Misplaced Pages

A cereal is a grass cultivated for its edible grain. Cereals are the world's largest crops, and are therefore staple foods. They include rice, wheat, rye, oats, barley, millet, and maize. Edible grains from other plant families, such as buckwheat and quinoa, are pseudocereals. Most cereals are annuals, producing one crop from each planting, though rice is sometimes grown as a perennial. Winter varieties are hardy enough to be planted in the autumn, becoming dormant in the winter, and harvested in spring or early summer; spring varieties are planted in spring and harvested in late summer. The term cereal is derived from the name of the Roman goddess of grain crops and fertility, Ceres.

Cereals were domesticated in the Neolithic, some 8,000 years ago. Wheat and barley were domesticated in the Fertile Crescent; rice was domesticated in East Asia, and sorghum and millet were domesticated in West Africa. Maize was domesticated by Indigenous peoples of the Americas in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago. In the 20th century, cereal productivity was greatly increased by the Green Revolution. This increase in production has accompanied a growing international trade, with some countries producing large portions of the cereal supply for other countries.

Cereals provide food eaten directly as whole grains, usually cooked, or they are ground to flour and made into bread, porridge, and other products. Cereals have a high starch content, enabling them to be fermented into alcoholic drinks such as beer. Cereal farming has a substantial environmental impact, and is often produced in high-intensity monocultures. The environmental harms can be mitigated by sustainable practices which reduce the impact on soil and improve biodiversity, such as no-till farming and intercropping.

History

Origins

Wheat, barley, rye, and oats were gathered and eaten in the Fertile Crescent during the early Neolithic. Cereal grains 19,000 years old have been found at the Ohalo II site in Israel, with charred remnants of wild wheat and barley.

During the same period, farmers in China began to farm rice and millet, using human-made floods and fires as part of their cultivation regimen. The use of soil conditioners, including manure, fish, compost and ashes, appears to have begun early, and developed independently in areas of the world including Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley, and Eastern Asia.

Cereals that became modern barley and wheat were domesticated some 8,000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent. Millets and rice were domesticated in East Asia, while sorghum and other millets were domesticated in sub-Saharan West Africa, primarily as feed for livestock. Maize arose from a single domestication in Mesoamerica about 9,000 years ago.

In these agricultural regions, religion was often shaped by the divinity associated with the grain and harvests. In the Mesopotamian creation myth, an era of civilization is inaugurated by the grain goddess Ashnan. The Roman goddess Ceres presided over agriculture, grain crops, fertility, and motherhood; the term cereal is derived from Latin cerealis, "of grain", originally meaning "of Ceres". Several gods of antiquity combined agriculture and war: the Hittite Sun goddess of Arinna, the Canaanite Lahmu and the Roman Janus.

Complex civilizations arose where cereal agriculture created a surplus, allowing for part of the harvest to be appropriated from farmers, allowing power to be concentrated in cities.

Modern

During the second half of the 20th century, there was a significant increase in the production of high-yield cereal crops worldwide, especially wheat and rice, due to the Green Revolution, a technological change funded by development organizations. The strategies developed by the Green Revolution, including mechanized tilling, monoculture, nitrogen fertilizers, and breeding of new strains of seeds. These innovations focused on fending off starvation and increasing yield-per-plant, and were very successful in raising overall yields of cereal grains, but paid less attention to nutritional quality. These modern high-yield cereal crops tend to have low-quality proteins, with essential amino acid deficiencies, are high in carbohydrates, and lack balanced essential fatty acids, vitamins, minerals and other quality factors. So-called ancient grains and heirloom varieties have seen an increase in popularity with the "organic" movements of the early 21st century, but there is a tradeoff in yield-per-plant, putting pressure on resource-poor areas as food crops are replaced with cash crops.

