Captaincy General of Yucatán

1527–1821 administrative division of New Spain

Province of YucatánProvincia de Yucatán (Spanish)

Province of New Spain

1527–1821

Flag
(1785–1821)

Coat of arms

Viceroyalty of New Spain in 1794, with the Captaincy General of Yucatán shown in light yellow

Anthem

Marcha Real (Spanish)
‘Royal March’

Capital

Mérida
20°58′N 89°37′W / 20.967°N 89.617°W / 20.967; -89.617

Government

• Type

Absolute monarchy with theocratic and oligarchic features

• Motto

Plus ultra (Latin)
‘Further Beyond’

Viceroy

• 1535–1550

Antonio de Mendoza / first

• 1821

Juan O'Donojú / last

Governor

• 1527–1540

Francisco de Montejo / first

• 1821

Juan María Echeverri / last

Legislature

Audiencia of Mexico

Historical era

Spanish conquest to Latin American independence

• Start of Spanish conquest

September 1527

• Declaration of independence

15 September 1821

Subdivisions

• Type

Municipality

• Units

Bacalar
Campeche
Mérida
Valladolid

Preceded by

Succeeded by

Maya civilization

British Honduras
First Mexican Empire

Today part of

The Province of Yucatán (/ˌjuːkəˈtɑːn, -ˈtæn/ YOO-kə-TA(H)N, UK also /ˌjʊk-/ YUU-; Spanish: Provincia de Yucatán [pɾoˈβinsja ðe ʝukaˈtan]), or the Captaincy General, Governorate, Intendancy, or Kingdom of Yucatán, was a first order administrative subdivision of the Viceroyalty of New Spain in the Yucatán Peninsula.

Geography

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Physical

Main article: Yucatán Peninsula

The Yucatán Peninsula is a low-lying, tropical, karstic platform of circa 300,000 square kilometres (120,000 sq mi), bound by the Bay of Campeche in the Gulf of Mexico to the northwest, and the Bay of Honduras in the Caribbean Sea to the southeast.

Human

At the dawn of the sixteenth century, the Peninsula encompassed various kuchkabalo'ob or Postclassic Mayan states. At least some of these are believed to have previously been administrative districts of Chichen Itza and Mayapan.

History

Sixteenth century

Before conquest

Peninsular residents are thought to have first learnt of the Spanish in late 1502, upon Christopher Columbus's landing at Guanaja in late July or early August 1502. Spaniards are thought to have first reached the Yucatán Peninsula in the latter half of 1508, during the Pinzón–Solís voyage. The first Spanish residents of Yucatán were Gonzalo Guerrero, Jerónimo de Aguilar, and their stranded colleagues, who in 1511 had been swept towards the Peninsula from their shipwreck at the Pedro Bank, southwest of Jamaica, and thereafter impressed or enslaved by a batab or mayor of the Ekab Province.

Hispano-Mayan hostilities broke out on 5 March 1517, when the Hernández de Córdoba expedition were ambushed by the military or militia of the Ekab Province near that state's eponymous capital. The expeditionaries' reports of grand Mayan cities lead to further Cuban expeditions to the Gulf coast of the Peninsula, notably leading up to the 1519–1521 conquest of the Aztec Empire.

Spanish conquest

Main article: Spanish conquest of Yucatán

On 8 December 1526, Charles I of Spain granted Francisco de Montejo a capitulación de conquista or letters patent for the conquest of the Mayan states in the Peninsula. The Salamancan conquistador was thereby granted the titles and offices of adelantado, governor, captain general, and alguacil mayor of Yucatán. Montejo, with four ships and over 250 men, embarked from Seville in late June 1527, reaching Cozumel, in the Ekab Province, in late September 1527. The Spanish conquest began in 1527, upon the founding of Salamanca de Xelha, in the Ekab Province, and protracted itself to 1544, ending with the founding of Salamanca de Bacalar in the Waymil Province.

After conquest

In 1546, state and local officers, and priests, of the (recently defeated) pre-Columbian province of Kupul began organising a coalition force for a swift military strike on Mérida, Valladolid, and Bacalar. Six neighbouring (former) provinces joined Kupul in the operation, which was scheduled for the full moon night of 8–9 November 1546. On said night, circa 500–600 non-allied Mayans, and fifteen to twenty encomenderos were massacred. The planned offensive on Mérida faltered, while that on Valladolid devolved into a siege, broken circa two weeks afterwards by a military detachment from Mérida. The strike on Bacalar likewise devolved into a blockade, broken in early 1547. The defeated coalition forces nonetheless determined on guerrilla warfare. By March 1547, most coalition troops had been defeated, exhausted by attrition, or otherwise convinced to lay down their arms. Afterwards, five or six of the principal instigators were tried and killed, circa 2,000 prisoners of war were (illegally) enslaved, a number of Spanish military captains were charged with and convicted of war crimes.

