Misplaced Pages

Procurement is the process of locating and agreeing to terms and purchasing goods, services, or other works from an external source, often with the use of a tendering or competitive bidding process. The term may also refer to a contractual obligation to "procure", i.e. to "ensure" that something is done. When a government agency buys goods or services through this practice, it is referred to as government procurement or public procurement.

Procurement as an organizational process is intended to ensure that the buyer receives goods, services, or works at the best possible price when aspects such as quality, quantity, time, and location are compared. Corporations and public bodies often define processes intended to promote fair and open competition for their business while minimizing risks such as exposure to fraud and collusion.

Almost all purchasing decisions include factors such as delivery and handling, marginal benefit, and fluctuations in the prices of goods. Organisations which have adopted a corporate social responsibility perspective are also likely to require their purchasing activity to take wider societal and ethical considerations into account. On the other hand, the introduction of external regulations concerning accounting practices can affect ongoing buyer-supplier relations in unforeseen manners.

Overview

The Institute for Supply Management (ISM) defines procurement as an organizational function that includes specification development, value analysis, supplier market research, negotiation, buying activities, contract administration, inventory control, traffic, receiving and stores. Federal US legislation defines procurement as including

all stages of the process of acquiring property or services, beginning with the process for determining a need for property or services and ending with contract completion and closeout.

A company's procurement function, specifically its spending on suppliers, typically accounts for more than half of the company's total budget.

Purchasing is a subset of procurement that specifically deals with the ordering and payment of goods and services. Organizational procurement is also referred to as "organizational buying" or "institutional buying", for example in studies of the buying behaviour of staff involved in purchasing decision-making.

Procurement activities are also often divided into two distinct categories, direct and indirect spend. Direct spend refers to the production-related procurement that encompasses all items that are part of finished products, such as raw materials, components and parts. Direct procurement, which is the focus in supply chain management, directly affects the production process of manufacturing firms. In contrast, indirect procurement concerns non-production-related acquisition: a wide variety of goods and services, from standardized items like office supplies and safety equipment to complex and costly products and services like heavy equipment, consulting services, and outsourcing services.

History

The first record of procurement activities dates back to 3,000 BC when the Egyptians managed materials and labor for the pyramids using scribes. The scribes recorded how much material and how many workers were needed for different tasks.

Formalized acquisition of goods and services has its roots in military logistics. The Romans developed a system of supply depots that were located throughout their empire. These depots were stocked with food, weapons, and other supplies that could be quickly distributed to troops in the field. This system helped to ensure that the Roman army was always well-supplied, even when it was fighting far from home.

The first record of what would be recognized now as the purchasing department of an industrial operation relates to the railway companies of the 19th century:

"The intelligence and fidelity exercised in the purchase, care and use of railway supplies influences directly the cost of construction and operating and affect the reputations of officers and the profits of owners."

Sourcing and acquisition

Procurement is one component of the broader concept of sourcing and acquisition. Typically procurement is viewed as more tactical in nature (the process of physically buying a product or service) and sourcing and acquisition are viewed as more strategic and encompassing. Multiple sourcing business models and acquisition models exist.

The Institute for Supply Management (ISM) defines strategic sourcing as the process of identifying sources that could provide needed products or services for the acquiring organization. The term procurement is used to reflect the entire purchasing process or cycle, and not just the tactical components.

Procurement software (often labeled as e-procurement software) manages purchasing processes electronically or via cloud computing.

Acquisition processes

Some aspects of a procurement process may need to be initiated ahead of the majority of the project, for example where there are extensive lead times. Such cases may be referred to as "advance procurement".

Many writers also refer to procurement as a cyclical process, which commences with a definition of business needs and develops a specification, identifies suppliers and adopted appropriate methods for consulting with them, inviting and evaluating proposals, secures on contract and takes delivery of a new asset or accepts performance of a service, manages the ownership of the asset or the delivery of the service and reaches an end-of-life point where the asset becomes due for replacement or the service contract terminates. At this point the cycle would recommence.

The Chartered Institute of Procurement & Supply (CIPS) recommends involvement of procurement staff and skills from an early stage in the cycle, noting that such "early procurement involvement" can have a beneficial impact on the nature and timing of any approach to market, the specification and the sourcing strategy and supplier selection approach adopted.