Biology

Cereals are grasses, in the Poaceae family, that produce edible grains. A cereal grain is botanically a caryopsis, a fruit where the seed coat is fused with the pericarp. Grasses have stems that are hollow except at the nodes and narrow alternate leaves borne in two ranks. The lower part of each leaf encloses the stem, forming a leaf-sheath. The leaf grows from the base of the blade, an adaptation that protects the growing meristem from grazing animals. The flowers are usually hermaphroditic, with the exception of maize, and mainly anemophilous or wind-pollinated, although insects occasionally play a role.

Among the best-known cereals are maize, rice, wheat, barley, sorghum, millet, oat, rye and triticale. Some other grains are colloquially called cereals, even though they are not grasses; these pseudocereals include buckwheat, quinoa, and amaranth.

Cultivation

All cereal crops are cultivated in a similar way. Most are annual, so after sowing they are harvested just once. An exception is rice, which although usually treated as an annual can survive as a perennial, producing a ratoon crop. Cereals adapted to a temperate climate, such as barley, oats, rye, spelt, triticale, and wheat, are called cool-season cereals. Those preferring a tropical climate, such as millet and sorghum, are called warm-season cereals. Cool-season cereals, especially rye, followed by barley, are hardy; they grow best in fairly cool weather, and stop growing, depending on variety, when the temperature goes above around 30 °C or 85 °F. Warm-season cereals, in contrast, require hot weather and cannot tolerate frost. Cool-season cereals can be grown in highlands in the tropics, where they sometimes deliver several crops in a single year.

Planting

In the tropics, warm-season cereals can be grown at any time of the year. In temperate zones, these cereals can only be grown when there is no frost. Most cereals are planted in tilled soils, which reduces weeds and breaks up the surface of a field. Most cereals need regular water in the early part of their life cycle. Rice is commonly grown in flooded fields, though some strains are grown on dry land. Other warm climate cereals, such as sorghum, are adapted to arid conditions.

Cool-season cereals are grown mainly in temperate zones. These cereals often have both winter varieties for autumn sowing, winter dormancy, and early summer harvesting, and spring varieties planted in spring and harvested in late summer. Winter varieties have the advantage of using water when it is plentiful, and permitting a second crop after the early harvest. They flower only in spring as they require vernalization, exposure to cold for a specific period, fixed genetically. Spring crops grow when it is warmer but less rainy, so they may need irrigation.

Growth

Cereal strains are bred for consistency and resilience to the local environmental conditions. The greatest constraints on yield are plant diseases, especially rusts (mostly the Puccinia spp.) and powdery mildews. Fusarium head blight, caused by Fusarium graminearum, is a significant limitation on a wide variety of cereals. Other pressures include pest insects and wildlife like rodents and deer. In conventional agriculture, some farmers will apply fungicides or pesticides

Harvesting

Annual cereals die when they have come to seed, and dry up. Harvesting begins once the plants and seeds are dry enough. Harvesting in mechanized agricultural systems is by combine harvester, a machine which drives across the field in a single pass in which it cuts the stalks and then threshes and winnows the grain. In traditional agricultural systems, mostly in the Global South, harvesting may be by hand, using tools such as scythes and grain cradles. Leftover parts of the plant can be allowed to decompose, or collected as straw; this can be used for animal bedding, mulch, and a growing medium for mushrooms. It is used in crafts such as building with cob or straw-bale construction.

• A small-scale rice combine harvester in Japan

Preprocessing and storage

If cereals are not completely dry when harvested, such as when the weather is rainy, the stored grain will be spoilt by mould fungi such as Aspergillus and Penicillium. This can be prevented by drying it artificially. It may then be stored in a grain elevator or silo, to be sold later. Grain stores need to be constructed to protect the grain from damage by pests such as seed-eating birds and rodents.

• Peeling maize in Zambia
• Grain elevators on a farm in Israel

Processing

When the cereal is ready to be distributed, it is sold to a manufacturing facility that first removes the outer layers of the grain for subsequent milling for flour or other processing steps, to produce foods such as flour, oatmeal, or pearl barley. In developing countries, processing may be traditional, in artisanal workshops, as with tortilla production in Central America.