Seventeenth century

The Captaincy General of Yucatán was created in 1617 to provide more autonomy for the Peninsula, previously ruled directly by a simple governor under the jurisdiction of Audiencia of Mexico. Its creation was part of the, ultimately futile, Habsburg attempt in the late 16th century to prevent incursion into the Caribbean by foreign powers, which also involved the establishment of Captaincies General in Puerto Rico, Cuba, and neighboring Guatemala. With the addition of the title of captain general to the governor of Yucatán, the province gained greater autonomy in administration and military matters. Unlike in most areas of Spanish America, no formal corregidores were used in Yucatán, and instead the governor-captain general relied on other subordinate officials to handle the oversight of local districts. The Captaincy General remained part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, with the viceroy retaining the right to oversee the province's governance, when it was deemed necessary, and the Audiencia of Mexico taking judicial cases in appeal. The province and captaincy general covered the territory that today are the States of Campeche, Quintana Roo, Tabasco, Yucatán, and nominally the northern areas of Petén and Belize.

Law IV ("Que el Governador de Yucatan guarde las ordenes del Virrey de Nueva España") of Title I ("De los Terminos, Division, y Agregación de las Governaciones") of Book V of the Recopilación de Leyes de Indias of 1680 reproduces the 2 November 1627 royal decree (real cédula) of Philip V, which established the nature of the relationship between the Governor of Yucatán and the Viceroy of New Spain: "It is convenient that the governors and captain generals of the Province of Yucatán, precisely and in a timely manner fulfill the orders that the viceroys of New Spain give them. And we order that the governors obey them and fulfill them."

Eighteenth century

In 1786, as part of the Bourbon Reforms the Spanish Crown established an Intendancy of Yucatán covering the same area as the Province. The intendancy took control of government and military finances and had broad powers to promote the local economy.

Nineteenth century

On 15 September 1821, in the Hall of Councils of the City of Mérida, Yucatán declared its independence from Spain. Almost immediately, Governor Juan María Echeverri sent two representatives to negotiate the incorporation of Yucatán into the Mexican Empire. The incorporation into the Mexican Empire took place on 2 November 1821.

Society

Religion

The letters patent of 8 December 1526, granted to Francisco de Montejo for the conquest of the Yucatán Peninsula, incorporated various provisions designed to ensure the successful conversion of Mayan residents to (Roman Catholic) Christianity. Christian proselytising efforts in the Peninsula were begun in late September 1527 by secular friars Juan Rodríguez de Caraveo, Pedro Fernández, and Carmelite friar Gregorio de San Martín, who accompanied the Montejo entrada of 1527–1528. The first known Christian baptisms in the peninsula occurred in Ekab, capital of the eponymous Postclassic Mayan province, during or shortly after an assembly of the province's mayors, held at some point during December 1527 and March 1528. Franciscans began missionary work in Chak'anputun, capital of a Postclassic Mayan province of the same name, sometime during 1535 and 1537.

Education

Hispano–Christian schooling or indoctrination of Mayan children and adults was begun by Franciscan friars at the Provincial Convent of St. Francis, Mérida, in 1547. Instruction included Roman Catholic doctrine for all Mayan children and adults, (Latin) reading and writing for children of pre-eminent Mayan families, and choral music for Mayan adults.

At least some chilamo'ob or priests (of Mayan polytheism), and members of ch'ibalo'ob or noble houses, are known to have vigorously opposed Franciscan indoctrination.

Government

The capitulaciones de conquista or letters patent for the conquest of Yucatán, granted on 8 December 1526 by Charles I of Spain to Francisco de Montejo in Granada, set out the first constitution of Spanish Yucatán.