Decision-making

Procurement decisions fall along a continuum from simple buying transactions to more complex buyer-supplier collaborations, and the buying behaviour of staff involved in purchasing decision-making has been widely studied. There is a consensus among scholars and marketing managers that buyers utilise various decision processes as appropriate to each buying situation, and some purchasing decisions are especially complex. Some writers treat purchasing decisions as examples of rational behaviour made in the context of a business aim such as profit maximisation and make the assumption that decision-makers have access to the information they need for their decision. Feldman and Cordozo questioned this approach in a 1969 article, suggesting that industrial buyer decision-making had similarities with consumer buying behaviour. David T. Wilson suggested in a 1971 article that an individual buyer's personality should be considered in understanding buyers' decision processes. Three distinct personality traits have been described in the literature on this subject:

• a trait displaying a high need for certainty
• a trait reflecting a high degree of generalised self-confidence
• a need to achieve trait.

Wilson found that there was some correlation between personality traits and decision-making styles among the Canadian buyers who participated in his research study. Jagdish Sheth published A Model of Industrial Buyer Behaviour in 1983, which drew from a large volume of empirical study of buyer behaviour and emphasised how the "psychological world of the decision-makers" impacted on the processes and outcomes of purchasing decision-making.

There are wide variations in the involvement of procurement staff in purchasing decisions across types of organisation and across varying purchasing situations. Some purchasing decisions are made by individuals or groups of individuals referred to as a "buying center" or "decision-making unit", where procurement personnel may in some cases be central, in other cases peripheral, to the purchasing decision. From a marketing perspective, buying center research has looked at which individuals and organisational divisions become part of the decision-making group, how they interact, and the internal and external factors which influence purchasing outcomes. Wesley Johnson and Thomas Bonoma, in a 1981 research paper, found situations where "the purchasing manager's centrality is likely to be high", and equally situations where their centrality "is likely to be low", recommending that "purchasing managers desiring to increase their influence" should aim to play a pivotal role in the internal communications linking the various individuals and organisational divisions involved.

Sourcing business model

This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

There are a number of models along the sourcing continuum: basic provider, approved provider, preferred provider, performance-based contracting, managed services model, vested business model, shared services model and equity partnerships.

• A basic provider model is transaction-based; it usually has a set price for individual products and services for which there are a wide range of standard market options. Typically these products or services are readily available, with little differentiation in what is offered.
• An approved provider model uses a transaction-based approach where goods and services are purchased from prequalified suppliers that meet certain performance or other selection criteria.
• The preferred provider model also uses a transaction-based economic model, but a key difference between the preferred provider and the other transaction-based models is that the buyer has chosen to move to a supplier relationship where there is an opportunity for the supplier to add incremental value to the buyer's business to meet strategic objectives.
• A performance-based (or managed services model) is generally a formal, longer-term supplier agreement that combines a relational contracting model with an output-based economic model. It seeks to drive supplier accountability for output-based service-level agreements (SLAs) and/or cost reduction targets.
• A vested sourcing business model is a hybrid relationship that combines an outcome-based economic model with a relational contracting model. Companies enter into highly collaborative arrangements designed to create and share value for buyers and suppliers above and beyond.
• A shared services model is typically an internal organization based on an arms-length outsourcing arrangement. Using this approach, processes are often centralized into an SSO that charges business units or users for the services they use.
• An equity partnership creates a legally binding entity; it can take different legal forms, from buying a supplier (an acquisition), to creating a subsidiary, to equity-sharing joint ventures or entering into cooperative (co-op) arrangements.

Specific types

Government procurement

Part of a series on
World trade
Policy Import Export Balance of trade Trade law Trade pact Trade bloc Trade creation Trade diversion Export orientation Import substitution Trade finance Trade facilitation Trade route Domestic trade Tax
Restrictions Trade barriers Tariffs Non-tariff barriers Import quotas Tariff-rate quotas Import licenses Customs duties Export subsidies Technical barriers Bribery Exchange rate controls Embargo Safeguards Countervailing duties Anti-dumping duties Voluntary export restraints
History Mercantilism Protectionism Laissez-faire Free trade Economic nationalism Economic integration
Organizations International Monetary Fund International Trade Centre World Trade Organization World Customs Organization International Chamber of Commerce
Economic integration Preferential trading area Free-trade area Currency union Customs union Single market Economic union Fiscal union Customs and monetary union Economic and monetary union
Issues Intellectual property rights Smuggling Competition policy Government procurement Outsourcing Globalization Fair trade Trade justice Emissions trading Trade sanctions War Currency war Trade costs Trade war Trade and development
Lists Imports Exports Tariffs Largest consumer markets Leading trade partners
By country Trade mission Trading nation United States Argentina Pakistan Romania Vietnam India
Theory Comparative advantage Competitive advantage Heckscher–Ohlin model New trade theory Economic geography Intra-industry trade Gravity model of trade Ricardian trade theories Balassa–Samuelson effect Linder hypothesis Leontief paradox Lerner symmetry theorem Terms of trade
v t e