Most cereals can be processed in a variety of ways. Rice processing, for instance, can create whole-grain or polished rice, or rice flour. Removal of the germ increases the longevity of grain in storage. Some grains can be malted, a process of activating enzymes in the seed to cause sprouting that turns the complex starches into sugars before drying. These sugars can be extracted for industrial uses and further processing, such as for making industrial alcohol, beer, whisky, or rice wine, or sold directly as a sugar. In the 20th century, industrial processes developed around chemically altering the grain, to be used for other processes. In particular, maize can be altered to produce food additives, such as corn starch and high-fructose corn syrup.

Effects on the environment

Impacts

Cereal production has a substantial impact on the environment. Tillage can lead to soil erosion and increased runoff. Irrigation consumes large quantities of water; its extraction from lakes, rivers, or aquifers may have multiple environmental effects, such as lowering the water table and cause salination of aquifers. Fertilizer production contributes to global warming, and its use can lead to pollution and eutrophication of waterways. Arable farming uses large amounts of fossil fuel, releasing greenhouse gases which contribute to global warming. Pesticide usage can cause harm to wildlife, such as to bees.

Mitigations

Some of the impacts of growing cereals can be mitigated by changing production practices. Tillage can be reduced by no-till farming, such as by direct drilling of cereal seeds, or by developing and planting perennial crop varieties so that annual tilling is not required. Rice can be grown as a ratoon crop; and other researchers are exploring perennial cool-season cereals, such as kernza, being developed in the US.

Fertilizer and pesticide usage may be reduced in some polycultures, growing several crops in a single field at the same time. Fossil fuel-based nitrogen fertilizer usage can be reduced by intercropping cereals with legumes which fix nitrogen. Greenhouse gas emissions may be cut further by more efficient irrigation or by water harvesting methods like contour trenching that reduce the need for irrigation, and by breeding new crop varieties.

Uses

Direct consumption

Some cereals such as rice require little preparation before human consumption. For example, to make plain cooked rice, raw milled rice is washed and boiled. Foods such as porridge and muesli may be made largely of whole cereals, especially oats, whereas commercial breakfast cereals such as granola may be highly processed and combined with sugars, oils, and other products.

Flour-based foods

Cereals can be ground to make flour. Wheat flour is the main ingredient of bread and pasta. Maize flour has been important in Mesoamerica since ancient times, with foods such as Mexican tortillas and tamales. Rye flour is a constituent of bread in central and northern Europe, while rice flour is common in Asia.

A cereal grain consists of starchy endosperm, germ, and bran. Wholemeal flour contains all of these; white flour is without some or all of the germ or bran.

Alcohol

Because cereals have a high starch content, they are often used to make industrial alcohol and alcoholic drinks by fermentation. For instance, beer is produced by brewing and fermenting starch, mainly from cereal grains—most commonly malted barley. Rice wines such as Japanese sake are brewed in Asia; a fermented rice and honey wine was made in China some 9,000 years ago.

Animal feed

Cereals and their related byproducts such as hay are routinely fed to farm animals. Common cereals as animal food include maize, barley, wheat, and oats. Moist grains may be treated chemically or made into silage; mechanically flattened or crimped, and kept in airtight storage until used; or stored dry with a moisture content of less than 14%. Commercially, grains are often combined with other materials and formed into feed pellets.

Nutrition

Whole-grain and processed

As whole grains, cereals provide carbohydrates, polyunsaturated fats, protein, vitamins, and minerals. When processed by the removal of the bran and germ, all that remains is the starchy endosperm. In some developing countries, cereals constitute a majority of daily sustenance. In developed countries, cereal consumption is moderate and varied but still substantial, primarily in the form of refined and processed grains.

Amino acid balance

Some cereals are deficient in the essential amino acid lysine, obliging vegetarian cultures to combine their diet of cereal grains with legumes to obtain a balanced diet. Many legumes, however, are deficient in the essential amino acid methionine, which grains contain. Thus, a combination of legumes with grains forms a well-balanced diet for vegetarians. Such combinations include dal (lentils) with rice by South Indians and Bengalis, beans with maize tortillas, tofu with rice, and peanut butter with wholegrain wheat bread (as sandwiches) in several other cultures, including the Americas. For feeding animals, the amount of crude protein measured in grains is expressed as grain crude protein concentration.