Absolute authority was vested in the Spanish sovereign, advised and assisted by the Casa de Contratación and the Council of the Indies. Directly subordinate was the adelantado, governor, captain general, and alguacil mayor of Yucatán, who was afforded executive, legislative and judicial authority over the province. Spanish Yucatán was partitioned into municipios or municipalities, each administered by a designated cabildo or municipal-and-town council. Said municipalities were further subdivided into Mayan or encomienda settlements, administered by an encomendero and a resident cacique, and Spanish or non-encomienda settlements, administered by a cabildo.

The Real Audiencia of Mexico, established by real cédula or royal decree on 13 December 1527, was thereby set up as a superior court of judicature for Spanish Yucatán. The province was made an administrative district of the Viceroyalty of New Spain upon or shortly after the latter's formation on 17 April 1535. The New Laws of 20 November 1542 rendered null and void some parts of the adelantado's letters patent. The latter were further derogated from on 13 May 1549, upon the adelantado's suspension from the offices of governor, captain general, and alguacil mayor of Spanish Yucatán.

Economy

Francisco de Montejo's letters patent of 8 December 1526 incorporated a number of provisions designed to attract Spanish settlers to the Yucatán peninsula, including–

assignment of conquered Mayan settlements in encomiendas,
authorisation for a limited slave trade in Mayan prisoners,
partial tax breaks from the quinto real, almojarifazgo, and salt tax,
grants of two caballerías and two solares,
authorisation to employ court fines for local public works,
authorisation to employ the diezmo for local missionary work.

Conquistadors had initially hoped to find significant deposits of gold and precious metals in the Yucatán peninsula. As the conquest wore on, it became increasingly apparent that none such were to be had. Consequently, agriculture was settled on as the primary economic activity of Spanish Yucatán. Some commerce, especially in dye woods, similarly developed.

Mayan cotton mantas were made legal tender in late 1542.

