzane, O.; Tran Le, A.D.; Promis, G.; Langlet, T. (2016). "Characterization and comparison of hygric properties of rape straw concrete and hemp concrete". Construction and Building Materials. 102: 679–687. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.11.021. ISSN 0950-0618.
  53. Kinnane, Oliver; Reilly, Aidan; Grimes, John; Pavia, Sara; Walker, Rosanne (2016). "Acoustic absorption of hemp-lime construction". Construction and Building Materials. 122: 674–682. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.06.106. ISSN 0950-0618.
  54. Benmahiddine, Ferhat; Belarbi, Rafik; Berger, Julien; Bennai, Fares; Tahakourt, Abdelkader (2021). "Accelerated Aging Effects on the Hygrothermal Behaviour of Hemp Concrete: Experimental and Numerical Investigations". Energies. 14 (21): 7005. doi:10.3390/en14217005. ISSN 1996-1073.
  55. "Home Page". Rice House (in Italian). Retrieved 2024-07-11.
  56. "Eco-Friendly Building Products for Energy Efficient Homes". Ecological Building Systems. Retrieved 2024-07-11.
  57. "Eco-Friendly Building Materials | BioPanels | AgriBioPanels". 2021-05-28. Retrieved 2024-07-11.
  58. Alemu, Digafe; Tafesse, Mesfin; Mondal, Ajoy Kanti (2022-03-12). Seifalian, Alexander (ed.). "Mycelium-Based Composite: The Future Sustainable Biomaterial". International Journal of Biomaterials. 2022: 1–12. doi:10.1155/2022/8401528. ISSN 1687-8795. PMC 8934219. PMID 35313478.
  59. Jones, Mitchell; Mautner, Andreas; Luenco, Stefano; Bismarck, Alexander; John, Sabu (2020). "Engineered mycelium composite construction materials from fungal biorefineries: A critical review". Materials & Design. 187: 108397. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2019.108397.
  60. ^ Rossi, A; Javadian, A; Acosta, I; Özdemir, E; Nolte, N; Saeidi, N; Dwan, A; Ren, S; Vries, L; Hebel, D; Wurm, J; Eversmann, P (2022-09-01). "HOME: Wood-Mycelium Composites for CO 2 -Neutral, Circular Interior Construction and Fittings". IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 1078 (1): 012068. doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1078/1/012068. ISSN 1755-1307.
  61. Sarmadi, Hanieh; Mahdavinejad, Mohammadjavad (2023). "A designerly approach to Algae-based large open office curtain wall Façades to integrated visual comfort and daylight efficiency". Solar Energy. 251: 350–365. Bibcode:2023SoEn..251..350S. doi:10.1016/j.solener.2023.01.021.
  62. ^ "SolarLeaf". www.arup.com. Retrieved 2024-07-11.
  63. Ahmadi, Ferial; Wilkinson, Sara; Rezazadeh, Hamidreza; Keawsawasvong, Suraparb; Najafi, Qodsiye; Masoumi, Arash (2023). "Energy efficient glazing: A comparison of microalgae photobioreactor and Iranian Orosi window designs". Building and Environment. 233: 109942. Bibcode:2023BuEnv.23309942A. doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2022.109942.
  64. Pruvost, Jérémy (2014). "Symbiotic Integration Of Photobioreactors In A Factory building Façade For Mutual Benefit Between Buildings And Microalgae Needs". A Factory building Façade for Mutual Benefit Between Buildings and Microalgae Needs. doi:10.13140/2.1.2076.1920.
  65. Talaei, Maryam; Mahdavinejad, Mohammadjavad; Azari, Rahman (2020). "Thermal and energy performance of algae bioreactive façades: A review". Journal of Building Engineering. 28: 101011. doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2019.101011.
  66. Al-Qahtani, Shouq; Koç, Muammer; Isaifan, Rima J. (2023-09-03). "Mycelium-Based Thermal Insulation for Domestic Cooling Footprint Reduction: A Review". Sustainability. 15 (17): 13217. doi:10.3390/su151713217. ISSN 2071-1050.