Comparison of major cereals

Production and trade commodities

Cereals constitute the world's largest commodities by tonnage, whether measured by production or by international trade. Several major producers of cereals dominate the market. Because of the scale of the trade, some countries have become reliant on imports, thus cereals pricing or availability can have outsized impacts on countries with a food trade imbalance and thus food security. Speculation, as well as other compounding production and supply factors leading up to the 2007–2008 financial crises, created rapid inflation of grain prices during the 2007–2008 world food price crisis. Other disruptions, such as climate change or war related changes to supply or transportation can create further food insecurity; for example the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 disrupted Ukrainian and Russian wheat supplies causing a global food price crisis in 2022 that affected countries heavily dependent on wheat flour.

Production

Cereals are the world's largest crops by tonnage of grain produced. Three cereals, maize, wheat, and rice, together accounted for 89% of all cereal production worldwide in 2012, and 43% of the global supply of food energy in 2009, while the production of oats and rye has drastically fallen from their 1960s levels.

Other cereals not included in the U.N.'s Food and Agriculture Organization statistics include wild rice, which is grown in small amounts in North America, and teff, an ancient grain that is a staple in Ethiopia. Teff is grown in sub-Saharan Africa as a grass primarily for feeding horses. It is high in fiber and protein. Its flour is often used to make injera. It can be eaten as a warm breakfast cereal like farina with a chocolate or nutty flavor.

• Production of cereals worldwide, by country in 2021

The table shows the annual production of cereals in 1961, 1980, 2000, 2010, and 2019/2020.

Trade

Cereals are the most traded commodities by quantity in 2021, with wheat, maize, and rice the main cereals involved. The Americas and Europe are the largest exporters, and Asia is the largest importer. The largest exporter of maize is the US, while India is the largest exporter of rice. China is the largest importer of maize and of rice. Many other countries trade cereals, both as exporters and as importers. Cereals are traded as futures on world commodity markets, helping to mitigate the risks of changes in price for example, if harvests fail.

• Main traded cereals, top import, export in 2021

See also

• Food price crisis
• Food quality
• Food safety
• Lists of foods
• Post-harvest losses
• Pulse

Notes

1. 1961 is the earliest year for which FAO statistics are available.
2. The weight given is for paddy rice