Government procurement or public procurement is when a governing body purchases goods, works, and services from an organization for themselves or the taxpayers. In 2019, public procurement accounted for approximately 12% of GDP in OECD countries. In 2021 the World Bank Group estimated that public procurement made up about 15% of global GDP. Therefore, government procurement accounts for a substantial part of the global economy.

Public procurement is based on the idea that governments should direct their society while giving the private sector the freedom to decide the best practices to produce the desired goods and services. One benefit of public procurement is its ability to cultivate innovation and economic growth. The public sector picks the most capable nonprofit or for-profit organizations available to issue the desired good or service to the taxpayers. This produces competition within the private sector to gain these contracts that then reward the organizations that can supply more cost-effective and quality goods and services. Some contracts also have specific clauses to promote working with minority-led, women-owned businesses and/or state-owned enterprises.

Competition is a key component of public procurement which affects the outcomes of the whole process. There is a great amount of competition over public procurements because of the massive amount of money that flows through these systems; It is estimated that approximately eleven trillion USD is spent on public procurement worldwide every year.

Sustainable or green procurement

Sustainable procurement or green procurement is a process whereby organizations meet their needs for goods, services, works and utilities in a way that achieves value for money on a life-cycle basis while addressing equity principles for sustainable development, therefore benefiting societies and the environment across time and geographies. Procurement is often conducted via a tendering or competitive bidding process. The process is used to ensure the buyer receives goods, services or works for the best possible price, when aspects such as quality, quantity, time, and location are compared. Procurement is considered sustainable when organizations broadens this framework by meeting their needs for goods, services, works, and utilities in a way that achieves value for money and promotes positive outcomes not only for the organization itself but for the economy, environment, and society.

Sustainable procurement is a spending and investment process typically associated with public policy, although it is equally applicable to the private sector. Organizations practicing sustainable procurement meet their needs for goods, services, utilities and works not only on a private cost–benefit analysis, but also with the intention to maximizing net benefits for themselves and the wider world. In doing so they must incorporate extrinsic cost considerations into decisions alongside the conventional procurement criteria of price and quality, although in practice the sustainable impacts of a potential supplier's approach are often assessed as a form of quality consideration. It has also been proposed that other human rights can be incorporated into the extrinsic costs considered by sustainable procurement models.

Electronic procurement

Electronic procurement is the purchasing of goods by businesses through the internet or other networked computer connection. Electronic data interchange (EDI) was a forerunner to electronic procurement, this consisted of standardized transmission of data such as inventories and good required electronically. Schoenherr argues that EDI developed from standardized manifests for deliveries to Berlin during the Berlin Airlift which were applied by DuPont in the 1960s and argues that Material requirements planning and Enterprise resource planning were both forerunners to electronic procurement.

Joint procurement

Joint procurement takes place when two or more organisations share purchasing activities, and therefore has a more specifically buyer-side focus than many examples of collaborative buyer-seller relationships. Companies may decide to work together for the following reasons:

• transaction cost economics approach, where the total transaction costs of the actors involved are lower when they work together
• resource dependence approach, and the resource based view, where the group of actors is able to create a resource, market power, which they would be unable to exercise independently
• neo-classical economics' case, arguing that certain functions become separate, specialised units in order to obtain scale effects
• neo-institutionalism - the argument that actors work together because it is the thing to do these days.

Joint or collaborative procurement is a common practice within public sector procurement. There are central purchasing bodies in many countries which coordinate joint purchasing activities for public sector organisations. A report commissioned by the European Parliament's Committee on the Internal Market and Consumer Protection (IMCO) has recommended that EU Member States "should consider creating Central Purchasing Bodies (CPBs)" in order to secure "coherent and coordinated procurement".

