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Black capuchin
Black capuchin in Argentina
Conservation status
Near Threatened  (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Primates
Suborder:	Haplorhini
Infraorder:	Simiiformes
Family:	Cebidae
Genus:	Sapajus
Species:	S. nigritus
Binomial name
Sapajus nigritus (Goldfuss, 1809)
Combined range of S. n. nigritus and S. n. cucullatus. S. n. robustus is found just northeast of this range (see text).

The black capuchin (Sapajus nigritus), also known as the black-horned capuchin, is a capuchin monkey from the Atlantic Forest in south-eastern Brazil and far north-eastern Argentina. Historically, it was included as a subspecies of the tufted capuchin.

Taxonomy

The black capuchin was originally named Cebus nigritus or Cebus apella nigritus. While this has changed, many sources still name the black capuchin as part of the genus Cebus.

Social behaviour

Group size

The black capuchin is a social animal that prefers to live in groups, usually consisting of 6 to 20 members. These groups are hierarchical and, while they tend to be made up of more females than males, the alpha female of the group is submissive to the alpha male.

Group size is a function of food availability; size and cohesiveness are highest when food is readily available. When food is scarce, black capuchins split up into smaller groups to cover more ground per capita. This is observed both seasonally in the short term and over the course of years in the long term. The larger the group, the more food they need, which in turn leads to more travel.

Females are, for the most part, philopatric. Although rare, females leaving their natal group can be observed, as dispersal is largely a male phenomenon. When females do leave, they do so gradually, retreating to the group's periphery before breaking away entirely.

Aggression

Males are apt to kill the offspring of competing males, especially during power struggles. When females are aggressive, it is generally in food squabbles. Even these conflicts, however, are generally relegated to the male portion of the population, with one study finding that females participated in only 19% of such fights. When they do so, however, they are almost always the aggressor (93% of the time in the same study), their favorite target being juveniles. Such conflict perhaps arises due to the tendency of dominant females to take control of patchy areas of food.

Communication

Communication within groups consists of bodily, facial, and vocal communications. One example of this is the 'scream embrace mechanism', a high-pitched call used to regroup (usually male) members of a group.

Bonding

Grooming plays a central role in bonding between black capuchins. It serves the obvious purpose of hygiene, evidenced by how the monkeys focus their efforts on the areas of their partner which their partner cannot groom themselves. Grooming, however, also serves several social functions, all associated with bonding. For example, it allows lower-ranked black capuchins to bond with the dominant members of the group, and for members at odds with each other to reconcile and relieve tension.

The purpose of such bonding is often for lower-ranked monkeys to procure easier food access from dominant bond-partners. Females, for example, might compete to groom the dominant female, in those cases where a hierarchy exists, which is not assured among female black capuchins. Still, same-sex grooming is rare, with little to no evidence of male-male grooming and female-female grooming accounting for a minority of cases. Female-female grooming only occurs when the group is highly cohesive. When it does occur, they favor kin. Females more commonly bond with males, particularly the alpha. The hierarchy has other effects on grooming as well. Face-to-face grooming is more frequent when the groomer is dominant and well-bonded with the partner being groomed. The frequency increases even more based on rank-difference; the less equal the monkeys' footing in the above described situation, the more likely face-to-face grooming is.

Reproduction

Females strongly favor the alpha male in choosing a sexual partner; one study found that he is the target mate in three-quarters of female sexual advances and failed to find any coercion on his part which might force this outcome.

To initiate mating, females possess a wide variety of signals, both auditory and ocular, which they employ at different stages of the process. There is some evidence that these are used to encourage coitus to occur at the time most opportune for procreation, including the increasing frequency with which visual signals occur as ovulation approaches. At least seven distinct calls exist for this purpose alone, although no evidence has been found that call type indicates anything to do with the stage of ovulation or fertility, although they do change pre and post-copulation. Those vocalized after mating may function to assure the chosen mate of his paternity by making the whole affair public knowledge, thereby encouraging him to guard both the female and her resulting offspring from competing mates and infanticide. In this context, the purpose of male postcoital courtship is perhaps revealed to be mate protection. For the same ends, the potentially impregnated female might use visual signals to assure the alpha of his status as her mate, while using vocalizations to confuse the other males as to who the father truly is, thereby discouraging aggression.

Habitat

The black capuchin is found in the Atlantic region of North-eastern Argentina and South-eastern Brazil, with its habitat overlapping with other capuchin species. They are considered arboreal, mainly dwelling in the tree canopy; however, they will also drop to the forest floor to forage, where insects and nuts are most abundant.