References

1. Renfrew, Colin; Bahn, Paul (2012). Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice (6th ed.). Thames & Hudson. p. 277. ISBN 978-0-500-28976-1.
2. "The Development of Agriculture". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 22 April 2013.
3. Hancock, James F. (2012). Plant evolution and the origin of crop species (3rd ed.). CABI. p. 119. ISBN 978-1-84593-801-7. Archived from the original on 4 May 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
4. UN Industrial Development Organization, International Fertilizer Development Center (1998). The Fertilizer Manual (3rd ed.). Springer Science and Business Media LLC. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-7923-5032-3. Archived from the original on 4 May 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
5. Purugganan, Michael D.; Fuller, Dorian Q. (1 February 2009). "The nature of selection during plant domestication" (PDF). Nature. 457 (7231): 843–848. Bibcode:2009Natur.457..843P. doi:10.1038/nature07895. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 19212403. S2CID 205216444.
6. Henry, R.J.; Kettlewell, P.S. (1996). Cereal Grain Quality. Chapman & Hall. p. 155. ISBN 978-9-4009-1513-8.
7. Matsuoka, Y.; Vigouroux, Y.; Goodman, M. M.; et al. (2002). "A single domestication for maize shown by multilocus microsatellite genotyping". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 99 (9): 6080–4. Bibcode:2002PNAS...99.6080M. doi:10.1073/pnas.052125199. PMC 122905. PMID 11983901.
8. Standage, Tom (2009). An Edible History of Humanity. New York: Walker & Company. pp. 27–28. ISBN 978-1782391654. (pdf)
9. Room, Adrian (1990). Who's Who in Classical Mythology. NTC Publishing. pp. 89–90. ISBN 0-8442-5469-X.
10. "cereal (n.)". Etymonline. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
11. "JHOM - Bread - Hebrew". www.jhom.com. Archived from the original on 26 October 2021. Retrieved 27 August 2022.
12. Mayshar, Joram; Moav, Omer; Pascali, Luigi (2022). "The Origin of the State: Land Productivity or Appropriability?". Journal of Political Economy. 130 (4): 1091–1144. doi:10.1086/718372. hdl:10230/57736. S2CID 244818703. Archived from the original on 17 April 2022. Retrieved 17 April 2022.
13. Kumar, Manoj; Williams, Matthias (29 January 2009). "Punjab, bread basket of India, hungers for change". Reuters.
14. The Government of Punjab (2004). Human Development Report 2004, Punjab (PDF) (Report). Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 July 2011. Retrieved 9 August 2011. Section: "The Green Revolution", pp. 17–20.
15. "Lessons from the green revolution: towards a new green revolution". Food and Agriculture Organization. Archived from the original on 18 May 2017. Retrieved 5 June 2017. The green revolution was a technology package comprising material components of improved high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of two staple cereals (rice or "wheat"), irrigation or controlled "water" supply and improved moisture utilization, fertilizers and pesticides and associated management skills.
16. ^ Sands, David C.; Morris, Cindy E.; Dratz, Edward A.; Pilgeram, Alice L. (2009). "Elevating optimal human nutrition to a central goal of plant breeding and production of plant-based foods". Plant Science. 177 (5): 377–389. Bibcode:2009PlnSc.177..377S. doi:10.1016/j.plantsci.2009.07.011. PMC 2866137. PMID 20467463.
17. "Did Quinoa Get Too Popular for Its Own Good?". HowStuffWorks. 5 November 2018. Archived from the original on 21 April 2021. Retrieved 25 August 2019.
18. Juliano, Bienvenido O.; Tuaño, Arvin Paul P. (2019). "Gross structure and composition of the rice grain". Rice. Elsevier. pp. 31–53. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-811508-4.00002-2. ISBN 978-0-12-811508-4.
19. Rosentrater & Evers 2018, p. 5.
20. ^ Clayton, W.D.; Renvoise, S.A. (1986). Genera Graminum: Grasses of the world. London: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. ISBN 978-1900347754.
21. Cope, T.; Gray, A. (2009). Grasses of the British Isles. London: Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland. ISBN 978-0901158420.
22. "Insect Pollination of Grasses". Australian Journal of Entomology. 3: 74. 1964. doi:10.1111/j.1440-6055.1964.tb00625.x.
23. Rosentrater & Evers 2018, pp. 2–3.