Legacy

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Notes and references

Explanatory footnotes

Article-wide notices.
1. The Yucatec Mayan orthography in this article follows that of Barrera Vásquez et al. 1980, pp. 41a–44a. At least two other orthographic systems exist, per Lehmann 2018, sec. 2.1, 3, neither of which is used in this article.
2. Various dates for periods of the Mesoamerican chronology have been given in scholarly literature (further see Periodisation of the history of Belize). This article uses those provided by Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 98, namely, Lithic – 8000 BC and prior dates, Archaic – 8000 to 2000 BC, Preclassic – 2000 BC to 250 AD, Classic – 250 to 900 AD, and Postclassic – 900 AD and posterior dates. Furthermore, dates prior to 12 October 1492 constitute the pre-Columbian era, and all others the Columbian era.
The number and nature of the Postclassic Mayan states is still debated (Andrews 1984, pp. 589–590, Graham 2011, pp. 29).
Chichen Itza was established by Itza settlers in circa 750–800 AD. It was the most powerful city-state in the Yucatán peninsula until circa 1050–1100 AD (Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 559, 568, 591–592, Demarest, Rice & Rice 2004, pp. 520–521, 561–562, Aimers 2007, p. 339). It is believed to have sustained a successful programme of conquest during the tenth century, thereby bringing neighbouring inland settlements and key coastal ports under its dominion (Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 567–570, 579, Roys 1957, p. 3, Demarest, Rice & Rice 2004, pp. 531–533, 537–542). It is commonly credited with (coercively) sponsoring the cult of K'uk'ulkan or Kukulkan, and the Postclassic peninsular coasting trade (Aimers 2007, pp. 339–340, Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 582–583, Demarest, Rice & Rice 2004, p. 377). The city-state of Mayapan succeeded Chichen Itza during k'atun 8 ahaw (either 1080–1104 AD or 1185–1204 AD), and ruled the peninsula for thirteen k'atuno'ob (either to 1392–1416 AD or 1441–1461 AD) (Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 595–598, 603, Demarest, Rice & Rice 2004, p. 375).
Guanaja was a port of call in the Postclassic peninsular coasting trade (Graham 2011, p. 22).
The Magdalena, master Gonzalo Ruíz, and the Isabelita or the San Benito, master Pedro de Ledesma, sailed from Sanlúcar de Barrameda on 29 June 1508 (Reichert 2017, p. 14, Torre Revello 1956, pp. 235–237). The latter captain was the expedition's chief pilot, and had previously accompanied Columbus during his third and fourth voyages in 1498–1500 and 1502–1504 (Arranz Márquez 2018b, para. 5, 7, 12, Torre Revello 1956, p. 237). This voyage is known to have reached Guanaja in the Bay of Honduras, but there is disagreement as to whether the expedition then headed north to Cape Catoche or east to Cape Gracias a Dios (Graham 2011, pp. 122–123, Torre Revello 1956, pp. 234–235, 237–239, Saville 1918, pp. 436–437).
The expedition of three ships and over 100 men had been commissioned by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, first Spanish governor of Cuba. It seems to have been destined to the Bahamas or the Bay Islands, in search of slaves, but instead set course towards the Peninsula on the prompting of chief pilot Antón de Alamilla, who had sailed with Columbus on his fourth voyage of 1502–1504 (Chamberlain 1948, p. 11). Despite the 1502 Columbus landing at Guanaja, 1508 Díaz de Solís–Yáñez Pinzón reconnaissance, and 1511 stranding of Guerrero, de Aguilar, and company, this 1517 Hernández de Córdoba expedition is popularly deemed the discovery of the Peninsula (Ojeda 2019, pp. 176–177, 180, 183, Saville 1918, pp. 437–438).
The same had first been granted to Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar on 13 November 1518 (Arranz Márquez 2018a, para. 38). Both capitulaciones granted their recipients the titles and offices of adelantado, governor, and captain general of Yucatán (Arranz Márquez 2018a, para. 38, García Bernal 2018, para. 13). A digitised copy of the Velázquez de Cuéllar capitulacion is available from the Portal de Archivos Españoles under call number INDIFERENTE,415,L.1,F.16V-18V. A copy of the de Montejo one is similarly available under call number INDIFERENTE,415,L.1,F.90V-98V.
The ships were– (i) the San Jerónimo, Miguel Ferrer master, (ii) Nicolasa, Ochoa master, (iii) La Gavarra, master not named, and (iv) a fourth unnamed ship, master likewise not named. Montejo's principal subordinates were Alonso Dávila (second-in-command), Antón Sánchez Calabrés, Pedro de los Ríos, Pedro de Añasco, Pedro de Lugones, Pedro González, Hernando Palomino, Pedro Gaitán, and possibly Andrés de Calleja and Roberto Alemán. Crown representatives Pedro de Luna and Hernando de Cueto accompanied the expedition, as did frays Juan Rodríguez de Caraveo, Pedro Fernández, and Gregorio de San Martín. The flotilla was thoroughly refitted at Santo Domingo (Chamberlain 1948, pp. 31–35).
There had been Hispano–Mayan engagements prior to the conquest, eg during the 1517 Hernández de Córdoba expedition (Chamberlain 1948, pp. 11–12). Additionally, the conquest did not bring all peninsular Mayan polities under Spanish rule, eg the Peten Itza kingdom was not defeated until 13 March 1697 (Jones 1998, pp. 296–300). By 31 December 1544, the (Spanish) Province of Yucatán consisted of four municipalities–
1. San Francisco de Campeche or Campeche– est. 4 October 1540 (Chamberlain 1948, p. 201),
2. Mérida, the provincial capital– est. 6 January 1542 (Chamberlain 1948, pp. 211–214),
3. Valladolid– est. 28 May 1543 (Chamberlain 1948, pp. 225–226),
4. Salamanca de Bacalar– est. 1544 (Chamberlain 1948, p. 234).
Namely, Koch Wah, Sotuta, Tases, Waymil, Chetumal, and Chik'in Che'el (Chamberlain 1948, p. 240).
Casualties included persons not deemed fit for combat, eg women and children. At least some victims were ritualistically tortured and killed. Additionally, Spanish-owned cattle and pets, and non-native plants, were destroyed (Chamberlain 1948, p. 241).