On a trans-national scale, Guyana, Barbados and Rwanda announced "a programme of mutual support for the local manufacturing of vaccines and medicines" in July 2023 for which a "pooled procurement mechanism" would be required.

Other types

• Best value procurement – Procurement method that looks at many factors
• Syndicated procurement – Procurement method where concurrent orders are grouped together

Measuring performance

The Chartered Institute of Procurement & Supply (CIPS) promotes a model of "five rights", which it suggests are "a traditional formula expressing the basic objectives of procurement and the general criteria by which procurement performance is measured", namely that goods and services purchased should be of the 'right quality', in the 'right quantity', delivered to the 'right place' at the 'right time' and obtained at the 'right price'. CIPS has in the past also offered an alternative listing of the five rights as "buy goods or services of the right quality, in the right quantity, from the right source, at the right time and at the right price. 'Right source' is added as a sixth right in CIPS' 2018 publication, Contract Administration.

Delivery on savings goals is an important part of the procurement function, but this objective is generally seen as value generation rather than cost reduction. CIPS also notes that securing savings is "one measure of purchasing performance", but argues that savings should only be used as a measure of performance where they are "a reflection of the 's ... expectations of the purchasing and supply management function". CIPS distinguishes between "savings", which can reduce budgets, and "cost avoidance", which "attempts to thwart price increases and to keep within budget". Examples of savings as a beneficial outcome include:

• agreeing a reduction in price, obtaining the same item for less cost
• sourcing, or developing a supply of, a lower quality item at a reduced cost, where the item is still fit for purpose
• obtaining added value for the same cost, e.g. negotiating extended warranties, additional spare parts etc.

Ardent Partners published a report in 2011 which presented a comprehensive, industry-wide view into what was happening in the world of procurement at that time by drawing on the experience, performance, and perspective of nearly 250 chief procurement officers (CPOs) and other procurement executives. The report included the main procurement performance and operational benchmarks that procurement leaders use to gauge the success of their organizations. This report found that the average procurement department manages 60.6% of total enterprise spend. This measure, commonly called "spend under management" or "managed spend", refers to the percentage of total enterprise spend (which includes all direct and indirect spend) that a procurement organization manages or influences. Alternatively, the term may refer to the percentage of addressable spend which is influenced by procurement, "addressable spend" being the expenditure which could potentially be influenced. The average procurement department also achieved an annual saving of 6.7% in the last reporting cycle, sourced 52.6% of its addressable spend, and has a contract compliance rate of 62.6%. A more restrictive definition of "spend under management" includes only expenditure which makes use of preferred supplier contracts and negotiated payment rates and terms.

Consultants A.T. Kearney have developed a model for assessing the performance of a procurement organisation or the procurement function within a wider organisation, known as ROSMA (Return on Supply Management Assets). According to the 2016 ROSMA Performance Check Report, What Good Looks Like,

the procurement profession has a top-tier group of standout performers, a middle-tier that is delivering value, but performing well below the top tier, and a large group of bottom-quartile performers that add limited value to their organizations.

CIPS promotes organisational self-assessment using the ROSMA Performance Check, arguing that it enables a procurement department to "measure and explain procurement and supply's value in terms your CFO and CEO will understand, using a common financial standard". Findings in 2020 suggested that "top quartile procurement performers have ROSMA scores two to three times higher than those in the middle two quartiles". A.T. Kearney's report suggests a close match between the self-reported performance of CPOs in the best performing departments and the view of procurement held by the CFO and the organisation more widely, and also notes that weaker performers or "inconsequentials" share a distinct profile marked by lack of "identifiable leadership accountable for procurement's performance.

Spend under management also contributes to an additional measure of procurement performance or procurement efficiency: procurement operating expense as a percentage of managed spend.

Personnel and roles

Personnel who undertake procurement on behalf of an organization may be referred to as procurement officers, professionals or specialists, buyers or supply managers. The US Federal Acquisition Regulation refers to Contracting Officers. Staff in managerial positions may be referred to as Purchasing Managers or Procurement Managers. The ISM refers to "the supply profession".