24. Rosentrater & Evers 2018, pp. 68–69.
25. ^ Barr, Skylar; Sutton, Mason (2019). Technology of Cereals, Pulses and Oilseeds. Edtech. p. 54. ISBN 9781839472619. Archived from the original on 30 August 2022. Retrieved 30 August 2022.
26. ^ "The Rice Plant and How it Grows". International Rice Research Institute. Archived from the original on 6 January 2009.
27. Rosentrater & Evers 2018, pp. 3–4.
28. "Best Crops for Grazing". Successful Farming. 22 February 2018. Archived from the original on 26 November 2020. Retrieved 18 June 2020.
29. "Water Management". International Rice Research Institute. Retrieved 4 November 2023.
30. Gupta, Phool Chand; O'Toole, J. C. O'Toole (1986). Upland Rice: A Global Perspective. International Rice Research Institute. ISBN 978-971-10-4172-4.
31. Danovich, Tove (15 December 2015). "Move over, quinoa: sorghum is the new 'wonder grain'". The Guardian. Retrieved 31 July 2018.
32. "14th International Cereal Rusts and Powdery Mildews Conference". Aarhus University. 2015. pp. 1–163.
33. Goswami, R.; Kistler, H. (2004). "Heading for disaster: Fusarium graminearum on cereal crops". Molecular Plant Pathology. 5 (6). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: 515–525. doi:10.1111/j.1364-3703.2004.00252.x. ISSN 1464-6722. PMID 20565626. S2CID 11548015.
34. Singleton, Grant R; Lorica, Renee P; Htwe, Nyo Me; Stuart, Alexander M (1 October 2021). "Rodent management and cereal production in Asia: Balancing food security and conservation". Pest Management Science. 77 (10): 4249–4261. doi:10.1002/ps.6462. PMID 33949075.
35. "Deer (Overview) Interaction with Humans - Damage to Agriculture | Wildlife Online". www.wildlifeonline.me.uk. Retrieved 8 February 2024.
36. Constable, George; Somerville, Bob (2003). A Century of Innovation: Twenty Engineering Achievements That Transformed Our Lives, Chapter 7, Agricultural Mechanization. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press. ISBN 0-309-08908-5. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 30 August 2022.
37. "Cereal Straw". University of Kentucky. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2024.
38. Walker, Pete; Thomson, A.; Maskell, D. (2020). "Straw bale construction". Nonconventional and Vernacular Construction Materials. Elsevier. pp. 189–216. doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-102704-2.00009-3. ISBN 978-0-08-102704-2.
39. Erkmen, Osman; Bozoglu, T. Faruk, eds. (2016). "Spoilage of Cereals and Cereal Products". Food Microbiology: Principles into Practice. Wiley. pp. 364–375. doi:10.1002/9781119237860.ch21. ISBN 978-1-119-23776-1.
40. Papageorgiou, Maria; Skendi, Adriana (2018). "1 Introduction to cereal processing and by-products". In Galanakis, Charis M. (ed.). Sustainable Recovery and Reutilization of Cereal Processing By-Products. Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition. Woodhead Publishing. pp. 1–25. ISBN 978-0-08-102162-0. Retrieved 9 February 2024.
41. Astier, Marta; Odenthal, Georg; Patricio, Carmen; Orozco-Ramírez, Quetzalcoatl (2 January 2019). "Handmade tortilla production in the basins of lakes Pátzcuaro and Zirahuén, Mexico". Journal of Maps. 15 (1). Informa UK: 52–57. Bibcode:2019JMaps..15...52A. doi:10.1080/17445647.2019.1576553. ISSN 1744-5647.
42. "Varieties". Rice Association. 2 August 2018. Archived from the original on 2 August 2018. Retrieved 9 February 2024.
43. "The Malting Process". Brewing With Briess. Retrieved 9 February 2024.
44. "Malting - an overview". Science Direct. Retrieved 9 February 2024.
45. ^ Jacobs, Paul Burke (1938). Information on Industrial Alcohol. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. pp. 3–4. Archived from the original on 30 August 2022. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
46. ^ Barth, Roger (2013). "1. Overview". The Chemistry of Beer: The Science in the Suds. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-118-67497-0.
47. "Standards of Identity for Distilled Spirits, Title 27 Code of Federal Regulations, Pt. 5.22" (PDF). Retrieved 17 October 2008. Bourbon whiskey ... Corn whiskey ... Malt whiskey ... Rye whiskey ... Wheat whiskey
48. ^ Borrell, Brendan (20 August 2009). "The Origin of Wine". Scientific American.