Diet

Black capuchin monkeys are omnivorous. They eat a wide variety of foods, including insects, bird eggs, small vertebrates, leaves, bulbs, seeds, and fruits. Their choice among these depends primarily on seasonal availability. While they are considered generalist feeders, fruit can make up as much as three or four-fifths of their diet. They are apt to experiment with new sources, which results in them consuming a diverse diet. One group of black capuchins, for example, ate 61 of 145 fruits available to them in their environment. When they exist in small patches of forest which lack adequate amounts of fruit to feed the whole group, black capuchins have been known to exploit nearby agricultural operations by stripping the bark from trees to eat the pine sap and phloem underneath.

Subspecies

The black capuchin has three subspecies: Sapajus n. nigritus (nominate) and S. n. cucullatus are found in the southern part (the former eastwards, and the latter westwards) of this species' range, and both have a distinctive pair of tufts on the crown, as also suggested by the alternative common name of this species: black-horned capuchin. The last subspecies, the crested or robust tufted capuchin (S. n. robustus) is found in the northern part of this species' range (north of the Doce River), and has a median conical crest on the crown. It is sometimes considered a separate species.

Status

The black capuchin's population number is unknown but thought to be declining. This is due mostly to habitat loss, hunting, and the pet trade, however the species has been observed to be able to survive in fragmented and sparse areas of canopy. The two southern subspecies remain relatively widespread and are rated as Near Threatened by the IUCN. The distinctive northern subspecies has a far more restricted distribution and it is considered Endangered.

References

1. ^ Groves, C. P. (2005). Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 137–138. ISBN 0-801-88221-4. OCLC 62265494.
2. ^ Ludwig, G.; de Melo, F.R.; Martins, W.P.; Miranda, J.M.D.; Lynch Alfaro, J.W.; Alonso, A.C.; dos Santos, M.C.; Rímoli, J. (2021). "Sapajus nigritus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T136717A192593806. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T136717A192593806.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
3. "Black-horned capuchin - Sapajus nigritus". Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
4. ^ Izar, Patrícia; Verderane, Michele P.; Peternelli-dos-Santos, Lucas; Mendonça-Furtado, Olívia; Presotto, Andréa; Tokuda, Marcos; Visalberghi, Elisabetta; Fragaszy, Dorothy (2012). "Flexible and conservative features of social systems in tufted capuchin monkeys: comparing the socioecology of Sapajus libidinosus and Sapajus nigritus: Socioecology of Tufted Capuchin Monkeys". American Journal of Primatology. 74 (4): 315–331. doi:10.1002/ajp.20968. PMID 21656840. S2CID 14386838.
5. ^ Tokuda, Marcos; Martins, Milene M.; Izar, Patrícia (2018). "Socio-genetic correlates of unbiased sex dispersal in a population of black capuchin monkeys (Sapajus nigritus)". Acta Ethologica. 21 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1007/s10211-017-0277-0. ISSN 0873-9749. S2CID 36180659.
6. ^ Bernaldo de Quirós, Ester; Wheeler, Brandon C.; Hammerschmidt, Kurt; Heistermann, Michael; Tiddi, Barbara (2018). "Do sexual calls in female black capuchin monkeys ( Sapajus nigritus ) vary with fertility? An acoustic analysis". American Journal of Primatology. 80 (9): e22920. doi:10.1002/ajp.22920. PMID 30296346. S2CID 52941561.
7. "Black-horned capuchin videos, photos and facts - Cebus nigritus". ARKive. Archived from the original on 30 May 2009. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
8. ^ Pfoh, Romina; Tiddi, Barbara; Di Bitetti, Mario S.; Agostini, Ilaria (2021). "Grooming site preferences in black capuchin monkeys: Hygienic vs. social functions revisited". American Journal of Primatology. 83 (12): e23336. doi:10.1002/ajp.23336. hdl:11336/167478. ISSN 0275-2565. PMID 34612524. S2CID 238410744.
9. ^ "Black capuchin | Planet of the monkeys". planetofthemonkeys.com. Archived from the original on 5 April 2017. Retrieved 4 April 2017.
10. Mikich, Sandra Bos; Liebsch, Dieter (2014). "Damage to forest plantations by tufted capuchins (Sapajus nigritus): Too many monkeys or not enough fruits?". Forest Ecology and Management. 314: 9–16. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2013.11.026. ISSN 0378-1127.
11. Rylands, A. B., Kierulff, M. C. M., & Mittermeier, R. A. (2005). Notes on the taxonomy and distributions of the tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus, Cebidae) of South America. Lundiana 6 (supp.): 97-110
12. Silva Jr., J. de S. (2001). Especiação nos macacos-prego e caiararas, gênero Cebus Erxleben, 1777 (Primates, Cebidae). Ph.D. thesis. Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
13. Wildlife as Canon sees it. n.a.. National Geographic Magazine, June 2008.
14. Kierulff, M.C.M.; Mendes, S.L.; Rylands, A.B. (2015). "Sapajus robustus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2015: e.T42697A70614762. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-1.RLTS.T42697A70614762.en.

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