A Purchasing or Procurement Manager's responsibilities may include:

• approving orders
• seeking reliable vendors or suppliers to provide quality goods at reasonable prices
• negotiating prices and contracts
• reviewing technical specifications for raw materials, components, equipment or buildings
• determining and monitoring quantity and timing of deliveries (more commonly in small companies)
• forecasting upcoming demand
• supervision of other procurement staff and agents.

Category management represents a system of organising the roles of staff within a procurement team "in such a way as to focus ... on the supply markets of an organisation", rather than being organised according to the organisation's internal departmental structure.

Specialist procurement roles include construction buyers and travel buyers. Part of the work of a corporate travel buyer is the formulation and implementation of a corporate travel policy.

In many larger organizations the procurement and supply function is led by a board-level or other senior position such as a Director of Supply Chain or a chief procurement officer (CPO). In other cases, procurement is overseen by the chief financial officer (CFO) or Director of Finance, or the growing need for liaison between the CFO and the procurement function has been recognised. A 2006 report by the National Audit Office in the UK commented that in the further education sector, where procurement practice was not well developed and college organisations were relatively small, oversight of procurement by the Director of Finance was a typical arrangement.

Independent or third party personnel who undertake procurement or negotiate purchases on behalf of an organization may be called purchasing agents or buying agents, although the term "purchasing agent" has a longer and broader history: the Institute for Supply Management in the United States was originally called the National Association of Purchasing Agents from its formation in 1915. A commercial agent may both purchase and sell on behalf of a third party.

US Bureau of Labor Statistics research found that there were 526,200 purchasing manager, buyer and purchasing agent positions in the United States in 2019. Various writers have noted that businesses may reduce the numbers of purchasing staff during a recession along with staff in other business areas, despite a tendency to become more dependent on bought-in goods and services as operations contract. For example, US business executive Steve Collins observed that in one major company the purchasing staffbase "was downsized some 30% during the recession, 'but the expectations for the remaining employees remained unchanged ... The additional workload placed on the remaining employees following the downsizing created a much more challenging environment'". In 2021 the Australasian Procurement and Construction Council (APCC) put forward an appeal asking everyone working in the procurement profession in Australia to include the term in their occupational title when completing their August 2021 census return.

The European Commission issued a recommendation in October 2017 directed towards the "professionalisation of public procurement" so that Member States could "attract, develop and retain" staff in public purchasing roles, focus on performance and "make the most out of the available tools and techniques". Research undertaken in 2020 highlighted the importance of social or "soft" skills within the skill sets of professional procurement staff.

Participation of women

Some writers have observed that there is limited opportunity for women to enter procurement because of stereotypes viewing some roles as not appropriate for women.

Management consultant Oliver Wyman reported in 2019 that, based on a survey of over 300 CPOs in Europe, US, and Asia working across 14 industries, 38% of the staff in the procurement organizations surveyed were women: 60% of CPOs stated that there were more women in their organization than three years previously, while 6% said that the number of women had decreased. The effect of this growing involvement of women in procurement was recognised in the form of "more creativity and innovation", acknowledged by 76% of the CPO's surveyed.

Legal aspects

A contractual obligation to procure refers to an absolute obligation to ensure that the action is done or the condition is met, for example a contract with a principal supplier may include a clause requiring the company to "procure" that its subsidiaries, holding companies and other associated businesses undertake the same commitments as those contractually imposed on the principal.

The use of the word "procure" in a joint venture agreement between Nearfield Ltd., Lincoln Nominees Ltd., and other partners, in relation to the utilisation of a bank loan, gave rise to a dispute between the parties regarding the meaning of the word "procure", which was resolved in 2006 by the judge, Peter Smith, confirming that the "normal meaning of the word" is clear and well understood:"I do not see that procure means anything other than as Nearfield puts it 'see to it'". In this case, the obligation to "procure the payment" of the loan amounted to a guarantee of that loan.

Future scenarios

Various commentators have made projections regarding the future of procurement. Charlotte Payne, general manager of CIPS in Australia and New Zealand, suggests that "procurement's role in sustainability is going to be massive", while a CIPS general overview anticipates that "there is little chance that procurement and supply will enter a period of calm any time soon".