49. Briggs, D. E. (1978). "Some uses of barley malt". Barley. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 560–586. doi:10.1007/978-94-009-5715-2_16. ISBN 978-94-009-5717-6. products include malt extracts (powders and syrups), diastase, beer, whisky, ... and malt vinegar.
50. "International Starch: Production of corn starch". Starch.dk. Archived from the original on 15 May 2011. Retrieved 12 June 2011.
51. "Glucose-fructose syrup: How is it produced?". European Food Information Council (EUFIC). Archived from the original on 17 May 2017. Retrieved 9 February 2024.
52. Takken, Ingrid; Govers, Gerard; Jetten, Victor; Nachtergaele, Jeroen; Steegen, An; Poesen, Jean (2001). "Effects of tillage on runoff and erosion patterns". Soil and Tillage Research. 61 (1–2). Elsevier: 55–60. Bibcode:2001STilR..61...55T. doi:10.1016/s0167-1987(01)00178-7. ISSN 0167-1987.
53. Sundquist, Bruce (2007). "1 Irrigation overview". The Earth's Carrying Capacity: some literature reviews. Archived from the original on 17 February 2012. Retrieved 8 February 2024.
54. Mbow, C.; Rosenzweig, C.; Barioni, L. G.; Benton, T.; et al. (2019). "Chapter 5: Food Security" (PDF). Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems. p. 454.
55. Werner, Wilfried (2009). "6. Environmental Aspects". Fertilizers. Wiley. doi:10.1002/14356007.n10_n05. ISBN 978-3-527-30385-4.
56. Nabuurs, G-J.; Mrabet, R.; Abu Hatab, A.; Bustamante, M.; et al. "7: Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Uses" (PDF). Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. p. 750. doi:10.1017/9781009157926.009.
57. "Neonicotinoids: risks to bees confirmed". European Food Safety Authority. 28 February 2018. Retrieved 23 June 2023.
58. Kaplan, Sarah. "A recipe for fighting climate change and feeding the world". The Washington Post. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
59. Glover, Jerry D.; Cox, Cindy M.; Reganold, John P. (2007). "Future Farming: A Return to Roots?" (PDF). Scientific American. 297 (2): 82–89. Bibcode:2007SciAm.297b..82G. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0807-82. PMID 17894176.
60. Jensen, Erik Steen; Carlsson, Georg; Hauggaard-Nielsen, Henrik (2020). "Intercropping of grain legumes and cereals improves the use of soil N resources and reduces the requirement for synthetic fertilizer N: A global-scale analysis". Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 40 (1). Springer Science and Business Media. doi:10.1007/s13593-020-0607-x. ISSN 1774-0746.
61. Vermeulen, S.J.; Dinesh, D. (2016). "Measures for climate change adaptation in agriculture. Opportunities for climate action in agricultural systems. CCAFS Info Note". Copenhagen, Denmark: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security.
62. "How to cook perfect rice". BBC Food. Archived from the original on 27 August 2022. Retrieved 27 August 2022.
63. Davidson 2014, pp. 642–643 Porridge.
64. Bilow, Rochelle (17 September 2015). "What's the difference between muesli and granola? A very important primer". Bon Appétit. Condé Nast. Retrieved 6 June 2022.
65. Vaclavik, Vickie A.; Christian, Elizabeth W. (2008). "Grains: Cereal, Flour, Rice, and Pasta". Essentials of Food Science. New York: Springer New York. pp. 81–105. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-69940-0_6. ISBN 978-0-387-69939-4.
66. "The history of flour - The FlourWorld Museum Wittenburg – Flour Sacks of the World". flour-art-museum.de. Archived from the original on 27 February 2021. Retrieved 30 August 2022.
67. Peña, R. J. "Wheat for bread and other foods". Food and Agriculture Organization. Archived from the original on 27 January 2019. Retrieved 30 August 2022. Wheat, in the form of bread, provides more nutrients to the world population than any other single food source.
68. Davidson 2014, pp. 516–517 Mexico.
69. "Medieval Daily Bread Made of Rye". Medieval Histories. 15 January 2017. Retrieved 8 February 2024. Sources: Råg. Article in Kulturhistorisk leksikon for Nordisk Middelalder. Rosenkilde and Bagger 1982.
70. Davidson 2014, p. 682 Rice.
71. ^ "Cereals and wholegrain foods". Better Health Channel. 6 December 2023. Retrieved 8 February 2024. in consultation with and approved by Victoria State Government Depertment of Health; Deakin University
72. Davidson 2014, pp. 315–316 Flour.
73. Davidson 2014, p. 701.