At least some instigators were burnt at the stake, including the Kupul chilam or priest, Anbal, who had been named the foremost principal instigator by Spaniards and defeated Mayans (Chamberlain 1948, pp. 249, 251–252). The New Laws of 20 November 1542 forbade the enslavement of natives (Chamberlain 1948, pp. 250–251). Francisco de Montejo, adelantado, governor and captain general of Spanish Yucatán, enforced this prohibition in the latter half of 1547, or in 1548 (Chamberlain 1948, p. 251). It is not clear what sentences the convicts received (Chamberlain 1948, pp. 250, 252).
Among these were the–
1. imposition of diezmos or tithes for the maintenance of the Roman Catholic Church (Chamberlain 1948, p. 21),
2. appointment of a bishop within five years (Chamberlain 1948, p. 21),
3. enslavement of Mayan residents who refused compliance with the Requerimiento (Chamberlain 1948, pp. 22–23),
4. prohibition from entry to Spanish Yucatán by non-Christians and Christian heretics, including Jews, Moors and Lutherans (Chamberlain 1948, p. 22),
5. appointment of at least two secular clergy to accompany reconnaissance, trade, conquest, and settlement expeditions (Chamberlain 1948, p. 23).
Jerónimo de Aguilar, a Franciscan friar, had been resident in the pre-Columbian Ekab Province from 1511 to late February 1519, but is not known to have engaged in missionary work, having been a slave or servant of the batab or mayor of Xaman Ha' (González Hernández 2018b, para. 2–4).
Reputedly, at the initiative of Jacobo de Testera, custodian of the Franciscan Order in New Spain (Chamberlain 1948, p. 311). The first mission, believed to have been composed of Testera and four companions, was expelled by a military expedition under Lorenzo de Godoy (Chamberlain 1948, pp. 311–313). Testera sent a second mission to Spanish Yucatán in 1542. This latter mission, composed of four friars (Luis de Villalpando, Lorenzo de Bienvenida, Melchor de Benavente, and Juan de Herrera), arrived in 1545, and proved more enduring than the first (Chamberlain 1948, p. 313). An additional four Franciscan friars (Nicolás de Albalate, Angel Maldonado, Miguel de Vera, Juan de la Puerta) arrived in 1546 or 1547, and a further eight (including Francisco de Bustamante and Diego de Landa) in 1549 (Chamberlain 1948, pp. 313–314, 317). The Franciscans held their first chapter meeting on 29 September 1549, and were established as a province in 1561 (with Landa as the first provincial superior) (Chamberlain 1948, pp. 317–318). Non-Franciscan regular clergy were prohibited from missionary work in Spanish Yucatán sometime thereafter (Chamberlain 1948, p. 319).
An assembly of the municipality's batabo'ob or mayors was held in Mérida in early 1547, during which these were invited to send their children to the Franciscan school in town, though at least some children were rather sent to said school by encomenderos (Chamberlain 1948, pp. 315–316). The convent, Convento Provincial de San Francisco, was demolished in 1869 (Ordaz Tamayo 2004, p. 61).
Attendance for doctrinal studies was compulsory at least for Mayan adults (Chamberlain 1948, p. 321).
In addition to Spanish civil law, including a real provisión or royal ordinance of 17 November 1526 regulating New World conquests (incorporated by reference in Montejo's letters patent), and the Spanish Requerimiento (Chamberlain 1948, pp. 22–25). A digitised copy of these letters patent is available at the Portal de Archivos Españoles under call number INDIFERENTE,415,L.1,F.90V-98V.
Though absolute power over spiritual matters rested with the Roman Catholic pontiff (Chamberlain 1948, pp. 25–28).
Though oficiales reales or royal officers, appointed by and responsible to the Spanish sovereign, administered part of the province's treasury (Chamberlain 1948, p. 21).
See, for instance, the October 1527 founding of Salamanca de Xelha in Chamberlain 1948, p. 36.
See, for instance, the October 1527 designation of Xelha and Zama, pre-Columbian Mayan towns in the Ekab Province, as encomienda towns in Chamberlain 1948, p. 39.
The Real Audiencia of Guatemala, established by real cédula or royal decree on 20 November 1542, held jurisdiction over Spanish Yucatán from–
1. 13 September 1543 to 23 April 1548 (Chamberlain 1948, pp. 182, 285, Lázaro de la Escosura 2004, sec. 3),
2. 7 July 1550 to 8 September 1563 (Chamberlain 1948, pp. 306–307, Lázaro de la Escosura 2004, sec. 3),
3. 16 October 1814 to 27 September 1821 (Lázaro de la Escosura 2004, sec. 3).
Furthermore, it exercised de facto authority over Spanish Yucatán from 24 April 1548 to 6 July 1550 (Chamberlain 1948, pp. 286, 292–307).
Antonio de Mendoza y Pacheco was appointed viceroy of New Spain on 17 April 1535, but did not assume office until 14 November 1535 (Semboloni Capitani 2014, pp. 39, 47). Spanish Yucatán was made a province of New Spain prior to 1553 (Semboloni Capitani 2014, pp. 71–74). A real cédula or royal decree of 23 April 1548 directed the viceroy to oversee the adoption of a number of measures regarding Mayan residents of the province (Chamberlain 1948, p. 285).
The New Laws of 20 November 1542 forbade said trade (Chamberlain 1948, pp. 280–281).
Old World flora and fauna were introduced during the Spanish conquest, notably including draught and farm animals, crops (eg cabbages, lettuces, turnips, onions, sugar cane), and fruit trees (eg citruses, figs, pomegranates, dates, coconuts, plantains, sapodillas) (Chamberlain 1948, p. 330). These did not displace the Mesoamerican staples (eg turkeys, cotton, maize, squash, beans, peppers) (Chamberlain 1948, p. 330). See, for instance, the Columbian exchange.
At least some Postclassic Mayan industries (including salt, beeswax, and cotton textile production) were maintained (Chamberlain 1948, p. 333). Regarding dye woods, conquistador Marcos de Ayala is believed to have introduced the native logwood dye to the Spanish market, while Hernando de Bracamonte is credited with the introduction of the Old World indigo dye to the peninsula (Chamberlain 1948, p. 332).