See also

• Bidder conferences
• Global sourcing
• Group purchasing organization
• Procurement outsourcing
• Performance Based Contracting
• Strategic sourcing

References

1. Laffont, Jean-Jacques; Tirole, Jean (1993). A Theory of Incentives in Procurement and Regulation. MIT Press. p. 1. ISBN 9780262121743.
2. "Public procurement - OECD". www.oecd.org. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
3. Weele, Arjan J. van (2010). Purchasing and Supply Chain Management: Analysis, Strategy, Planning and Practice (5th ed.). Andover: Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-4080-1896-5.
4. Salam, M. A. (2007), Social responsibility in purchasing: the case of Thailand, International Journal of Procurement Management, vol. 1, issue 1/2, 97-116, accessed 27 January 2021. Salam refers to CSR in a purchasing context as "purchasing social responsibility" (PSR).
5. Gu, Tiantian; Sanders, Nada R.; Venkateswaran, Anand (2017). "CEO Incentives and Customer-Supplier Relations". Production and Operations Management. 26 (9): 1705–1727. doi:10.1111/poms.12715. ISSN 1937-5956.
6. Public Law 111–350: An Act to enact certain laws relating to public contracts as title 41, United States Code, Public Contracts, section 111, 4 January 2011, accessed 28 September 2023
7. Profit from the Source. Harvard Business Review Press. 2022. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-64782-139-5.
8. ^ Webster, F. E. and Wind, Y., A General Model for Understanding Organizational Buying Behavior, Journal of Marketing, Volume 36, Issue 2, April 1972
9. Lewis, M.A. and Roehrich, J.K. (2009), Contracts, relationships and integration: Towards a model of the procurement of complex performance. International Journal of Procurement Management, 2(2):125–142.
10. Caldwell, N.D., Roehrich, J.K. and Davies, A.C. (2009) Title needed.
11. Collins, Georgia (11 May 2022). "Walk through the history of the procurement industry". procurementmag.com. Retrieved 3 August 2024.
12. Ashcroft, Sean (8 September 2022). "Supply chain timeline: Procurement - ancient & modern tech". supplychaindigital.com. Retrieved 3 August 2024.
13. Bowman, Alan (2000). The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XI: The Roman Empire, 284-337. Cambridge University Press. p. 222.
14. Kirkman, Marshall Monroe (1887). The Handling of Railway Supplies: Their Purchase and Disposition. Chicago.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
15. Law Insider, Advance procurement definition, accessed 24 November 2022
16. United States Coast Guard, RFP released for Coast Guard's heavy polar icebreaker, published 5 March 2018, accessed 24 November 2022
17. Delta eSourcing, What is the Procurement Cycle?, accessed 21 January 2021
18. Chartered Institute of Procurement & Supply, Procurement and Supply Cycle, accessed 21 January 2021
19. Rogers, P., Early Procurement Involvement, Procurement Glossary, Chartered Institute of Procurement & Supply, accessed 31 August 2023
20. Bunn, Michele D. (January 1993). "Taxonomy of Buying Decision Approaches". Journal of Marketing. 57 (1). American Marketing Association: 38–56. doi:10.2307/1252056. JSTOR 1252056.
21. Feldman, W. and Cardozo, R., "The Industrial Revolution and Models of Buyer Behavior", Journal of Purchasing, 5 (November 1969), pp. 77-88
22. ^ Wilson, D. T., Industrial Buyers' Decision-Making Styles, Journal of Marketing Research, volume 8, number 4 (November 1971), pp. 433-436, accessed on 8 September 2024
23. Bell, S., Established Buying Theory, archived on 18 December 2007, accessed on 8 September 2024
24. Sheth, J. N., A Model of Industrial Buyer Behavior, Journal of Marketing, Volume 37, No. 4, October 1973, pp. 50-56, accessed on 26 October 2024
25. Wesley J. Johnston and Thomas V. Bonoma, The Buying Center: Structure and Interaction Patterns, in Journal of Marketing, Vol. 45, No. 3 (Summer, 1981), pp. 143-156, accessed on 1 November 2024
26. "Public procurement - OECD". www.oecd.org. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
27. Khan, Naushad (11 January 2018). Public Procurement Fundamentals. Emerald Publishing Limited. doi:10.1108/9781787546059. ISBN 978-1-78754-608-0. S2CID 115362081.
28. Georghiou, Luke; Edler, Jakob; Uyarra, Elvira; Yeow, Jillian (2014). "Policy instruments for public procurement of innovation: Choice, design and assessment". Technological Forecasting and Social Change. 86: 1–12. doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2013.09.018. hdl:2086/14702. ISSN 0040-1625.