74. "Cereals in poultry diets – Small and backyard poultry". poultry.extension.org. Retrieved 10 February 2024.
75. "Feeding cereal grains to livestock: moist vs dry grain". Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
76. Thomas, M.; van Vliet, T.; van der Poel, A.F.B. (1998). "Physical quality of pelleted animal feed 3. Contribution of feedstuff components". Animal Feed Science and Technology. 70 (1–2): 59–78. doi:10.1016/S0377-8401(97)00072-2.
77. "Storing Whole Grains". Whole Grains Council. Retrieved 10 February 2024.
78. Mundell, E.J. (9 July 2019). "More Americans Are Eating Whole Grains, But Intake Still Too Low". HealthDay. Archived from the original on 2 November 2021. Retrieved 31 May 2021.
79. Prime Mover: A Natural History of Muscle. W.W. Norton & Company. 17 August 2003. p. 301. ISBN 9780393247312..
80. Edwards, J.S.; Bartley, E.E.; Dayton, A.D. (1980). "Effects of Dietary Protein Concentration on Lactating Cows". Journal of Dairy Science. 63 (2): 243. doi:10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(80)82920-1.
81. "FoodData Central". US Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 8 February 2024.
82. ^ "IDRC - International Development Research Centre". International Development Research Centre. Archived from the original on 9 June 2016.
83. ^ World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023. Food and Agriculture Organization. 2023. doi:10.4060/cc8166en. ISBN 978-92-5-138262-2. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
84. OECD; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (6 July 2023). "3. Cereals". OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2023-2032. OECD. doi:10.1787/19991142. ISBN 978-92-64-61933-3.
85. "World Food Situation". FAO. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 24 April 2011.
86. Pei, Qing; Zhang, David Dian; Xu, Jingjing (August 2014). "Price Responses of Grain Market under Climate Change in Pre-industrial Western Europe by ARX Modelling". Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Simulation and Modeling Methodologies, Technologies and Applications. 2014 4th International Conference on Simulation and Modeling Methodologies, Technologies and Applications (SIMULTECH). pp. 811–817. doi:10.5220/0005025208110817. ISBN 978-989-758-038-3. S2CID 8045747.
87. "Climate Change is Likely to Devastate the Global Food Supply". Time. Retrieved 2 April 2022.
88. "CLIMATE CHANGE LINKED TO GLOBAL RISE IN FOOD PRICES – Climate Change". Archived from the original on 18 October 2022. Retrieved 2 April 2022.
89. Lustgarten, Abrahm (16 December 2020). "How Russia Wins the Climate Crisis". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2 April 2022.
90. "ProdSTAT". FAOSTAT. Archived from the original on 10 February 2012. Retrieved 9 July 2020.
91. ^ Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max (17 October 2013). "Crop Yields". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 27 July 2017. Retrieved 30 August 2022.
92. ^ Wrigley, Colin W.; Corke, Harold; Seetharaman, Koushik; Faubion, Jonathan, eds. (2016). Encyclopedia of food grains (2nd ed.). Kidlington, Oxford, England: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-394786-4. OCLC 939553708. Archived from the original on 30 August 2022. Retrieved 30 August 2022.
93. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. "FAOSTAT". FAOSTAT (Food and Agriculture Organization Statistics Division). Archived from the original on 6 January 2022. Retrieved 30 August 2022.
94. "Types of Oats". Whole Grains Council. Archived from the original on 29 June 2015. Retrieved 25 June 2015.
95. Atkin, Michael (2024). "6. Grains". Agricultural Commodity Markets: A Guide to Futures Trading. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781003845379.

Sources

•  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023​, FAO, FAO.
• Davidson, Alan (2014). "Mexico". The Oxford Companion to Food (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-967733-7.
• Rosentrater, Kurt August; Evers, Anthony D. (2018). Kent's Technology of Cereals: An Introduction for Students of Food Science and Agriculture (5th ed.). Duxford, England. ISBN 978-0-08-100532-3. OCLC 1004672994.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

• Cereals
• Crops