Short citations

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"Yucatán". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Archived from the original on 26 July 2019. Retrieved 26 July 2019.
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Oxford University Press 2021, para. 1; Curiosity Media 2021a, sec. titled Spain; Curiosity Media 2021b, sec. titled Spain; Curiosity Media 2021c, sec. titled Spain.
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Roys 1957, p. 3; Rice 2004, p. 24; Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 569; Demarest, Rice & Rice 2004, pp. 531–533, 537–542.
Roys 1957, p. 3; Demarest, Rice & Rice 2004, pp. 531–533, 537–542; Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 567–570; Andrews 1984, p. 589.
Graham 2011, p. 122; Reichert 2017, p. 13.
Varela Marcos 2018a, para. 8–16; Varela Marcos 2018b, para. 33–41; Arranz Márquez 2018b, para. 12–20; Reichert 2017, p. 14; Graham 2011, pp. 122–123; Torre Revello 1956, pp. 235–239.
Reichert 2017, pp. 14–15; Graham 2011, pp. 125; González Hernández 2018a, para. 4–5.
Ojeda 2019, pp. 181–182; Chamberlain 1948, pp. 11–12.
Chamberlain 1948, pp. 13–15.
Chamberlain 1948, p. 19; García Bernal 2018, para. 13.
García Bernal 2018, para. 13; Chamberlain 1948, pp. 20–21.
Chamberlain 1948, pp. 31–35; García Bernal 2018, para. 15.
Chamberlain 1948, pp. 35–36, 234–236; Jones 1989, p. 43.
Chamberlain 1948, pp. 237–240.
Chamberlain 1948, p. 240.
Chamberlain 1948, p. 241.
Chamberlain 1948, pp. 240–244.
Chamberlain 1948, pp. 244–245, 248.
Chamberlain 1948, p. 246–247.
Chamberlain 1948, p. 249.
Chamberlain 1948, pp. 249–251.
León Pinelo & Solórzano Pereira 1681, lib. 5, tit. 1.
Ayuntamiento de Mérida 2007, para. 9.
Orosa Díaz 1999, p. ??.
Chamberlain 1948, pp. 19–30.
Chamberlain 1948, p. 33.
Chamberlain 1948, pp. 41, 48–49.
Chamberlain 1948, p. 311.
Chamberlain 1948, p. 315.
Chamberlain 1948, p. 321.
Chamberlain 1948, pp. 316–317, 321–322.
Chamberlain 1948, pp. 19–20; García Bernal 2018, para. 13.
Chamberlain 1948, pp. 22–25.
Chamberlain 1948, pp. 20–21, 183, 301.
Chamberlain 1948, pp. 21–22.
Chamberlain 1948, p. 238.
Chamberlain 1948, pp. 69–70.
Semboloni Capitani 2014, p. 47.
Chamberlain 1948, pp. 183, 250, 255–256, 261, 278, 280–281.
Chamberlain 1948, pp. 297–298.
Chamberlain 1948, p. 22–23.
Chamberlain 1948, p. 22.
^ Chamberlain 1948, p. 21.
Chamberlain 1948, pp. 3–4, 20, 33, 47, 66, 99–100.
Chamberlain 1948, pp. 3–4, 101–104, 124, 142–143, 160–161, 165, 174–175.
Chamberlain 1948, pp. 3–4, 330–331.
Chamberlain 1948, p. 332.
Chamberlain 1948, p. 279, 334.

Full citations

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