29. "Home". www.oecd-ilibrary.org. Retrieved 10 March 2022.
30. "How large is public procurement?". blogs.worldbank.org. 5 February 2020. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
31. Mihály, Fazekas; Rene, Blum, Jurgen (2021). "Improving Public Procurement Outcomes". World Bank Group. Policy Research Working Papers. doi:10.1596/1813-9450-9690. hdl:10986/35727. S2CID 236331814.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
32. Peters, B. Guy (2018). The politics of bureaucracy: an introduction to comparative public administration (7 ed.). New York, NY. ISBN 978-0-415-74339-6. OCLC 1002302064.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
33. "Productivity in Public Procurement - A Case Study of Finland: Measuring the Efficiency and Effectiveness of Public Procurement" (PDF). OECD. 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2022. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
34. Edler, Jakob; Yeow, Jillian (1 March 2016). "Connecting demand and supply: The role of intermediation in public procurement of innovation". Research Policy. 45 (2): 414–426. doi:10.1016/j.respol.2015.10.010. ISSN 0048-7333.
35. Edler, Jakob; Georghiou, Luke (1 September 2007). "Public procurement and innovation—Resurrecting the demand side". Research Policy. 36 (7): 949–963. doi:10.1016/j.respol.2007.03.003. ISSN 0048-7333.
36. "The Office of Federal Procurement Policy". The White House. Retrieved 13 April 2022.
37. Pliatsidis, Andreas Christos (1 January 2022). "Impact of the time limits for the receipt of tenders on the number of bidders: evidence from public procurement in Greece". Journal of Public Procurement. 22 (4): 314–335. doi:10.1108/JOPP-05-2022-0025. ISSN 2150-6930. S2CID 253312170.
38. Mihály, Fazekas; Blum, Jurgen. Improving Public Procurement Outcomes Review of Tools and the State of the Evidence Base. OCLC 1289178042.
39. "Public Procurement for Sustainable Development". Chatham House – International Affairs Think Tank. 19 November 2020. Retrieved 15 March 2021.
40. "NIGP - The Institute for Public Procurement". www.nigp.org. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
41. Betiol, Luciana Stocco; Uehara, Thiago Hector Kanashiro; Laloe, Florence Karine; Appugliese, Gabriela Alem; Adeodato, Sergio; Ramos, Ligia; Neto, Mario Prestes Monzoni (15 December 2015). Sustainable procurement: The power of public and private consumption for an inclusive green economy. Public Administration and Citizenship Program. ISBN 9788587426314.
42. Tashea, Jason (September 2023). "'A Human Rights Approach to Justice Technology Procurement". Georgetown Law Technology Review.
43. Schoenherr, Tobias (2019), Schoenherr, Tobias (ed.), "The Advent of the Internet and Online Reverse Auctions", The Evolution of Electronic Procurement: Transforming Business as Usual, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 47–63, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-93985-8_4, ISBN 978-3-319-93985-8, retrieved 4 September 2021
44. Schoenherr, Tobias (2019), Schoenherr, Tobias (ed.), "The Evolution of Electronic Procurement", The Evolution of Electronic Procurement: Transforming Business as Usual, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 33–46, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-93985-8_3, ISBN 978-3-319-93985-8, retrieved 4 September 2021
45. Kamann D. J. F., van der Vaart T., and de Vries, J. (2004) Joint purchasing: theory and practice, International IPSERA Conference, 4–7 April 2004, Catania, Italy
46. European Parliament, The EU's Public Procurement Framework, briefing requested by the IMCO committee, published April 2020, accessed 1 March 2023
47. Allen, A., Rwanda looks to work with Caribbean countries for vaccine production, Supply Management, published 6 July 2023, accessed 12 July 2023
48. CIPS in partnership with Profex Publishing, Procurement and Supply Operations, 2012, revised 2016, pp. 1-2
49. CIPS, Procurement Glossary - F Archived 14 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine, accessed 14 March 2017
50. Mason, L. (2018), Contract Administration, Chartered Institute of Procurement & Supply, p. 114
51. GEP, The Next Frontier in Procurement Transformation, accessed 7 December 2022