  67. Manan, Sehrish; Ullah, Muhammad Wajid; Ul-Islam, Mazhar; Atta, Omar Mohammad; Yang, Guang (2021). "Synthesis and applications of fungal mycelium-based advanced functional materials". Journal of Bioresources and Bioproducts. 6 (1): 1–10. Bibcode:2021JBiBi...6....1M. doi:10.1016/J.JOBAB.2021.01.001. ISSN 2369-9698.
  68. ^ Ayres, Phil; Thomsen, Mette Ramsgaard; Sheil, Bob; Skavara, Marilena (2024-04-04). Fabricate 2024: Creating Resourceful Futures. UCL Press. doi:10.2307/jj.11374766.20. ISBN 978-1-80008-634-0.
  69. "El Monolito Micelio — Jonathan Dessi-Olive". jdovaults.com. Retrieved 2024-07-11.
  70. Kaiser, Romy; Bridgens, Ben; Elsacker, Elise; Scott, Jane (2023-07-14). "BioKnit: development of mycelium paste for use with permanent textile formwork". Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology. 11. doi:10.3389/fbioe.2023.1229693. ISSN 2296-4185. PMC 10374944. PMID 37520299.
  71. muvobit. "Home Mogu". mogu. Retrieved 2024-07-11.
  72. "Ecovative - Mycelium Technology". Ecovative. Retrieved 2024-07-11.
  73. Aruta, Giuseppe; Ascione, Fabrizio; Bianco, Nicola; Iovane, Teresa; Mauro, Gerardo Maria (2023). "A responsive double-skin façade for the retrofit of existing buildings: Analysis on an office building in a Mediterranean climate". Energy and Buildings. 284: 112850. Bibcode:2023EneBu.28412850A. doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2023.112850.
  74. Martellotta, Francesco; Cannavale, Alessandro; De Matteis, Valeria; Ayr, Ubaldo (2018). "Sustainable sound absorbers obtained from olive pruning wastes and chitosan binder". Applied Acoustics. 141: 71–78. doi:10.1016/j.apacoust.2018.06.022.
  75. Liuzzi, Stefania; Rubino, Chiara; Stefanizzi, Pietro; Martellotta, Francesco (2020-12-01). "Performance Characterization of Broad Band Sustainable Sound Absorbers Made of Almond Skins". Materials. 13 (23): 5474. Bibcode:2020Mate...13.5474L. doi:10.3390/ma13235474. ISSN 1996-1944. PMC 7731410. PMID 33271849.
  76. La Gennusa, Maria; Marino, Concettina; Nucara, Antonino; Panzera, Maria Francesca; Pietrafesa, Matilde (2021-12-14). "Insulating Building Components Made from a Mixture of Waste and Vegetal Materials: Thermal Characterization of Nine New Products". Sustainability. 13 (24): 13820. doi:10.3390/su132413820. hdl:10447/578560. ISSN 2071-1050.
  77. Mandili, B.; Taqi, M.; El Bouari, A.; Errouaiti, M. (2019). "Experimental study of a new ecological building material for a thermal insulation based on waste paper and lime". Construction and Building Materials. 228: 117097. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117097.
  78. Liuzzi, Stefania; Rubino, Chiara; Martellotta, Francesco; Stefanizzi, Pietro (2023-04-08). "Sustainable Materials from Waste Paper: Thermal and Acoustical Characterization". Applied Sciences. 13 (8): 4710. doi:10.3390/app13084710. ISSN 2076-3417.
  79. Aigbomian, Eboziegbe Patrick; Fan, Mizi (2013). "Development of Wood-Crete building materials from sawdust and waste paper". Construction and Building Materials. 40: 361–366. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.11.018. ISSN 0950-0618.
  80. Brzyski, Przemysław; Kosiński, Piotr; Skoratko, Aneta; Motacki, Wojciech (2019). "Thermal properties of cellulose fiber as insulation material in a loose state". AIP Conference Proceedings. Central European Symposium on Thermophysics 2019 (Cest). 2133 (1): 020006. Bibcode:2019AIPC.2133b0006B. doi:10.1063/1.5120136.