52. ^ CIPS, Positions on Practice: Savings, accessed 21 August 2020
53. Jaggaer, How do you optimize addressable spend?, published 24 May 2016, accessed 16 January 2018
54. "Ardent Partners Research - CPO 2011: Innovative Ideas for the Decade Ahead". Archived from the original on 24 September 2011.
55. Britt, H., How to Bring More Spend Under Management, Una Group Purchasing Organisation, published 27 April 2021, accessed 15 June 2023
56. A T Kearney, What good looks like, summary published 2016, accessed 10 July 2021
57. ^ CIPS (2016), ROSMA Performance Check, accessed 10 July 2021
58. ^ A T Kearney (2016), What Good Looks Like, accessed 10 July 2021
59. Supply Chain Digest, Supply Chain News: Annual Research from AT Kearney as Usual Finds Outsized Benefits for Procurement Leaders, published 10 February 2020, accessed 10 July 2021
60. OpsDog, Inc., Procurement Operating Expense as a Percentage of Managed Spend, accessed 2 February 2021
61. CIPS, Find the latest supply chain and procurement vacancies in buying, category management, planning and logistics, accessed 1 December 2020
62. FAR, 1.603-1 General, accessed 1 December 2020
63. "ISM - Supply Management Defined". Archived from the original on 13 December 2016. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
64. CIPS Knowledge Works: Category Management, July 2007, page 2
65. ^ TravelPerk, The role of a corporate travel buyer, published 19 July 2021, accessed 11 June 2024
66. "Interview with Chris Holmes, Director of Supply Chain". NHS Supply Chain. 26 April 2019. Archived from the original on 21 October 2021. Retrieved 3 December 2020.
67. National Audit Office, "Improving procurement in further education colleges in England", HC 1632, Session 2005-2006, published 25 October 2006, accessed 20 January 2024.
68. Arnseth, L., Inside Supply Management, January/February 2015, page 19, accessed 14 June 2023.
69. O'Donovan, D., "Commercial Agents Directive - Termination of Commercial Agency", Orpen Franks Solicitors, accessed 2 December 2020.
70. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Occupational Outlook Handbook: "Purchasing Managers, Buyers and Purchasing Agents", published 21 September 2020, accessed 28 December 2020.
71. Supply Chain Digest, "Supply Chain News: In times of Reduce Staff in Procurement, New Tool to Help Prioritize the Work", published 16 May 2010, accessed 29 December 2020.
72. Australasian Procurement and Construction Council, Promoting procurement in the census, accessed 29 July 2021
73. Publications Office of the EU, "Commission Recommendation (EU) 2017/1805 of 3 October 2017 on the professionalisation of public procurement — Building an architecture for the professionalisation of public procurement (Text with EEA relevance)", accessed 28 April 2021.
74. Harper, M., "Closing the Skills Gap in Procurement Part 2: The Solution", American Productivity & Quality Center, published 2 April 2020, accessed 6 January 2022.
75. Phillips, W. (9 March 2022). "Lack of opportunities' for women to enter procurement". Supply Management. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
76. Oliver Wyman, "Women in Procurement: Gender Parity is a Key to Better Performance", published February 2019, accessed 3 April 2023.
77. LexisNexis, "What is the legal effect of a contractual obligation to 'procure' that something happens? How is this affected by adding the qualification 'reasonable endeavours'?", updated 10 November 2022, accessed 26 February 2023.
78. "Obligation to Procure Sample Clauses", Law Insider, accessed 26 February 2023.
79. England and Wales High Court (Chancery Division), Nearfield Ltd v Lincoln Nominees Ltd & Anor EWHC 2421 (Ch), delivered 9 October 2006, accessed 26 February 2023
80. Coulter, C. and Swinson, M., "European Union: Beware The Promise "To Procure": The Risk Of Giving An Inadvertent Guarantee In English Law Contracts", Morrison & Foerster LLP, published 11 June 2009, accessed 26 February 2023.
81. ^ CIPS Knowledge & Insight, What does the future hold for procurement and supply?, published on 26 October 2023, accessed on 22 June 2024

External links

• Federal Procurement Data System (United States)
• Green public procurement (European Commission)
• Disability:INclusive Workplaces – Accessible Technology Procurement Toolkit

• Procurement
• Business terms
• Supply chain management