  81. "Management of used and waste textiles in Europe's circular economy — European Environment Agency". www.eea.europa.eu. Retrieved 2024-07-11.
  82. ^ Briga-Sá, Ana; Gaibor, Norma; Magalhães, Leandro; Pinto, Tiago; Leitão, Dinis (2022). "Thermal performance characterization of cement-based lightweight blocks incorporating textile waste". Construction and Building Materials. 321: 126330. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.126330. hdl:10198/25159.
  83. Rubino, Chiara; Bonet Aracil, Marilés; Liuzzi, Stefania; Stefanizzi, Pietro; Martellotta, Francesco (2021). "Wool waste used as sustainable nonwoven for building applications". Journal of Cleaner Production. 278: 123905. Bibcode:2021JCPro.27823905R. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123905.
  84. ^ Muthu, Subramanian Senthilkannan; Li, Yi; Hu, Jun-Yan; Mok, Pik-Yin (2012). "Recyclability Potential Index (RPI): The concept and quantification of RPI for textile fibres". Ecological Indicators. 18: 58–62. Bibcode:2012EcInd..18...58M. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.10.003. ISSN 1470-160X.
  85. Augello, Andrea; Carcassi, Olga Beatrice; Pittau, Francesco; Malighetti, Laura Elisabetta; De Angelis, Enrico (2022-12-21). "Closing the loop of textile: Circular building renovation with novel recycled insulations from wasted clothes". Acta Polytechnica CTU Proceedings. 38: 203–209. doi:10.14311/APP.2022.38.0203. hdl:11311/1230952. ISSN 2336-5382.
  86. ^ "Seminario Mate.ria tessile". 2023.festivalsvilupposostenibile.it (in Italian). Retrieved 2024-07-11.
  87. ^ "Waste Framework Directive - European Commission". environment.ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 2024-07-11.
  88. "Waste framework directive: Council set to start talks on its revision". European Council. 2024.
  89. "Inno-Therm® - Homepage". Inno-Therm®. Retrieved 2024-07-11.
  90. "Le Relais !". www.lerelais.org. Retrieved 2024-07-11.
  91. Jordeva, Sonja; Golomeova Longurova, Sashka; Kertakova, Marija; Mojsov, Kiro; Efremov, Jordan (2019). "Тextile as a sustainable insulating material for buildings". Tekstilna Industrija. 67 (2): 20–28. doi:10.5937/tekstind1902020J.
  92. ^ Göswein, Verena; Arehart, Jay; Phan-huy, Catherine; Pomponi, Francesco; Habert, Guillaume (2022-10-06). "Barriers and opportunities of fast-growing biobased material use in buildings". Buildings and Cities. 3 (1): 745–755. doi:10.5334/bc.254. hdl:20.500.11850/587227. ISSN 2632-6655.
  93. ^ Andrew, J. Jefferson; Dhakal, H.N. (2022). "Sustainable biobased composites for advanced applications: recent trends and future opportunities – A critical review". Composites Part C: Open Access. 7: 100220. doi:10.1016/j.jcomc.2021.100220. ISSN 2666-6820.
  94. Asdrubali, Francesco; D'Alessandro, Francesco; Schiavoni, Samuele (2015). "A review of unconventional sustainable building insulation materials". Sustainable Materials and Technologies. 4: 1–17. Bibcode:2015SusMT...4....1A. doi:10.1016/j.susmat.2015.05.002. ISSN 2214-9937.
  95. Chang, Boon Peng; Mohanty, Amar K.; Misra, Manjusri (2020). "Studies on durability of sustainable biobased composites: a review". RSC Advances. 10 (31): 17955–17999. Bibcode:2020RSCAd..1017955C. doi:10.1039/C9RA09554C. ISSN 2046-2069. PMC 9054028. PMID 35517220.
  96. "European industrial strategy". commission.europa.eu.
  97. "Commission takes action to boost biotechnology and biomanufacturing in the EU". ec.europa.eu. 2024.
  98. "Circular economy action plan". environment.ec.europa.eu.

Further reading

External links

Categories: