Malaysian Chinese - Misplaced Pages

(Redirected from Chinese in Malaysia) Malaysian citizens of Han Chinese ancestry This article is about people of Chinese ethnicity or nationality in Malaysia. For the variety of Mandarin Chinese spoken in Malaysia, see Malaysian Mandarin. For Malaysians in China, see Malaysian diaspora.

Ethnic group

Malaysian Chinese people
马来西亚华人 / 馬來西亞華人 Orang Cina Malaysia மலேசிய சீனர்
Ethnic Chinese in traditional samfu attire with umbrella, c. 1945.
Total population
6,712,200 22.4% of the Malaysian population (2024)
Regions with significant populations
Malaysia Penang, Kedah, Perlis, Kuala Lumpur, Perak, Selangor, Johor, and Sarawak Significant diaspora in: Australia Christmas Island Singapore (338,500 in 2010) New Zealand United States Canada United Kingdom Taiwan Hong Kong Mainland China
Languages
Mandarin (lingua franca), Malay and English as medium of communication in schools and government Mothertongue languages: Hokkien, Cantonese, Hakka, Teochew, Fuzhou, Hainanese, Taishanese and Henghua; Manglish (creole)
Religion
Predominantly Mahāyāna Buddhism and Taoism (Chinese folk religion) • Minority Islam • Hinduism • Christianity • Non-religious • Other religions
Related ethnic groups
Bruneian Chinese · Singaporean Chinese · Indonesian Chinese · Chinese Filipinos · Thai Chinese · Peranakans · Sino-Natives · Overseas Chinese

Malaysian Chinese

Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin	Mǎ lái xī yà Huá rén
Wade–Giles	Ma3lai2xi1ya4 Hua2ren2
Tongyong Pinyin	Ma3lai2xi1ya4 Hua2ren2
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization	Máh lòi hsā ia Wàh yàhn
Jyutping	Maa5 loi4 sai1 aa3 Waa4 jan4
Southern Min
Hokkien POJ	Má-lâi-se-a Hôa-jîn

Alternative Chinese name

Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin	mǎ lái xī yà huá yì
Wade–Giles	Ma3lai2xi1ya4 Hua2yi4
Tongyong Pinyin	Ma3lai2xi1ya4 Hua2yi4
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization	Ma3lai2xi1ya4 Hua2yi4

Malaysian Chinese, Chinese Malaysians, or Sino-Malaysians are Malaysian citizens of Han Chinese ethnicity. They form the second-largest ethnic group in Malaysia, after the Malay majority, and constitute 22.4% of the Malaysian total population. Today, Malaysian Chinese form the second largest community of Overseas Chinese in the world, after the Thai Chinese. Malaysian Chinese maintain a significant and substantial presence in the business sector of the Malaysian economy.

Most Malaysian Chinese are descendants of Southern Chinese immigrants who arrived in Malaysia between the early 19th and the mid-20th centuries before the country attained independence from British colonial rule. The majority originate from the provinces of Fujian and Lingnan (including the three modern provinces of Guangdong, Hainan and Guangxi). They belong to diverse ethnic Han subgroups such as the Hokkien and Fuzhou from Fujian, the Teochew, Cantonese, and Hakka from Guangdong, the Hainanese from Hainan and Kwongsai from Guangxi. Most Malaysian Chinese have maintained their Han Chinese heritage, identity, culture and language.

Another group of Chinese migrants who arrived between the 13th and the 17th centuries heavily assimilated aspects of the indigenous Malay cultures and formed a distinct group known as the Peranakan in Kelantan and Terengganu, the Baba-Nyonya in Malacca and Penang, and as the Sino-Natives in Sabah. They exhibit a degree of intermarriage with native groups and are culturally distinct from the majority of the Malaysian Chinese but have recently begun to merge into the Malaysian Chinese mainstream.

The Malaysian Chinese are referred to as simply "Chinese" in Malaysian English, "Orang Cina" in Malay, "Sina" or "Kina" among indigenous groups in Borneo, "Cīṉar" (சீனர்) in Tamil, and "Huaren" (華人/华人, Chinese people) or "Huayi" (華裔/华裔, ethnic Chinese) in Mandarin.

History

Early history

China and other early kingdoms in the Malay Archipelago, such as the northern area of the Malay Peninsula and Po-Ni in western Borneo, have long been connected. The first recorded movement of people from China into present-day Malaysia was the 1292 arrival of Mongol expeditionary forces under Kublai Khan in Borneo in 1292 in preparation for their invasion of Java the following year. Many of Khan's Chinese followers settled on the island with Chinese traders after the campaign, establishing an enclave along the Kinabatangan River. Their arrival was welcomed by the indigenous people, who benefited from the jars, beads, silk, and pottery brought to the island by the Chinese.

Chinese explorer and sailor Zheng He commanded several expeditions to south-east Asia between 1405 and 1430; during his third voyage, Zheng also visited Malacca. His companion and translator, Ma Huan, described Malacca in his Yingya Shenglan. Formerly part of Thailand, Malacca was founded after convoys from the Ming Dynasty developed a city and the area's chief was crowned king. During his fourth imperial-fleet visit, Ma wrote that the local king had just converted to Islam and dressed like an Arab. The last edition of Mingshi, one of the official Chinese Twenty-Four Histories, mentioned a pre-established Chinese settlement in the area. Mentions in other records exist, especially after trade contacts were established with the Nanyang region. According to Hai Yü (Words about the Sea), written by Huang Zhong and published in 1537, the lifestyle of the Chinese community in Malacca differed from that of the local Malays.

This close relationship was maintained during the Islamisation of the Malacca and Brunei kingdoms, whose thalassocracy once covered much of present-day Malaysia. Both the Muslim sultanates pledged protection to the Chinese dynasties from further conquest by the neighbouring Javanese Majapahit or the Siamese Ayutthaya. This relationship resulted in interethnic marriage between the sultanate's royal family and the Chinese envoy and representatives. Zheng He's arrival encouraged the spread of Islam in the Malay Archipelago and aided the growth of the Chinese Muslim population from the Eastern Chinese coastal towns of Fujian and Canton, with many of their traders arriving in the coastal towns of present-day Malaysia and Indonesia by the early 15th century. In addition to the early settlements in Kinabatangan and Malacca, two more old Chinese settlements are located in Terengganu and the Penang Island as part of trade networks with their respective areas.

Colonial era (1500–1900)

Although many Chinese traders avoided Portuguese Malacca after its 1511 conquest, the flow of emigrants from China continued. The Zhengde Emperor retaliated against the Portuguese for their activities in Malacca during the Ming dynasty after the arrival of their fleet in Canton. The Chinese emperor was reluctant to help the deposed Malaccan ruler reclaim his position, however, since the dynasty's foreign policy was changing to maintain friendly relations with the Portuguese.

His successor, the Jiajing Emperor, changed the attitude of the Ming court by executing two government officials and reaffirming the importance of Malaccan issues in major policy decisions. Some Chinese, including those from Fujian (defying Ming-Dynasty regulation for the sake of trade), informed the Portuguese of the trade route between Guangdong and Siam. Since the local Malaccan Chinese were not treated favourably by the Portuguese, they and most overseas Chinese refused to cooperate with them. Through the Portuguese administration in Malacca, Chinese Muslims sided with other Islamic traders against the latter by providing ships and human capital. Negotiations were later held in Guangdong between Chinese officials and Portuguese envoys about Malaccan issues, with Malacca remaining under Portuguese control.

After the 1641 Dutch takeover of Malacca, many local Malaccan Chinese were hired to construct Dutch buildings. The Dutch found the Chinese industrious, and encouraged their participation in the colony's economic life; the Dutch also established a settlement in Perak in 1650 through an earlier treaty with Aceh and suggested that Alauddin, the 17th Sultan of Perak, allow the Chinese to develop tin mines. This facilitated Alauddin's plan to request more Chinese workers from Malacca, and the sultan promised to punish any official guilty of mistreating the Chinese.

With the sultan's consent, the Chinese played a leading role in the tin-mining industry. The Fourth Anglo-Dutch War in 1780 adversely affected the tin trade, however, and many Chinese miners left. Early Chinese settlements in Malacca and several areas along the archipelago's coasts notwithstanding, most mass Chinese migration to Malaysia occurred after the founding of British settlements in Malaya and Borneo during the early 19th century.

A 1786 British settlement in Penang and another in Singapore in 1819 triggered a mass emigration from China to the Malay Peninsula. After the establishment of British rule in Labuan in 1846, more ethnic Chinese (primarily Hakka, and many from Singapore) arrived in British Borneo. The migration continued through the first few years of the North Borneo Chartered Company. Chinese migration to Labuan and North Borneo was largely confined to the agricultural sector; migration to the Raj of Sarawak was largely restricted to the mining and agricultural sectors. Rajah Charles Brooke of Sarawak promoted the migration of Chinese and Dayak people to interior Sarawak to develop the region. This resulted in the establishment of an administrative center and bazaar by the 19th century, primarily in Sarawak's First, Second, and Third Divisions.

Rajah Charles invited Chinese black-pepper growers from Singapore to settle in Kuching in 1876, and they were later joined by local Chinese miners and others from neighbouring Dutch Borneo. With the introduction of pepper to the kingdom, pepper cultivation in Sarawak's First Division Kuching-Serian region was dominated by the Hakka; Fuzhou and Cantonese people dominated cultivation in the Third Division Sarikei-Binatang region, making Sarawak the world's second-largest pepper producer. After the British gained control of the four states of Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and Pahang, nearly two million Chinese immigrated to Perak and Selangor.

After the discovery of tin deposits in British Malaya, many Chinese immigrants worked in the tin-mining industry. As tin mines opened in Perak, many Chinese in neighbouring Penang became wealthy. Many Chinese tin-mining communities were established in the Malay Peninsula by the 1870s, particularly in Ipoh (Kinta Valley), Taiping, Seremban and Kuala Lumpur (Klang Valley). Each of the mining communities was governed by a Kapitan Cina, with duties and privileges similar to those in Johor's Kangchu system. Chinese migration sprang from poverty in rural China and employment opportunities in the British colonies or protectorates, and an estimated five million Chinese had immigrated by the 19th century. Despite economic prosperity after immigration, the new Chinese communities split into a number of secret societies. This exacerbated political unrest among the Malay aristocracy, which enlisted help from the secret societies. Contemporary local Malay politics was characterised as anarchy and civil war between people from similar backgrounds, prompting alliances between senior Malay political leaders and officials from China and Europe who were protecting their investments.

Divided nationalism and turbulence (1900–1945)

You can help shoulder the responsibility of saving our country by donating your money, while our comrades in our country are sacrificing their lives.

—Sun Yat-sen at the 1910 Penang conference in the Straits Settlements of Penang

Civil wars and other conflicts among the indigenous ethnic groups ended when the British gained control of Malaya and the northern island of Borneo by the 1900s. However, none of the Malay kingdoms fell under colonial rule. Their related entities were politically and economically stable. Economic prosperity was fueled by British capital and Chinese and Indian work forces who expanded and supplied tin and rubber production. Before the 1911 Xinhai Revolution which overthrew the Qing dynasty in China, Tongmenghui leader Sun Yat-sen raised funds and organisational support from overseas Chinese communities (primarily in French Indochina, the Dutch East Indies, the Philippines, Siam, British Singapore, Malaya and Borneo) and began Nanyang organising activities in Saigon, Hanoi, Pontianak, Manila, Bangkok, Singapore and George Town. Competition arose among three groups, with each group targeting overseas Chinese (particularly in Malaya and Singapore) for support. One group was a pro-Qing elite who targeted wealthy Chinese; the other two were reformists and revolutionaries who advocated constitutional reforms, the introduction of a parliamentary system, and the overthrow of Qing and Manchu influence on a modern Chinese nation.

After the revolution which established the Republic of China, branches of the Kuomintang emerged in British Malaya. Kuomintang activities in British Borneo were coordinated by the Democratic Party of North Borneo, consisting of Chinese-educated towkays. Patriotism among Chinese immigrant communities focused on China. British colonial authorities initially did not object to Kuomintang membership. A communist movement developed among overseas Chinese by 1925 with the establishment of the South Seas Communist Party in Singapore, followed by the Indochinese Communist Party, Communist Party of Malaya, Communist Party of Burma and Communist Party of Siam; the movement also maintained relations with the earlier, Southeast Asian Communist Party of Indonesia. The Communist Party of Malaya followed the general communist policy of opposing Western democracies before World War II, increasing propaganda against the Malayan government and the colonial government of Singapore in 1940.

At the beginning of the Sino-Japanese conflict and the Japanese occupation of Malaya and British Borneo, Kuomintang activities were ended. When the Chinese Communist Party (under Mao Zedong) reached an agreement with the Kuomintang government (under Chiang Kai-shek) to put aside their differences and rally against Japanese aggression in July 1940, pro-independence sentiment led to bans on the Kuomintang and other Chinese organizations in Malaya. Since the conflict with Japan also involved the British, Chiang Kai-shek urged Kuomintang members to fight alongside them; in return, British colonial authorities lifted their ban of Chinese associations (including the Kuomintang and the Chinese communist movement). This, and British recognition of the Communist Party of Malaya, resulted in the formation of the guerrilla Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA) in 1941. The MPAJA (primarily consisting of ethnic Chinese in Malaya) waged a guerrilla war against the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) with 10,000 men in eight battalions, and contacted the British Force 136. Local Kuomintang revolts, such as the Jesselton uprising in British Borneo, were suppressed by the Kenpeitai.

Much Chinese underground anti-Japanese activity in North Borneo was part of the Nanyang Chinese National Salvation Movement, led by Tan Kah Kee; in Sarawak, activities were coordinated by the Sarawak Anti-Fascist League. The MPAJA was disbanded after the 1945 Allied victory in the Pacific, and many of its leaders were commended by the British. It began to massacre perceived collaborators (primarily Malay) after it was disbanded, however, sparking a Malay backlash. The MPAJA also targeted British posts, with several grenade attacks on British troops. In North Borneo, the Chinese co-operated with the British and pledged loyalty to King George VI when the Crown Colony of North Borneo was formed after the war.

Postwar unrest and social integration (1946–1962)

The answer lies not in pouring more troops into the jungle, but in the hearts and minds of the people.

—Gerald Templer after his appointment as British High Commissioner for Malaya to deal with the 1952 Malayan Emergency

With the MPAJA renamed as the Malayan National Liberation Army (MNLA), communist insurgents used guerrilla tactics in the jungles, sabotaged transportation networks and attacked British plantations (assassinating several European plantation owners). British intelligence estimated MNLA support at about 500,000, out of a total Chinese population of 3.12 million; battling the insurgents was difficult, since most hid in inaccessible jungles. With the 18 June 1948 declaration of the Malayan Emergency, the early government response was chaotic; its primary aim was to guard important economic targets. Most Malayan Chinese opposed the MNLA.

The 1950 Briggs Plan, devised by British general Harold Briggs, intended to isolate the Chinese population from the insurgents. Independence was promised, and supported by the Malays; the Chinese population feared being treated as second-class citizens in an independent Malaya. In addition to new villages, the plan included labour reorganisation, the deployment of troops throughout Malaya, and cooperation between the police, the army, and intelligence. Under the resettlement scheme, more than 700,000 rural Chinese communities were relocated in 582 new government settlements. After British high commissioner Henry Gurney died in a 1951 ambush, Gerald Templer are appointed as the new high commissioner for Malaya by Winston Churchill the following year; Templer preferred winning hearts and minds to military measures against the insurgents. As part of his campaign, Templer incentivised rebel surrender and used strict curfews and tight control of food supplies in involved areas to flush them out. Crops grown by insurgents were sprayed with herbicides and defoliants, and restrictions were lifted in areas free of insurgents by elevating them to "white status". In the Batang Kali massacre, 24 unarmed Malaysian civilians suspected of providing aid to the MNLA were shot by a Scots Guard division in late 1948.

According to Chin Peng, the success of Templer's campaign was primarily due to the Briggs Plan's resettlement programme; Gurney also introduced a quasi-ministerial system, with a bill to increase the number of non-Malays eligible for citizenship after independence. After the 1949 Chinese Communist Revolution, foreign missionaries in China were forced to leave; Templer invited them to Malaya to provide spiritual healing, medical education and welfare measures to residents of the new government villages. By September 1952, every person born in Malaya (includes 1.2 million Chinese) was granted full citizenship.

When the Federation of Malaya gained independence from the British in 1957, there was still an insurgency. Chinese communists who surrendered were given a choice of repatriation to China or declaring loyalty to the elected government of Malaya and renouncing communist ideology. The anti-communist campaign continued until 1960, when the Malayan government declared the end of its state of emergency after Chin Peng demobilized his forces and left his hide-out in southern Thailand for Beijing via North Vietnam. At a meeting of Chin and Deng Xiaoping in Beijing, China urged the Communist Party of Malaya to continue their armed struggle. The establishment of a communist government in mainland China affected Chinese youth in Sarawak, who organized the pro-Beijing Sarawak Overseas Chinese Democratic Youth League (later the Sarawak Advanced Youth Association, which sparked the 1960 communist insurgency in Sarawak. Malaysia's economy continued to prosper, dependent on tin and rubber industries dominated by a Chinese and Indian workforce.

Struggle for equality in "Malaysian Malaysia" (1963–1965)

Communist insurgencies and racial clashes (1965–1990)

The struggle for equality continued with the Democratic Action Party (DAP), which succeeded the PAP in 1965. Many Malaysian Chinese began to view the Malaysian Chinese Association as more concerned with business and economic interests than social factors, although Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman considered the MCA the sole legitimate representative of the federation's Chinese community. In 1968, communists supported by China began a new insurgency from their stronghold in southern Thailand. The following year, the MCA was challenged by the DAP and the Malaysian People's Movement Party (GERAKAN). Of its 33 parliamentary seats contested in the election, the MCA retained 13 and lost control of the Penang state government to GERAKAN; Chinese-Malay tensions culminated in the 13 May incident. Other clashes were also ethnic in nature.

In the aftermath of the riots, Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman blamed the communists rather than racial issues and said that the Vietnam War in their neighbour was "not simply a civil war but communist-ideology expansion". The Malaysian government introduced several policy initiatives in security and development, a neighbourhood-watch program and the People's Volunteer Corps. The Communist Party of Malaya split into two factions during the early 1970s: a revolutionary wing in 1970 and a Marxist–Leninist wing in 1974. Kuala Lumpur and Beijing established diplomatic relations in 1974; China ended its aid to the factions, prompting their 1983 merger into the Malaysian Communist Party before their surrender to Thai authorities four years later and the 1989 peace agreement ending the insurgency. A Chinese communist insurgency in Sarawak, supported by neighboring Indonesia, ended with peace negotiations in 1990.

1990 to present

Issues between the Malaysian Chinese and the Malays remain unresolved. The failure of Malaysia's social contract has led to a strong Chinese identity, in contrast to the Chinese communities in neighbouring Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. After the 1969 racial clashes, the Malaysian New Economic Policy favouring the Malays from 1971 to 1990 increased Bumiputera economic control by 60 percent. Malaysian Chinese remain the business sector's dominant players; equity ownership doubled from 22.8 percent in 1969 to 45.5 percent in 1990, and nearly all of Malaysia's richest people are Chinese.

Since Malaysian Chinese manage the country's economy, most (75.8 percent in 1991) live in urban areas. They generally do not speak Malay among themselves; this contrasts with earlier Chinese communities such as the Straits-born Chinese of Baba-Nyonya, Kelantanese and Terengganuan Peranakans, Penangite Hokkien and Sabah Sino-natives, who mingled with local Malay and other indigenous peoples. Chinese in East Malaysia in Sabah and Sarawak, particularly in small inland towns, interact more closely with the indigenous communities. Integration issues in present-day Malaysia are largely inherited from Malayan racial politics, in which ethnic communities consolidated into a single political community. Malaysia's contemporary educational and social policies has created a Chinese brain drain to developed countries, especially Singapore. The country has experienced a slight wave of Mandarin-speaking immigrants from northeastern China and a smaller number of Vietnamese immigrants, however, with local men marrying women from China and Vietnam.

Origins and social demographics

See also: Chinese emigration and Overseas Chinese

Since their early ancient trade connection and subsequent migrations, the majority of ethnic Chinese in Malaysia are ethnic Han from the historical areas of Fujian and Guangdong provinces in southern China. Nearly all ethnic Chinese Malaysians living in the country today are either patrilineal descendants of these early immigrants, or new immigrants born in mainland China. Among the first group from the first migration wave are the Peranakans in Kelantan and Terengganu, Sino-Natives in Sabah and Straits-born Chinese (Baba-Nyonya) in Malacca and Penang. The Taiping Rebellion in the mid-19th century caused much chaos and suffering in southern China, which led many ethnic Chinese civilians to seek refuge overseas, particularly to the Nanyang region (Southeast Asia) in further south. With the expanding British colonial ambitions in the region which led to the establishment of Straits Settlements, more migrants were attracted and the region became an important destination for Chinese emigration.

By the late 19th century with the second wave of migration through the British colonial rule, the Hokkien of southern Fujian led by many of their wealthy and powerful individuals with skills in finance and maritime shipping became the dominant immigrant group as the first group of ethnic Chinese to settle in large numbers with their language become a contact language among Chinese of different linguistics background. The Cantonese from Guangdong follow suit and became well known as mineworkers, land reclamation, mechanics and their familiarity with cash cropping. Another large group, the Hakka are mostly hill farmers originated from northeastern Guangdong and various southern China places who specialise in forest clearance, mining as well on metalworking. Other groups like the Teochew from Chaozhou of eastern Guangdong are mainly on plantation agriculture, the Fuzhou from central Fujian specialise in entrepreneurship, while the Hainanese from Hainan as one of the ethnic Chinese minority saw themselves as sojourners with many of Hainanese chefs and waiters ruled the kitchen of local Chinese kopi tiam and restaurants. The Henghua and Hokchia from eastern Fujian are usually managing family industries while the Kwongsai from Guangxi are employed in labour sectors. Followed by the third wave of ethnic Chinese migration thereafter, this resulted from Malaysia as being one of the countries outside China and Taiwan with largest population of Chinese speakers in the world. Following the establishment of diplomatic relationship between Mainland China and Malaysia in 1974, a joint communiqué was made between the two nations, which stated:

The Chinese government considers anyone of Chinese origin who has taken up his own will or acquired Malaysian nationality as automatically forfeiting Chinese nationality. As for residents who retain Chinese nationality of their own will, the Chinese government, acting in accordance with its consistent policy, will enjoin them to abide by the law of the Government of Malaysia, respect the customs and habits of the people there, and live in unity with them, and their proper rights and interests will be protected by the Government of China and respected by the Government of Malaysia.

Distribution of Han ethnic subgroups

Population of ethnic Chinese by state in 2020
State or federal territory	Total population	Chinese population	Chinese population (%)
Johor	4,009,670	1,208,652	30.1%
Kedah	2,131,427	250,600	11.8%
Kelantan	1,792,501	44,676	2.5%
Malacca	998,428	205,239	20.6%
Negeri Sembilan	1,199,974	248,456	20.7%
Pahang	1,591,295	221,712	13.9%
Penang	1,740,405	718,362	41.3%
Perak	2,496,041	643,627	25.8%
Perlis	284,885	20,480	7.2%
Sabah	3,418,785	248,920	7.3%
Sarawak	2,453,677	554,622	22.6%
Selangor	6,994,423	1,756,181	25.1%
Terengganu	1,149,440	23,166	2.0%
Kuala Lumpur	1,982,112	737,161	37.2%
Labuan	95,120	9,843	10.3%
Putrajaya	109,202	670	0.6%

Historical population
Year	Pop.	±%
1970	3,555,879	—
1980	4,554,664	+28.1%
1991	4,623,900	+1.5%
2000	5,691,908	+23.1%
2010	6,472,300	+13.7%
2020	6,892,367	+6.5%
Note: Main census is released every ten years. Source: Malaysian Population Statistics

Economic, demographic and political representation

See also: Economy of Malaysia and Bamboo network

Ethnic Chinese Malaysians have been traditionally dominant in the business sector of the Malaysian economy with large local Chinese enterprises involved in natural resources and food ingredients industries such as sugar and palm oil. Almost every biscuits manufacturer in the country is dominated by ethnic Chinese Malaysians. Up to the 1970s, their economic structure was intertwined with very much family and kinship ties. By the 21st century with the rising of China's economic influence, their economy network are jointly connected with other Overseas Chinese through the bamboo network. The local Chinese played a key role in facilitating China's capital to invest in Malaysia while in the process both benefited from expanded markets, lower labour costs and the introduction of different kind of technologies and managerial systems which resulted from Malaysia becoming the largest trading partner to China in Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region. Nevertheless, unlike the more transboundary business influence by neighbouring Chinese Singaporeans, a majority of Chinese Malaysian businesses are still seen as less concentrating on developing business ties with other Southeast Asian Chinese businessmen despite there have been few businesses made by several local Malaysian Chinese companies.

Since the country's foundation in 1963, the Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA) was the sole legitimate political representation for ethnic Chinese in Malaysia under the multi-racial political coalition of the Alliance Party (later expanded into National Front coalition). However, the growing restriction of non-Malay interests in Malaysian society and politics since the 1970s caused deep dissension among Chinese Malaysians. The perception that their ethnic party representatives were unable to stand for their people's rights grew, and that decision-making was influenced by the Malay supremacists dominated party of United Malays National Organisation (UMNO). The UMNO was the most influential part of the existing political coalition, and also championed Islamic values. Despite the coalition's multi-racial appearance, UMNO founding president Onn Jaafar has once said that their movement did not adhere to any ideology other than "Malayism", defined by Malay scholar Ariffin Omar as the belief that the interests of the Malay race must be upheld over anything else. From 1968, the inability of MCA to preserve ethnic Chinese Malaysian interests, particularly with regards to their culture, education, and language, resulted in the formation of another ethnic Chinese representative party, the Malaysian People's Movement Party (GERAKAN) led by Chinese overseas-educated elite, although this party also joined the Alliance Party coalition in 1972.

The growing Islamisation with "Islamic version of non-tolerant and open", increasing racism within the Malay party members throughout the coalition imposing further into the country social demographics as well as the government discriminative policies on their education and employment, caused further disenchantment among non-Malays, especially ethnic Chinese. This subsequently caused dwindling support from ethnic Chinese Malaysians when many original strongholds of MCA constituents and even Gerakan turned to the Democratic Action Party (DAP) as the latter were seen as more vocal on their rights. The recent country general election in 2018 saw the fall of National Front coalition following additional aid from Bornean parliamentary seats particularly in Sabah that were won by Pakatan Harapan coalition ally of regionalist Sabah Heritage Party (WARISAN) as well from another indigenous party of United Pasokmomogun Kadazandusun Murut Organisation (UPKO) as a result of similar growing frustration over long-time manipulation of the state demographics and resources with lack of development through the administration of the Malay-led supremacists government of UMNO with frequent labelling as "fixed deposit state". During the election, the DAP won a large amount of seats due to the support of many Chinese constituents and subsequently diminished MCA influence among ethnic Chinese Malaysians.

Although the Malaysian Chinese population is increasing in every census, the proportion of ethnic Chinese among the country's total population has been declining in recent decades because of a lower birth rate and high emigration rate. There are significant concerns about the loss of political representation. According to a report by the World Bank, the Malaysian diaspora around the world in 2010 included around a million people, most of them ethnic Chinese. The large number of emigrants, many of whom are young with education or skills, constitutes a significant "brain drain" from the country, especially towards the country's immediate neighbour Singapore.

Contributions towards local medical practice

Education

In educational aspects, Malaysia is the only country outside China and Taiwan with a comprehensive and complete Chinese education system and the only Southeast Asian country that has perpetuated the Chinese education system established since the colonial era as a result of heavy brokerage and lobbying efforts by ethnic Chinese Malaysians political leaders with continual funding from local Chinese communities. The first Chinese schools had been established in the country in the 19th century during the British colonial administration. At the same time, Christian missions from China also founded schools for Chinese students to nurture Church workers, this are most notable among many Chinese Christians of Hakka origin in Sabah and the Fuzhou in Sarawak. Following the country's independence, some of the Chinese independent schools who were influenced by the new national agenda and desperately needed government financial support were willingly converted into English medium-schools. However, these schools were later scrupulously converted into Malay medium-schools following the massive elimination of English medium-schools by the Malay-dominated regime in the 1970s in an effort to impose the Malay language as the only medium of instructions in all schools in the aftermath of ethnic riots in 1969. The following period was considered a dark time for local Chinese education and witnessed a growing belief in the idea that the ethnic Chinese in Malaysia had to proceed on a basis of self-reliance and vigilance in order to preserve their language rights as the national education policy was seen as exclusionary and discriminatory for non-Malays, summed up in the aphorism "non-Malays belong to Malaysia but Malaysia only belongs to the Malays".

Although other remaining Chinese independent schools or 独中 were also included in the national school system in 1996, these independent schools still did not receive any financial assistance from the federal government and its United Examinations Certificate (UEC) or 统考 is not recognised by the government, making students who finish their studies from the local Chinese independent schools unable to enroll in government-funded public tertiary institutions. Since late 1970, ethnic Chinese Malaysians had expanded their own Mandarin-language primary schools where around 90% of their children were enrolled based on the figures from 2006. These schools gained a reputation for not only maintaining good discipline but also providing the high-quality education that the Malay schools were seen by some to lack. This perceived superiority attracted significant interest among Bumiputera parents with various analyses placing the number of Bumiputera students enrollment in Chinese schools between 60,000 and 100,000 in 2000. The federal government's failure to impose Malay as the sole unifying language throughout the country's educational systems unlike in China with Standard Chinese or Indonesia with Indonesian language are mainly attributed to the racial-based policy enforcement of ethnic inclusion and exclusion. Some argue that the educational policies imposed by the federal government over the years in regard to minority language education have created negative consequences for Malaysian youth: a mounting brain drain in particular. A study from 2000 found that the country had lost an ample amount of talented and skilled youth to other more favourable countries as the result of students from the large non-Malay minority language communities being forced to go to university abroad because they did not attend Malay language schools.

Culture

Chinese cultural influences made their mark when ancient trade relations were established with the Nanyang (南洋) region. The massive ethnic Chinese migration during the British colonial period causing a subsequent strong influence on the country's culture, including in cuisine and the language. Aside from the Chinese cultural influence on local culture, ethnic Chinese from the first wave migration before English arrival had mainly adopted a localised culture. The Baba-Nyonya in Malacca had a very strong Malay influence in their clothing and food although still maintaining their Chinese heritage of religion, name, and identity. Their food are made with Malay ingredients and recipes but produced using the Chinese method while their houses are constructed with the infusion of Victorian, Chinese and Malay elements. Together with the Peranakans in Penang, both sides use a mixture of Hokkien and Malay despite the Penang Peranakans speak mainly Hokkien with some borrowed words from Malay words while in Malacca, the Peranakans have adopted Malay patois with some Hokkien words. The food prepared by Penang Peranakans also infuses both Chinese and Malay elements, albeit with an additional Thai influence. The Peranakans in the east coast of Malaysia in Kelantan and Terengganu have much closer ties with the Malay and Siamese community there since most of them has adopted the Malay and Siamese lifestyle.

Na Tuk Kong (拿督公) shrine in West Malaysia.

Further, close blood relations between ethnic Chinese and local indigenous in northern Borneo since the early kingdoms period produced the "Sino-Natives" persons in Sabah as a result of inter-marriage between ethnic Chinese there and natives of Sabah. Instead of speaking Chinese languages, these communities spoke the localized Sabah Malay dialect as their main lingua franca since the 14th century. The close relations are marked with earliest records of the "Kina" term which is widely used by the indigenous Dusun to refer to the Chinese ethnicity including for the Dusun homeland mountain of "Mount Kinabalu" (Chinese widow mountain), "Kinabatangan River" (Chinese river) and several other places such as the Kinabalu mountain stream of "Kinataki", a small river in the northeastern coast of "Kinabañgun" and a Chinese land in Labuan Island, the "Kinabenua". The Na Tuk Kong shrine for example shown another sign of assimilation with local culture, where it refers to local Malay guardian spirits worshipped by some ethnic Chinese in West Malaysia and neighbouring Singapore and Indonesia. The term Na Tuk originated from the Malay word of Datuk (grandfather) which then merged with Kong (公, sometimes addressed as 'Kung' meaning elderly male), similar with Tu Ti Kung (Chinese: 土地公), an earth deity worshipped in East Asia.

Cuisine

Main article: Malaysian Chinese cuisine

The ethnic Chinese cuisine in Malaysia is derived from the culinary traditions of their early immigrants and descendants, who have adopted or modified their culinary traditions under the influence of Malaysian culture. Additionally due to the immigration of Chinese to the country, Chinese cuisine has now become an inseparable part in the country’s cultural mixture. When Chinese merchants sailed their junks across the South China Sea, they visited ports in Borneo and Malacca, which had a profound influence on the region. Since the local king at that time enjoyed Chinese cuisine, the traders would bring along cooks with them to the island. They introduced ingredients in Chinese cooking such as noodles, bean sprouts, tofu and soy sauce which are by now widely used by every ethnic group in the country. Apart from introducing new ingredients , these earlier traders also discovered ingredients among the local population along the coast, such as the expensive edible bird's nest with the best quality nests claiming to come from Borneo. Since a vast majority of Chinese Malaysians today are descendants of immigrants from southern China, local Chinese cuisine is predominantly based from Fujian, Cantonese, Hakka and Teochew cuisines. Their technique of stir frying ingredients and adding a small portion of cooking oil over high heat in a wok (锅) is widely adopted among the nation.

Chinese Malaysian cuisine had developed a strong penchant for spices and chillies where any local Chinese kopi tiam or restaurant will offer pickled green or red chillies sambal for noodles and rice-based meals. They borrowed curry leaves from the Indians and have since adapted English Worcestershire sauce and tomato sauce along with Indian and Malay spices to the cooking pot. Among the notable Chinese dishes in the country including the bak kut teh (肉骨茶) (pork rib soup with Chinese herbs), char kway teow (炒粿条) (stir fried rice noodle), dim sum (点心) (ready-to-serve dishes), hae mee (虾面) (spicy prawn noodle soup served in savoury broth), Hainanese chicken rice (海南鸡饭), kai si hor fun (鸡丝河粉) (flat rice noodle soup with chicken slices, shrimps and bean sprouts), kolok or kolo mee (干捞面) (Sarawakian egg noodle served in dark sauce, tomato sauce or chilli sauce), lor mee (卤面) (thick yellow noodle served in dark sauce and thick broth), ngiu chap mee (牛杂面) (special Sabah mixed beef noodle), pan mee (板面) (handmade noodle soup served with pork balls, minced pork, dried anchovies, black fungus and vegetable), sang nyuk mee (生肉面) (special Sabah dry pork noodle or pork noodle soup), wonton mee (云吞面) (dry noodle or noodle soup served with BBQ pork, minced pork and pork or shrimp dumplings) and yong tau foo (酿豆腐) (tofu and mixed vegetables filled with ground pork mixture or fish paste). Many Chinese Malaysians also can cook Malay-style chicken or fish with most versions of laksa (叻唦) are prepared by them. Some examples of basic Chinese Malaysians drinks that are commercially produced in the country include the black tea, chrysanthemum tea, grass jelly, green tea, jasmine tea, soy milk and white coffee while popular snacks including the cakoi (油炸鬼) (long deep-fried dough), egg tart, hum ji peng (咸煎饼) (circle shaped fried dough with or without fillings), ngoi sing tart (外星塔) (UFO shaped tart), ngo hiang (炸五香) (various spiced, minced meat rolls prepared in deep fried style and served with vegetables), pau (包) (steamed buns), popiah (薄饼) (fried or plain spring rolls filled with mixed vegetables), and tau sar piah (豆沙饼) (pastry biscuits filled with a sweet or savoury filling). The legacy from the first wave migration created the Peranakan (土生华人) (including the Baba-Nyonya (峇峇娘惹)) ethnicity through a blend between Chinese and Malay which subsequently produced the Peranakan cuisine where they served Indian-style curries with eating etiquette different from mainstream ethnic Chinese society by following the Malay usage of fingers than chopsticks. The Baba-Nyonya also specialized in making a variety of local snacks called kuih which require plenty of patience and skills.

Dialects and languages

**Example of Chinese loanwords in Malay language**
Loanword	English description
bihun/mihun	rice vermicelli
cakoi	a long deep-fried dough
cawan	cup
cincai	carelessly, in a hurry, random
cincau	grass jelly
ginseng	root of herbal plants
kapcai	underbone motorcycle
kuaci	sunflower seed
kuetiau	rice noodle
kuih	snack and dessert
longkang	drainage
mee/mi	noodle
pau	steamed bun
popia/popiah	fried spring roll
samseng	gangster
tauhu	tofu
tauke	big boss
teh	tea
tongkang	Chinese sailing ship
Source: Asmah 1975, p. 40 and DBP

The 1970 Malaysian Census reported the Southern Min dialects being the largest which accounting for 34.2% of the country Chinese population, followed by Hakka with 22.1%, Cantonese by 19.8%, Chaozhou (Teochew) by 12.4% and Hainanese by 4.7%. In 2003, a more detailed statistics for each dialects reported the Hokkien with 2,020,914, Hakka with 1,092,835, Cantonese with 1,068,008, Teochew with 497,280, Fuzhou with 251,553, Hainanese with 141,045, Kwongsai with 51,674, Henghua with 24,654, Hockchia with 14,935 and different other ethnic Chinese with 202,977, for a total of 5,365,875. The Malaysian Hokkien are divided into two localised dialects; the Penang Hokkien (northern) comprising Penang, Kedah, Perlis and Perak, and Southern Peninsular Hokkien in Johor, Malacca and neighbouring Singapore. The northern Hokkien contains more Malay loanwords than the southern with the latter maintaining more of their original Hokkien words. Many Hokkien living in Sarawak have been influenced heavily by indigenous language similarly with Hokkien in Kelantan where their language was heavily localised following close interaction with local Malays and Siamese. Localised Hokkien also spoken primarily by the Peranakan community (Baba-Nyonya) in both Malacca and Penang. Generally, Hokkien became a contact language among ethnic Chinese of different linguistic background in most parts of Malaysia.

The Malaysian Cantonese became the contact language in the Malaysia's capital of Kuala Lumpur albeit with a distinct phonology and grammar from standard Cantonese spoken in Pearl River Delta region of China including in Hong Kong and Macau. Hakka dialect assumes the role of contact language in Sabah but in the rest of the country the language are more commonly used as an intra-group language than a lingua franca within the Chinese community with about 66.2% of Hakka in Johor prefer localised Mandarin. Similar studies on Eastern Min speakers of Fuzhou community in Sarawak also found a general shift of language choice from their own dialect to Mandarin Chinese and English. The Chaozhou dialect despite being not a largest dialect group has become a bridge language for trade between Teochew exporters in China and wholesalers in Malaysia. Hainan dialect is another minority and the sub-dialect of the Min Chinese dialect family although it is treated in the country as an independent dialect. Several others like Henghua are also generally termed as "dialects", which in fact together with the rest are variety of Chinese languages from different Chinese ethnicity. Mandarin, which is generally spoken by northern Chinese minority in Sabah become the main working language among all Chinese in the country with Standard Mandarin is used as the medium of instruction in local Chinese medium school and independent high school although the language still not necessarily spoken in their daily life practice. Based on early Malaysian Census in 1970, around 41% of ethnic Chinese Malaysians are able to converse in Mandarin.

Holidays and festivities

Religion

Chinese folk religion, Confucianism, Mahāyāna Buddhism and Taoism temples in Malaysia.

Religion of ethnic Chinese Malaysians (2010)

Buddhism (83.6%) Christianity (11.0%) Chinese folk religion (3.4%) No religion (0.8%) Islam (0.7%) Hinduism (0.2%) Unknown (0.17%) Other religion (0.13%)

Based on the 2000 Malaysian Census, 86.6% of ethnic Chinese Malaysians adhere to Buddhism and Chinese folk religion with numerous Chinese temples and shrines visible nationwide. More detailed statistics in 2010 found a total of 5,341,687 ethnic Chinese Malaysians adhere to Buddhism, 706,479 are Christians, 218,261 practising Confucianism, Taoism and other Chinese folk religious sects, 49,320 were irreligious, 42,048 are Muslims, 14,878 are Hindus, 11,387 with unknown religion while 8,576 practising other different religion. Among the common deities worshipped by ethnic Chinese Malaysians in temples are Lord Guan (Guansheng Dijun 关圣帝君), Guan Yin (Goddess of Mercy 观世音菩萨), Dabo Gong 大伯公 (Earth Deity) and Mazu (Goddess of Sea 妈祖).

Commonly found in ethnic Chinese homes and shops are altars installed for deities of their affinities together with ancestral worship. Most of the deities are of Chinese origin but it is still common to see a few local deities. Most, if not all cities in Malaysia include the presence of Chinese Buddhist temples and societies. However, there exists towns with only Buddhist statues, although some may have one or two other Chinese deities. Other Buddhist branches of Theravāda and various Tibetan traditions (Vajrayāna) also have Chinese members and some of the buildings of these branches were built with the funds and philanthropic efforts from local Chinese Buddhists, examples being the establishment of Buddhist Maha Vihara in Kuala Lumpur and Wat Chayamangkalaram in Penang. Unlike the institutional religion of Buddhism, Christianity and Islam, ethnic Chinese who follow traditional folk religion do not have separate names for their belief and practices, as similar to the indigenous Malaysians such as Iban and the Orang Asli. They describe their religious beliefs as either bai shen or bai fo (worshipping deities) which does usually include the worshipping of Buddha since Mahayana Buddhist deities are also commonly worshipped by the followers of Chinese traditional religion.

Chinese Christians, including both Catholic and Protestants presence, are mainly visible with their active missionary activities especially among ethnic Chinese in East Malaysia, having a large proportion compared to other regions. The majority of Christians in West Malaysia also are of Chinese origin. Most early Chinese churches including Baptists, Methodists and Presbyterians have their origins from missionary migrants that introduced the missions established in China to Malaysia. The number of Chinese Muslims is very small compared to Chinese Christians since the latter religion is seen as more tolerant, mainly due to the general perception that embracing Islam in Malaysia is to become Malayised, in addition to the ethnic rivalry between Malay and Chinese that makes Islam as less desirable to ethnic Chinese Malaysians. A majority of Chinese Malaysians, especially those who have received Chinese education, follow Confucian values and to a lesser extent, Taoism. Some that are more traditional may hold more conservative views on filial piety and social relations, while also consulting Chinese horoscopes as well on Chinese geomancy of feng shui. Taoist activities gain increasing interests and significance among Chinese Malaysians although it is not deeply practiced.

Gallery

Gaya Street, Kota Kinabalu, a Chinatown in Sabah.
Chinatown, Kuching, a Chinatown in Kuching.
Kimberley Street is considered the heart of Chinatown in George Town, Penang.
Pekan Cina dan Pekan Melayu a Chinatown and Malaytown in Kedah.
Jonker Walk, a Chinatown in Malacca.
Chinatown Gateway, a Chinatown in Kuala Terengganu, Terrengganu.

Notes

Of the 8,820 Malaysian-born people resident in New Zealand in 1991, only 1,383 were Malay; most of the rest were Chinese Malaysians. In the 2013 New Zealand census, 16,350 people were born in Malaysia. Of these, more than five-eighths gave their ethnicity as Chinese or Malaysian Chinese. The next most numerous were Malays, with smaller groups of Indians and other Asian peoples.

References

Citations

Department of Statistics Malaysia 2020.
Department of Statistics Malaysia 2021.
Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development Australia 2016, p. 2.
Department of Statistics Singapore 2010, p. 31.
Walrond 2015.
About 15,000 Malaysians now live in Hong Kong, according to the Consulate-General. Though the Consulate does not record what state they come from, Penangites are widely thought to be the largest group in the city.
Andaya 1982, p. 17
• Zepp 1989, pp. 19–21
• Wong 1999, p. 132
• Munoz 2006, p. 178
• Lee 2013, p. 542
• Wan et al. 2013, pp. 7–11
Royal Society (Great Britain) 1924, p. 157.
Runciman 2011, p. 11.
Wong 1998, p. 2.
Guillot, Lombard & Ptak 1998, p. 162.
Runciman 2011, p. 14.
Brezina 2016, p. 58.
"Ma Huan (1433) - Anthropology & the Human Condition". sc2218.wikifoundry.com. Retrieved 16 March 2021.
Ma, Huan & Feng 1970, p. 109.
Gordon 2007, p. 133.
Tan 1988, p. 29.
Purcell 1947, pp. 115–125.
Groeneveldt 1876, p. 7.
Cohen 2000, p. 175.
Ma & Cartier 2003, p. 79.
de Vienne 2015, pp. 42–43.
Ma & Cartier 2003, p. 90.
Lee 2010, p. 11.
Ooi 2015, p. 50.
Ember, Ember & Skoggard 2004, p. 115.
Ma 2017, p. 11.
Lee 1965, pp. 306–314.
^ Wong 2016, pp. 9–21.
Wade & Chin 2018, p. 249.
Guillot, Lombard & Ptak 1998, p. 179.
^ Zhang 1934, p. 67.
^ Wade & Chin 2018, p. 144.
Guillot, Lombard & Ptak 1998, p. 179
• Wernham 1968, p. 543
• Kratoska 2001a, p. 101
• Borschberg 2004, p. 12
Borschberg 2004, p. 12.
Wade & Chin 2018, pp. 145–146.
Blussé 2009, p. 23.
Lim & Fernando 2006, p. 126.
Ramanathan 1994, p. 67.
Clifford 1911, p. 479.
Khoo & Lubis 2005, p. 5.
Mizushima, Souza & Flynn 2014, p. 210.
Khoo 1972, p. 39.
^ Hirschman 1986, p. 338.
Wong 1999, p. 132.
Hewitt 1864, p. 31.
Niew 1969, p. 2.
Drabble 2000, p. 86.
Gurney 1986, p. 268.
^ Bulbeck et al. 1998, p. 68.
Kaur 2016, p. 48.
Doran & Dixon 1991, p. 111.
Kratoska 2001b, p. 209.
Yat 1969, p. 57.
Douw, Huang & Ip 2013, p. 165.
Tin Industry (Research and Development) Board 1955, p. 9.
Lin & Hill 1979, p. 145.
^ Landa 2016, p. 58.
^ Ching & McKenna 1990, p. 2.
Comber 1956, pp. 146–162.
Peletz 1996, p. 102.
Khoo 2008, p. 55.
^ Khoo 2010.
de Ruffé 1928, p. 124
• Harris 1956, p. 98
• Png 1961, pp. 1–32
• Journal of the Siam Society 1974, p. 44
• Suryadinata 2006, p. 122
• Lai & Hock 2011, p. 247
^ Khoo 2008, p. 24.
Borneo Research Council 1977, p. 114.
Wang 1964, p. 141.
Hak 2000, p. 69.
Kennedy 1957, p. 213.
Hara 2016, pp. 12–13.
^ Tay 2018.
Tregonning 1962, p. 224.
Wang 1964, p. 144.
Cheah 2013, p. 37.
Suryadinata 2012, p. 136.
Wong 2002a.
Thurman & Sherman 2001, p. 123.
Tay 2016.
^ der Kroef 1964, pp. 50–60.
Wong 2001, pp. 93–105.
^ Hartfield 2012, p. 350.
^ Kantowicz 2000, p. 111.
Kalgoorlie Miner 1946.
Lapping 1985, p. 224.
^ Koh & Choo 2009.
Leifer 2013, p. 110.
Ong 2014, p. 87.
Hack 1999, pp. 99–125.
^ Yamada 2004, pp. 225–231.
Chaliand 1982, p. 272.
Hamby 2002, p. 59.
Stubbs 2004, p. 1.
Ramakrishna 2013, p. 139.
Nolan 2011, p. 248.
Comber 2015, p. 100.
Ooi 2004, p. 830.
Jackson 2008, p. 49.
Hamblin 2013, p. 175.
Hale 2013, p. 432.
Gentile 2013, p. 52.
Tarling 1992, p. 376.
Roy & Saha 2016, p. 68.
Roy & Saha 2016, p. 67.
Great Britain. Colonial Office 1957, p. 469.
Great Britain. Colonial Office 1957, p. 4.
Singh 2014, p. 39.
Garver 2015, p. 200.
Singh 2014, p. 41.
Gomes 2007, p. 46.
World Bank 2010.
Bunnell 2004, p. 76.
Purushotam 2000, p. 209.
Josey 2013, p. 153.
^ Cheah 2002, p. 54.
^ Akbarzadeh & Saeed 2003, p. 142.
Tan 2004b, p. 42.
Ooi 2004, p. 55.
National Archives of Singapore 1965, p. 1.
Diamond, Plattner & Chu 2013, p. 187.
Reid 2015, p. 362.
Razak 2015, p. 69.
Ong 2014, p. 95.
Charles & Cheng 1971, p. 47.
der Kroef 1981, p. 107.
Kua 2007, p. 74.
Cheng 2009, p. 66.
Nazar 2005, pp. 19–20.
Chin 2003, pp. 467–468.
Chin 2003, p. 450.
Porritt 2004, p. 279.
^ Tong 2010, p. 95.
Chen 2004, p. 66.
Gomez 2012, p. 1.
Ooi 2004, p. 55
• Gomez 2012, p. 2
• Jesudason 1997
• Malott 2011
Kam & Tan 2000, p. 78.
Wang & Wang 1998, p. 31.
^ Tan 2004, pp. 93–95.
^ Wong 2004, p. 55.
^ Tong 2010, p. 110.
Enloe 1968, pp. 372–385.
Jakobsen 2014, p. 170.
Tyson 2018, p. 55.
^ Khor 2016.
Simon 1996, p. 51.
Tan 1997, pp. 103–116.
Oxford Business Group 2008, p. 12.
^ Ember, Ember & Skoggard 2004, p. 698.
Gosling & Lim 1983, p. 89
• Menkhoff 1993, p. 47
• Kuhn 2008, p. 47
• Wurm, Mühlhäusler & Tryon 2011, p. 698
^ Reid & Rodgers 2001, p. 82.
^ Kuhn 2008, p. 47.
Kaur 2016, p. 194.
Tan 2002, p. 20.
Sharp 2008, p. 1.
Malaysian Historical Society 1969, p. 34.
Douw & Post 1996, p. 148.
Asmah 2004, p. 52.
Camilleri 1975, p. 27.
^ "Key Findings of Population and Housing Census of Malaysia 2020: Urban and Rural". Department of Statistics Malaysia: 273–355. December 2022. ISBN 978-967-253-683-3.
^ Wang 2012, p. 12.
Yamaguchi & Deterding 2016, p. 4.
Kam & Tan 2000, p. 39.
Kam & Tan 2000, p. 47.
T'ien 1983, p. 278.
Yong 2013, p. 291.
Department of Statistics Malaysia 2010a, p. 15.
^ Ember, Ember & Skoggard 2004, p. 699.
Hock & Suryadinata 2012, p. 114.
Penang San Kiang Association 2020.
Voon 2007, p. 234.
Chiam 2015.
Voon 2007, p. 195.
Weidenbaum & Hughes 1996, p. 47.
Wong & Tan 2017, p. 113.
Gomez 2012, p. 185.
Cartier 2011, p. 71.
Strauch 1981, p. 37
• Weiner & Özbudun 1987, p. 136
• Teck 1988, p. 18
• The Coverage 2019
Ting 2009, p. 35.
Jenkins 2008, p. 91.
Treena Becker (16 August 2016). "Racism drove me from Malaysia. Love brought me to America". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 13 February 2022.
Weiner & Özbudun 1987, p. 136
• Bakri 2007, p. 232
• Liow & Hosen 2010, p. 94
• Lahoud & Johns 2012, p. 177
• The Coverage 2019
Weiner & Özbudun 1987, p. 136.
Coplin 1991, p. 9.
Case 2013, p. 105.
Sipalan & Menon 2018.
The Borneo Post 2019.
Lee 2018.
Cheng & Mokhtar 2018.
Dayley 2018, p. 203.
Sukumaran 2019.
Defillippi, Arthur & Lindsay 2009, p. 117
• Fong & Zubair 2017, p. 15
• Jakobsen 2014, p. 170
• Tyson 2018, p. 55
^ Stevenson, Tai & Yuan 2014, p. 282.
Beh 2017.
Ministry of Health Malaysia 2015, p. 10.
^ Curdt-Christiansen & Hancock 2014, p. 145.
^ Ang 2017.
Kam & Tan 2000, p. 230.
Wong 2002b, p. 35.
Charney, Yeoh & Tong 2003, p. 147.
Ting 2011, p. 38
• Charney, Yeoh & Tong 2003, p. 147
• Bays 1996, p. 165
• Goh 2005, p. 52
Kee, Hill & Yin 2016, p. 75.
Kee, Hill & Yin 2016, p. 77.
^ Nelson, Meerman & Rahman 2008, p. 201.
Kee, Hill & Yin 2016, p. 78.
Defillippi, Arthur & Lindsay 2009, p. 117.
Fong & Zubair 2017, p. 15.
Barbie 1992.
Nazri et al. 2017.
Kee & Choong 2006, p. 83.
^ The Star 2008.
^ Government of Penang.
Winzeler 1974, pp. 45–61.
Nazri, Hanapi & Teo 2011, p. 112.
Hong 2015.
^ Zhang 2018, p. 141.
St. John 1863, p. 327.
Whitehead 1893, p. 155.
Lin 2017, p. 126.
Hock 1996, p. 8.
Lin 2017, pp. 125–126.
^ Hutton 2012, p. 24.
Yuan 2000, p. 19.
^ Hutton 2005, p. 13.
Chen 1976, p. 42.
Dunlop 1994, p. 251.
Tan 2012, p. 137.
West 2010, p. 486.
Arokiasamy 2017, p. 451.
^ Armstrong, Armstrong & Mulliner 2012, p. 218.
Cheung & Tan 2007, p. 171.
^ Wurm, Mühlhäusler & Tryon 2011, p. 698.
Asmah 2004, p. 51.
Bauer & Benedict 2011, p. 281.
Wang 2012, p. 80.
Platt, Weber & Ho 1983, p. 50.
Ball 2009, p. 240.
Ma & Cartier 2003, p. 85.
Hamilton 2011, p. 124.
Wang 2012, p. 18.
Asmah 1992, p. 26.
Kam & Tan 2000, p. 56
• Maya 2006, p. 73
• Wurm, Mühlhäusler & Tryon 2011, p. 698
• Wang 2012, pp. 16–17
• Suryadinata 1989, p. 166
Wang 2012, pp. 16–17.
Government of Malaysia 2019.
Leong 1992, p. 2.
^ DK Travel 2016, p. 34.
Fodor & Fisher 1986, p. 297.
Koh & Ho 2009, p. 132.
Tan 2018, p. 103.
Tan 1985, p. 72.
DK Travel 2016, pp. 59–60.
Lim 2014.
^ Department of Statistics Malaysia 2010b, p. 15.
^ Ember, Ember & Skoggard 2004, p. 703.
Khoo 2012, p. 313.
Tan 2018, p. 35.
^ Tan Lee Ooi 2018, p. 8.
West 2010, pp. 485–486.
Goh 2005, p. 55.
Pas 1998, p. 36.
Khoo 2014, p. 2.
Food Trails. Lonely Planet. 2016. p. 194. ISBN 9781786576835.

Sources

Academic publications and journal articles

Purcell, Victor (1947). "Chinese Settlement in Malacca". Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. 20 (1): 115–125. JSTOR 41560007.
Comber, Leon (1956). "Chinese Secret Societies in Malaya; an Introduction". Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. 29 (1): 146–162. JSTOR 41503202.
Png, Poh Seng (1961). "The Kuomintang in Malaya, 1912-1941". Journal of Southeast Asian History. 2 (1): 1–32. doi:10.1017/S0217781100100377. JSTOR 20067317.
der Kroef, Justus M. van (1964). "Communism and the Guerrilla War in Sarawak". The World Today. 20 (2): 50–60. JSTOR 40393581.
Lee, Y. L. (1965). "The Chinese in Sabah (North Borneo)". Erdkunde. 19 (4): 306–314. doi:10.3112/erdkunde.1965.04.05. JSTOR 25640360.
Enloe, Cynthia H. (1968). "Issues and Integration in Malaysia". Pacific Affairs, University of British Columbia. 41 (3): 372–385. doi:10.2307/2755005. JSTOR 2755005.
Niew, Shong Tong (1969). "The Population Geography of the Chinese Communities in Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei" (PDF). University of London. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 April 2019 – via SOAS Research Online.
Winzeler, Robert L. (1974). "Ethnic Complexity and Ethnic Relations in an East-Coast Malay Town". Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science. 2 (1/2): 45–61. doi:10.1163/080382474X00040. JSTOR 24490070.
T'ien, Ju-k'ang (1983). "The Chinese of Sarawak: Thirty Years of Change" (PDF). CSEAS Journal. 21 (3). Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 April 2019 – via Southeast Asian studies.
Hirschman, Charles (1986). "The Making of Race in Colonial Malaya: Political Economy and Racial Ideology" (PDF). Cornell University. 1 (2): 330–361. JSTOR 684449. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 April 2019 – via University of Washington.
Zepp, Raymond (1989). "The Chinese in Sarawak". Bulletin de Sinologie. Nouvelle Série (53): 19–21. JSTOR 43436606.
Barbie, J. (1992). "Chinese culture and demographic trends in Thailand and Malaysia". Chinese Journal of Population Science. 4 (2): 139–48. PMID 12317919.
Tan, Chee Beng (1997). "Chinese Identities in Malaysia". Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science. 25 (2): 103–116. doi:10.1163/030382497X00194. JSTOR 24492399.
Jesudason, James V. (1997). "Chinese Business and Ethnic Equilibrium in Malaysia". Development and Change. 28: 119–141. doi:10.1111/1467-7660.00037.
Wong, Danny Tze-Ken (1999). "Chinese Migration to Sabah Before the Second World War". Archipel. 58 (58): 131–158. doi:10.3406/arch.1999.3538.
Hack, Karl (1999). ""Iron Claws on Malaya": The Historiography of the Malayan Emergency". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 30 (1): 99–125. doi:10.1017/S0022463400008043. JSTOR 20072108. S2CID 163010489.
Wong, Danny Tze-Ken (2001). "Anti-Japanese Activities in North Borneo before World War Two, 1937-1941". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 32 (1): 93–105. doi:10.1017/S0022463401000042. JSTOR 20072301. S2CID 162477885.
Wong, Heng (2002a). Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army (Report). Archived from the original on 23 April 2019 – via National Library Board, Singapore.
Hamby, Joel E. (2002). Civil-Military Operations [Joint Doctrine and the Malayan Emergency] (PDF) (Report). Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 April 2019 – via Defense Technical Information Center.
Yamada, Yuumi (2004). "マレーシア華人新村の成立背景とその概要 : 華人新村研究その1" [The Historical Setting of the Chinese New Villages in Malaysia : A study on the development of Chinese new villages in Malaysia Part I]. Journal of Architecture and Planning (Transactions of AIJ) (in Japanese). 69 (585): 225–231. doi:10.3130/aija.69.225_2.
Nazar, Talib (2005). Malaysia's Experience In War Against Communist Insurgency And Its Relevance To The Present Situation In Iraq (PDF) (Report). Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 April 2019 – via Defense Technical Information Center.
Ting, Helen (2009). "The Politics of National Identity in West Malaysia: Continued Mutation or Critical Transition? [The Politics of Ambiguity]". Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University. 47 (1). Archived from the original on 9 May 2019 – via J-STAGE.
Khoo, Kay Kim (2010). Reflections on Malaysia–China Relations: 1874 – 1974 (Report). Centre for Malaysian Chinese Studies. Archived from the original on 20 April 2019.
World Bank (2010). Malaya - The economy of the federation of Malaya (English) (Report). pp. 1–55 – via World Bank.
Nazri, Ahmad; Hanapi, Dollah; Teo, Kok Seong (2011). "Penghayatan Tradisi Lisan Melayu dalam kalangan Masyarakat Cina Kelantan" [Appreciation of Malay Oral Traditions among the Chinese in Kelantan] (PDF). Malay Journal (in Malay) (8). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 May 2019 – via Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
World Bank (2011). Malaysia Economic Monitor [Brain Drain] (PDF) (Report). Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 May 2019 – via World Bank.
Khoo, Salma Nasution (2012). "Exploring Shared History, Preserving Shared Heritage: Penang's Links to a Siamese Past [The Siamese community and Buddhism in Penang]" (PDF). Journal of the Siam Society. 100. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 March 2019 – via Siamese Heritage Trust.
Wan, Kong Ann; Mair, Victor H.; Roberts, Paula; Swofford, Mark (2013). "Examining the Connection Between Ancient China and Borneo Through Santubong Archaeological Sites" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, University of Pennsylvania. ISSN 2157-9687. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 April 2019.
Kee, Cheok Cheong; Hill, Christopher; Yin, Ching Leong (2016). "Malaysia's Education Policy and the Law of Unintended Consequences". Journal of International and Comparative Education. 5 (2): 73–86. doi:10.14425/jice.2016.5.2.73. ISSN 2232-1802.
Wong, Danny Tze-Ken (2016). "Early Chinese Presence in Malaysia as Reflected by three Cemeteries (17th-19th c.)". Archipel (92): 9–21. doi:10.4000/archipel.280.
Tay, Frances (2016). "Japanese War Crimes in British Malaya and British Borneo 1941–1945". Japanese War Crimes Malaya Borneo. Archived from the original on 6 October 2017.
Hara, Fujio (2016). The Malayan Communist Party as Recorded in the Comintern Files (PDF) (Report). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 April 2019 – via ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute.
Ang, Ming Chee (2017). "Chinese Education in Malaysia". Oxford Research Encyclopedias. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.220. ISBN 978-0-19-026409-3.
Nazri, Raji; Shahrim, Karim; Farah, Ishak; Mursyid, Arshad (2017). "Past and present practices of the Malay food heritage and culture in Malaysia". Journal of Ethnic Foods. 4 (4): 221–231. doi:10.1016/j.jef.2017.11.001.
Fong, Terry; Zubair, Hassan (2017). "Factors Contributing Brain Drain in Malaysia" (PDF). International Journal of Education, Learning and Training. 2 (2). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 May 2019.
Tan Lee Ooi (2018). Buddhist Maha Vihara during Colonial Times [Chapter 1 – Introduction] (PDF) (Thesis). Asian Studies Centre, Thailand. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 April 2019.
Tay, Shereen (2018). Communist Party of Malaya (Report). Archived from the original on 23 April 2019 – via National Library Board, Singapore.

Government sources

National Archives of Singapore (1965). "Text of Mr. Lee Kuan Yew's Speech at the Malaysian Solidarity Convention at the National Theatre on 6th June 1965" (PDF). National Archives of Singapore. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 April 2019.
Department of Statistics Malaysia (2010a). "Total population by age group, sex, ethnic group, stratum and state, Malaysia" (PDF). Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 May 2019.
Department of Statistics Malaysia (2010b). "Total population by ethnic group, religion, sex and state, Malaysia" (PDF). Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 May 2019.
Department of Statistics Singapore (2010). "Census of Population 2010 [Table A6 Resident Population by Place of Birth, Ethnic Group and Sex]" (PDF). Department of Statistics, Singapore. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 October 2016.
Walrond, Carl (2015). "Malaysians and Singaporeans". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, Ministry for Culture and Heritage, New Zealand. Archived from the original on 1 February 2019.
Department of Information Malaysia (2015). "Unjuran Populasi Penduduk 2015" [Population Projection for 2015] (in Malay). Department of Information, Ministry of Communications and Multimedia, Malaysia. Archived from the original on 12 February 2016.
Ministry of Health Malaysia (2015). "Traditional and Complementary Medicine (T&CM) Act [What Should You Know?]" (PDF). Traditional and Complementary Medicine Division. Ministry of Health, Malaysia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 May 2019.
Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development Australia (2016). "Census: Christmas Island" (PDF). Department of Regional Australia, Regional Development and Local Government. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 May 2019.
Department of Statistics Malaysia (2016). "Current Population Estimates, Malaysia, 2014 - 2016". Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Archived from the original on 12 August 2016.
Government of Malaysia (2019). "Jadual Hari Kelepasan Am Persekutuan" [Federal Public Holidays Schedule] (PDF) (in Malay). Cabinet Division, Constitution and Inter-Governmental Relations, Prime Minister's Department, Malaysia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 May 2019.
Government of Penang. "Peranakan". Government of Penang. Archived from the original on 9 May 2019.
Department of Statistics Malaysia (2020). "Current population and estimates, Malaysia 2020 Group". Retrieved 15 July 2020.
Department of Statistics Malaysia (2021). "Current population and estimates, Malaysia 2021 Group". Retrieved 1 February 2022.

News and magazines

Kalgoorlie Miner (18 July 1946). "British North Borneo Becomes Crown Colony [Loyal Addresses]". Kalgoorlie Miner – via Trove.
The Star (4 October 2008). "The Baba Nyonya culture". The Star.
Koh, David; Choo, Joe (29 May 2009). "Remembering Templer". The Star.
Malott, John R. (8 February 2011). "The Price of Malaysia's Racism". The Wall Street Journal.
Lim, Ruby (27 November 2014). "Traditional Chinese wedding for couple". The Star.
Chiam, May (18 January 2015). "All-Malaysian biscuit company bakes its way to the top". The Star.
Hong, Carolyn (2 February 2015). "The Peranakans of Terengganu". The Straits Times.
Khor, Samantha (4 November 2016). "The Origins Of The Hokkien, Cantonese, And Other Chinese Dialect Groups In Malaysia". Says.com. Archived from the original on 7 November 2016.
Beh, Behonce (19 October 2017). "Modernised TCM gains wider audience". Focus Malaysia. Archived from the original on 14 May 2019.
Sipalan, Joseph; Menon, Praveen (5 May 2018). "Sabah no longer a 'fixed deposit' in election for Malaysia's Najib, says party rebel". Reuters.
Cheng, Kenneth; Mokhtar, Faris (9 May 2018). "In big blow to BN, stronghold states fall to opposition, key party leaders ousted". Today.
Lee, Stephanie (10 May 2018). "Upko's Madius leaves Barisan; joins Warisan to form coalition government". The Star.
Sukumaran, Tashny (4 March 2019). "Racial politics: where it all went wrong for the Malaysian Chinese Association?". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 10 May 2019 – via AsiaOne.
The Borneo Post (8 April 2019). "DAP Sabah won't forget Warisan despite PPBM entry". The Borneo Post.
The Coverage (31 December 2019). "It's UMNO's Racism & Discrimination Policies Against Chinese & Indian : Not Vernacular Schools That Destroy National Unity". The Coverage.my.
Dorall, Anne (7 February 2020). "Is it "Malaysian Chinese" or "Chinese Malaysian"?". The Rakyat Post. Archived from the original on 12 July 2020.
Penang San Kiang Association (July 2020). "History of Penang San Kiang Association [The early years]". Penang San Kiang Association. Archived from the original on 12 July 2020.

Print

St. John, Spenser (1863). Life in the Forests of the Far East. Vol. II. London: Smith, Elder and Company. kina batangan chinese.
Hewitt, James (1864). Geography of the British colonies and dependencies. London: The National Society's Depository.
Groeneveldt, Willem Pieter (1876). Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca. W. Bruining.
Whitehead, John (1893). Exploration of Mount Kina Balu, North Borneo. Gurney and Jackson. On the left hand is the curious mountain of Saduc Saduc, the Anak Kina Balu (child of Kina Balu) of the Dusuns.
Clifford, Hugh Charles (1911). "Malay States (British)" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 478–484, see page 479.
Royal Society (Great Britain) (1924). Proceedings of the Royal Society of London: Containing papers of a Biological character. Royal Society.
de Ruffé, Reginald d' Baron Auxion (1928). Is China Mad?. Kelly & Walsh.
Zhang, Tianze (1934). Sino-Portuguese Trade from 1514 to 1644: A Synthesis of Portuguese and Chinese Sources. Brill Archive. GGKEY:0671BSWDRPY.
Tin Industry (Research and Development) Board (1955). What Tin Mining Means to Malaya. Tin Industry (Research and Development) Board.
Harris, George Lawrence (1956). North Borneo, Brunei, Sarawak (British Borneo). Human Relations Area Files.
Great Britain. Colonial Office (1957). Federation of Malaya: Report. H.M. Stationery Office.
Kennedy, Malcolm Duncan (1957). A Short History of Communism in Asia. Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
Tregonning, K. G., ed. (1962). Papers on Malayan history: papers submitted to the First International Conference of South-East Asian Historians, Singapore, January 1961. Journal of South-East Asian History. OCLC 152936139.
Wang, Gungwu (1964). Malaysia: A Survey. F.A. Praeger. ISBN 9780395716915.
Wernham, R. B. (1968). The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 3, Counter-Reformation and Price Revolution, 1559-1610. CUP Archive. ISBN 978-0-521-04543-8.
Yat, Hoong Yip (1969). The Development of the Tin Mining Industry of Malaya. University of Malaya Press.
Malaysian Historical Society (1969). Malaysia in History. Malaysian Historical Society.
Ma, Huan; Huan, Ma; Feng, Chengjun (1970). 瀛涯勝覧: 'The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores' [1433]. CUP Archive. ISBN 978-0-521-01032-0.
Charles, T. Goh; Cheng, Teik Goh (1971). The May Thirteenth Incident and Democracy in Malaysia. Oxford University Press.
Khoo, Kay Kim (1972). The Western Malay States, 1850-1873: the effects of commercial development on Malay politics. Oxford University Press. The Chinese were already playing a leading role in the industry, but war with the Dutch in the 1780s adversely affected the tin trade because many of the Chinese miners left the state.
Journal of the Siam Society (1974). The Journal of the Siam Society. Journal of the Siam Society.
Camilleri, Joseph A. (1975). Southeast Asia in China's Foreign Policy. Institute of Southeast Asian. GGKEY:10PX1CT790B.
Asmah, Omar (1975). Essays on Malaysian Linguistics. Institute of Language and Literature, Ministry of Education, Malaysia. ISBN 9789836229021.
Chen, Esther (1976). Introductory Traditional Chinese Regional Cuisine. The Author.
Borneo Research Council (1977). Borneo Research Bulletin. Borneo Research Council.
Lin, Sien Chia; Hill, Ronald David (1979). South-East Asia, a systematic geography. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-580398-3.
Strauch, Judith (1981). Chinese Village Politics in the Malaysian State. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-12570-4.
der Kroef, Justus Maria Van (1981). Communism and South-east Asia. Macmillan International Higher Education. ISBN 978-1-349-16462-2.
Andaya, Barbara Watson (1982). History Of Malaysia. Macmillan International Higher Education. ISBN 978-1-349-16927-6.
Chaliand, Gérard (1982). Guerrilla Strategies: An Historical Anthology from the Long March to Afghanistan. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04443-2.
Platt, John; Weber, Heidi; Ho, Mian Lian (1983). Singapore and Malaysia. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 90-272-8021-5.
Gosling, Lee Anthony Peter; Lim, Linda Y. C. (1983). The Chinese in Southeast Asia. Maruzen Asia. ISBN 978-9971-954-10-9.
Tan, Chee Beng (1985). The Development and Distribution of Dejiao Associations in Malaysia and Singapore: A Study on a Chinese Religious Organization. Institute of Southeast Asian. ISBN 978-9971-988-14-2.
Lapping, Brian (1985). End of Empire. St Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-25071-3.
Fodor, Eugene; Fisher, Robert C. (1986). Fodor's South-East Asia. D. McKay Company. ISBN 9780679014089.
Gurney, Gene (1986). Kingdoms of Asia, the Middle East, and Africa: an illustrated encyclopedia of ruling monarchs from ancient times to the present. Crown. ISBN 978-0-517-55256-8.
Weiner, Myron; Özbudun, Ergun (1987). Competitive Elections in Developing Countries. Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-0766-9.
Tan, Chee Beng (1988). The Baba of Melaka: culture and identity of a Chinese peranakan community in Malaysia. Pelanduk Publications. ISBN 978-967-978-155-7.
Teck, Ghee Lim (1988). Reflections on Development in Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-9971-988-99-9.
Suryadinata, Leo (1989). The Ethnic Chinese in the ASEAN States: Bibliographical Essays. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-3035-11-9.
Ching, Fatt Yong; McKenna, R. B. (1990). The Kuomintang Movement in British Malaya, 1912-1949. NUS Press. ISBN 978-9971-69-137-0.
Coplin, William D. (1991). Political Risk Yearbook, 1991: Asia & the Pacific. Political Risk Services. ISBN 978-1-85271-157-3.
Doran, Charles F.; Dixon, Chris (1991). South East Asia in the World-Economy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-31237-0.
Asmah, Omar (1992). The Linguistic Scenery in Malaysia. Institute of Language and Literature, Ministry of Education, Malaysia. ISBN 9789836224033.
Leong, Gregory (1992). Festivals of Malaysia. Pelanduk Publications (M). ISBN 978-967-978-388-9.
Tarling, Nicholas (1992). The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia: Volume 2, The Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-35506-3.
Menkhoff, Thomas (1993). Trade Routes, Trust and Trading Networks: Chinese Small Enterprises in Singapore. Verlag Breitenbach. ISBN 978-3-88156-589-9.
Dunlop, Fiona (1994). Fodor's Exploring Singapore & Malaysia. Fodor's Travel Publications. ISBN 9780679026662.
Ramanathan, Indira (1994). China and the Ethnic Chinese in Malaysia and Indonesia: 1949-1992. Sangam Books Limited. ISBN 978-0-86132-337-1.
Bays, Daniel H. (1996). Christianity in China: From the Eighteenth Century to the Present. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-3651-0.
Douw, Leo; Post, Peter (1996). South China: state, culture and social change during the 20th century. North-Holland. ISBN 9780444858115.
Hock, Tong Cheu (1996). Malay Keramat, Chinese Worshippers: The Sinicization of Malay Keramats in Malaysia. Department of Malay Studies, National University of Singapore. ISBN 978-981-00-8755-5.
Peletz, Michael G. (1996). Reason and Passion: Representations of Gender in a Malay Society. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20070-8.
Simon, Roger D. (1996). The City-building Process: Housing and Services in New Milwaukee Neighborhoods, 1880-1910. American Philosophical Society. ISBN 978-0-87169-865-0.
Weidenbaum, Murray L.; Hughes, Samuel (1996). The Bamboo Network: How Expatriate Chinese Entrepreneurs are Creating a New Economic Superpower in Asia. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-82289-1.
Bulbeck, David; Reid, Anthony; Tan, Lay Cheng; Yiqi, Wu (1998). Southeast Asian Exports Since the 14th Century: Cloves, Pepper, Coffee, and Sugar. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-3055-67-4.
Guillot, C.; Lombard, Denys; Ptak, Roderich (1998). From the Mediterranean to the China Sea: Miscellaneous Notes. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-04098-3.
Pas, Julian F. (1998). Historical Dictionary of Taoism. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-6637-9.
Wang, Ling-chi; Wang, Gungwu, eds. (1998). The Chinese Diaspora: Selected Essays. Times Academic Press. ISBN 978-981-210-092-4.
Wong, Danny Tze-Ken (1998). The Transformation of an Immigrant Society: A Study of the Chinese of Sabah. Asean Academic. ISBN 978-1-901919-16-5.
Yuan, Bingling (2000). Chinese Democracies: A Study of the Kongsis of West Borneo (1776-1884). Research School of Asian, African, and Amerindian Studies, Universiteit Leiden. ISBN 978-90-5789-031-4.
Hak, Ching Oong (2000). Chinese Politics in Malaya, 1942-55: The Dynamics of British Policy. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. ISBN 978-967-942-505-5.
Kam, Hing Lee; Tan, Chee Beng (2000). The Chinese in Malaysia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-983-56-0056-2.
Kantowicz, Edward R. (2000). Coming Apart, Coming Together. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-4456-9.
Drabble, John (2000). An Economic History of Malaysia, c.1800-1990: The Transition to Modern Economic Growth. Palgrave Macmillan UK. ISBN 978-0-230-38946-5.
Purushotam, Nirmala (2000). Negotiating Multiculturalism: Disciplining Difference in Singapore. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-015680-5.
Cohen, Warren I. (2000). East Asia at the Center: Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-10109-7.
Reid, Anthony; Rodgers, Kristine Alilunas (2001). Sojourners and Settlers: Histories of Southeast China and the Chinese. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2446-4.
Thurman, Malcolm Joseph; Sherman, Christine (2001). War Crimes: Japan's World War II Atrocities. Turner Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1-56311-728-2.
Kratoska, Paul H. (2001a). South East Asia, Colonial History: Imperialism before 1800. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-21540-4.
Kratoska, Paul H. (2001b). South East Asia, Colonial History: High imperialism (1890s-1930s). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-21542-8.
Tan, Chee Beng (2002). Chinese Minority in a Malay State: The Case of Terengganu in Malaysia. Eastern Universities Press. ISBN 978-981-210-188-4.
Cheah, Boon Kheng (2002). Malaysia: The Making of a Nation. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-230-175-8.
Wong, Yoon Wah (2002b). Post-colonial Chinese Literatures In Singapore And Malaysia. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-4518-32-1.
Charney, Michael W.; Yeoh, Brenda S. A.; Tong, Chee Keong (2003). Chinese Migrants Abroad: Cultural, Educational, and Social Dimensions of the Chinese Diaspora. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-279-556-4.
Chin, Peng (2003). My Side of History. Media Masters. ISBN 981-04-8693-6.
Ma, Laurence J. C.; Cartier, Carolyn L. (2003). The Chinese Diaspora: Space, Place, Mobility, and Identity. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-1756-1.
Akbarzadeh, Shahram; Saeed, Abdullah (2003). Islam and Political Legitimacy. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-38056-5.
Asmah, Omar (2004). The Encyclopedia of Malaysia: Languages and literature. Archipelago Press. ISBN 9789813018525.
Tan, Chee Beng (2004). Chinese Overseas: Comparative Cultural Issues. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 978-962-209-661-5.
Wong, Danny Tze-Ken (2004). Historical Sabah: The Chinese. Natural History Publications (Borneo). ISBN 978-983-812-104-0.
Chen, Min (2004). Asian Management Systems: Chinese, Japanese and Korean Styles of Business. Cengage Learning EMEA. ISBN 1-86152-941-4.
Ooi, Keat Gin (2004). Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2.
Ember, Melvin; Ember, Carol R.; Skoggard, Ian (2004). Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World. Volume I: Overviews and Topics; Volume II: Diaspora Communities. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-0-306-48321-9.
Borschberg, Peter (2004). Iberians in the Singapore-Melaka Area and Adjacent Regions (16th to 18th Century). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-05107-1.
Stubbs, Richard (2004). Hearts and Minds in Guerilla Warfare: The Malayan Emergency, 1948-1960. Eastern Universities Press. ISBN 978-981-210-352-9.
Tan, Andrew Tian Huat (2004b). Security Perspectives of the Malay Archipelago: Security Linkages in the Second Front in the War on Terrorism. Edward Elgar. ISBN 978-1-84376-997-2.
Bunnell, Tim (2004). Malaysia, Modernity and the Multimedia Super Corridor: A Critical Geography of Intelligent Landscapes. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-51971-2.
Porritt, Vernon (2004). The Rise and Fall of Communism in Sarawak, 1940-1990. Monash Asia Institute. ISBN 978-1-876924-27-0.
Goh, Robbie B. H. (2005). Christianity in Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-230-297-7.
Khoo, Salma Nasution; Lubis, Abdur-Razzaq (2005). Kinta Valley: Pioneering Malaysia's Modern Development. Areca Books. ISBN 978-983-42113-0-1.
Hutton, Wendy (2005). The Food of Malaysia: 62 Easy-to-follow and Delicious Recipes from the Crossroads of Asia. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4629-1637-5.
Kee, Cheok Cheong; Choong, Kah Wong (2006). Asia Resurgent: Transformation, Growth, and Integration. University of Malaya Press. ISBN 978-983-100-352-7.
Lim, Huck Chin; Fernando, Jorge (2006). Malacca: voices from the street. Lim Huck Chin. ISBN 9789834277802.
Maya, Khemlani David (2006). Language Choices and Discourse of Malaysian Families: Case Studies of Families in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. SIRD. ISBN 978-983-2535-98-0.
Suryadinata, Leo (2006). Tongmenghui, Sun Yat-sen and the Chinese in Southeast Asia : a revisit. 華裔馆. ISBN 978-981-05-6821-4.
Munoz, Paul Michel (2006). Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula. Continental Sales, Incorporated. ISBN 978-981-4155-67-0.
Gomes, Alberto (2007). Modernity and Malaysia: Settling the Menraq Forest Nomads. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-10077-4.
Voon, Phin Keong (2007). Malaysian Chinese and Nation-building: Historical background and economic perspective. Centre for Malaysian Chinese Studies. ISBN 978-983-3908-02-8.
Bakri, Musa (2007). Towards a competitive Malaysia: development challenges in the twenty-first century. Strategic Information and Research Development Centre. ISBN 978-983-3782-20-8.
Cheung, Sidney; Tan, Chee Beng (2007). Food and Foodways in Asia: Resource, Tradition and Cooking. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-16461-5.
Kua, Kia Soong (2007). May 13: Declassified Documents on the Malaysian Riots of 1969. SUARAM. ISBN 978-983-41367-6-5.
Gordon, Stewart (2007). When Asia Was the World: Traveling Merchants, Scholars, Warriors, and Monks Who Created the ""Riches of the ""East"". Hachette Books. ISBN 978-0-306-81729-8.
Jenkins, Gwynn (2008). Contested Space: Cultural Heritage and Identity Reconstructions : Conservation Strategies Within a Developing Asian City. LIT Verlag Münster. ISBN 978-3-8258-1366-6.
Sharp, Ilsa (2008). The E&O Hotel: pearl of Penang. Marshall Cavendish Editions. ISBN 9789812614827.
Nelson, Joan M; Meerman, Jacob; Rahman, Embong (2008). Globalization and National Autonomy: The Experience of Malaysia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-230-817-7.
Kuhn, Philip A. (2008). Chinese Among Others: Emigration in Modern Times. NUS Press. ISBN 978-9971-69-414-2.
Jackson, Robert (2008). The Malayan Emergency and Indonesian Confrontation: The Commonwealth's Wars 1948-1966. Casemate Publishers. ISBN 978-1-84415-775-4.
Khoo, Salma Nasution (2008). 孫文 [Sun Wen ]. Areca Books. ISBN 978-983-42834-8-3.
The Report: Malaysia 2008. Oxford Business Group. 2008. ISBN 978-1-902339-88-7.
Cheng, Guan Ang (2009). Southeast Asia and the Vietnam War. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-23837-7.
Blussé, Leonard (2009). Visible Cities: Canton, Nagasaki, and Batavia and the Coming of the Americans. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02843-2.
Ball, Martin J (2009). The Routledge Handbook of Sociolinguistics Around the World: A Handbook. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-26104-7.
Defillippi, Robert; Arthur, Michael; Lindsay, Valerie (2009). Knowledge at Work: Creative Collaboration in the Global Economy. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-7269-1.
Koh, Jaime; Ho, Stephanie (2009). Culture and Customs of Singapore and Malaysia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-35116-7.
West, Barbara A. (2010). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-1913-7.
Liow, Joseph Chinyong; Hosen, Nadirsyah (2010). Islam in Southeast Asia: Critical Concepts in Islamic Studies. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-48477-0.
Tong, Chee Kiong (2010). Identity and Ethnic Relations in Southeast Asia: Racializing Chineseness. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-90-481-8909-0.
Lee, Su Kim (2010). Kebaya Tales: : Of matriarchs, maidens, mistresses and matchmakers. Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd. ISBN 978-981-4382-85-4.
Bauer, Robert S.; Benedict, Paul K. (2011). Modern Cantonese Phonology. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-082370-7.
Cartier, Carolyn (2011). Globalizing South China. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-9924-0.
Gabaccía, Donna R.; Hoerder, Dirk (2011). Connecting Seas and Connected Ocean Rims: Indian, Atlantic, and Pacific Oceans and China Seas Migrations from the 1830s to the 1930s. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-19316-1.
Hamilton, Gary G. (2011). Asian Business Networks. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-088831-7.
Lai, To Lee; Hock, Guan Lee (2011). Sun Yat-Sen, Nanyang and the 1911 Revolution. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-4345-46-0.
Nolan, Victoria (2011). Military Leadership and Counterinsurgency: The British Army and Small War Strategy Since World War II. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-0-85772-087-0.
Runciman, Steven (2011). The White Rajah: A History of Sarawak from 1841 to 1946. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-12899-5.
Ting, Hui Lee (2011). Chinese Schools in Peninsular Malaysia: The Struggle for Survival. Institute of Southeast Asian. ISBN 978-981-4279-21-5.
Wurm, Stephen A.; Mühlhäusler, Peter; Tryon, Darrell T. (2011). Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas: Vol I: Maps. Vol II: Texts. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-081972-4.
Armstrong, M. Jocelyn; Armstrong, R. Warwick; Mulliner, Kent (2012). Chinese Populations in Contemporary Southeast Asian Societies: Identities, Interdependence and International Influence. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-12346-7.
Gomez, Terence (2012). Chinese Business in Malaysia: Accumulation, Accommodation and Ascendance. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-11226-3.
Hartfield, James (2012). Unpatriotic History of the Second World War. John Hunt Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78099-379-9.
Hock, Guan Lee; Suryadinata, Leo (2012). Malaysian Chinese: Recent Developments and Prospects. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-4345-08-8.
Hutton, Wendy (2012). Authentic Recipes from Malaysia. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4629-0539-3.
Lahoud, Nelly; Johns, A.H. (2012). Islam in World Politics. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-34716-2.
Suryadinata, Leo (2012). Southeast Asian Personalities of Chinese Descent: A Biographical Dictionary, Volume I & II. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-4345-21-7.
Tan, Chee Beng (2012). Chinese Food and Foodways in Southeast Asia and Beyond. NUS Press. ISBN 978-9971-69-548-4.
Wang, Xiaomei (2012). Mandarin Spread in Malaysia. The University of Malaya Press. ISBN 978-983-100-958-1.
Case, William (2013). Politics in Southeast Asia: Democracy or Less. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-87114-6.
Cheah, Boon Kheng (2013). Red Star Over Malaya. Flipside Digital Content Company Inc. ISBN 978-9971-69-736-5.
Diamond, Larry; Plattner, Marc F.; Chu, Yun-han (2013). Democracy in East Asia: A New Century. JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-0968-9.
Douw, Leo; Huang, Cen; Ip, David (2013). Rethinking Chinese Transnational Enterprises: Cultural Affinity and Business Strategies. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-86195-6.
Gentile, Gian (2013). Wrong Turn: America s Deadly Embrace of Counterinsurgency. New Press. ISBN 978-1-59558-896-8.
Hale, Christopher (2013). Massacre in Malaya: Exposing Britain's My Lai. History Press. ISBN 978-0-7509-5181-4.
Hamblin, Jacob Darwin (2013). Arming Mother Nature: The Birth of Catastrophic Environmentalism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-991159-2.
Josey, Alex (2013). Lee Kuan Yew: The Crucial Years. Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd. ISBN 978-981-4435-49-9.
Lee, Khoon Choy (2013). Golden Dragon And Purple Phoenix: The Chinese And Their Multi-ethnic Descendants In Southeast Asia. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-4518-49-9.
Leifer, Michael (2013). Dictionary of the Modern Politics of Southeast Asia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-12945-3.
Ramakrishna, Kumar (2013). Emergency Propaganda: The Winning of Malayan Hearts and Minds 1948-1958. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-60276-4.
Yong, Kee Howe (2013). The Hakkas of Sarawak: Sacrificial Gifts in Cold War Era Malaysia. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1-4426-6798-3.
Curdt-Christiansen, Xiao Lan; Hancock, Andy (2014). Learning Chinese in Diasporic Communities: Many pathways to being Chinese. John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 978-90-272-7024-5.
Jakobsen, Michael (2014). Ethnic Chinese Entrepreneurship in Malaysia: On Contextualisation in International Business Studies. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-59402-4.
Khoo, Boo Eng (2014). A Simple Approach To Taoism. Partridge Singapore. ISBN 978-1-4828-9531-5.
Mizushima, Tsukasa; Souza, George Bryan; Flynn, Dennis O., eds. (2014). Hinterlands and Commodities: Place, Space, Time and the Political Economic Development of Asia over the Long Eighteenth Century. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-28390-9.
Ong, Weichong (2014). Malaysia's Defeat of Armed Communism: The Second Emergency, 1968-1989. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-62688-6.
Singh, Bilveer (2014). Quest for Political Power: Communist Subversion and Militancy in Singapore. Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd. ISBN 978-981-4634-49-6.
Stevenson, Xutian; Tai, Shusheng; Yuan, Chun-su (2014). Handbook Of Traditional Chinese Medicine (In 3 Volumes). World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-4571-34-0.
Reid, Anthony (2015). A History of Southeast Asia: Critical Crossroads. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-631-17961-0.
Garver, John W. (2015). China's Quest: The History of the Foreign Relations of the People's Republic, revised and updated. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-026107-8.
Ooi, Keat Gin (2015). Brunei – History, Islam, Society and Contemporary Issues. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-65998-3.
Comber, Leon (2015). Templer and the Road to Malayan Independence: The Man and His Time. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-4620-10-9.
de Vienne, Marie-Sybille (2015). Brunei: From the Age of Commerce to the 21st Century. NUS Press. ISBN 978-9971-69-818-8.
Razak, Abdullah (2015). China-Malaysia Relations and Foreign Policy. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-57197-1.
Brezina, Corona (2016). Zheng He: China's Greatest Explorer, Mariner, and Navigator. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. ISBN 978-1-5081-7149-2.
DK Travel (2016). Malaysia and Singapore. Eyewitness Travel Guides. Dorling Kindersley Limited. ISBN 978-0-241-25431-8.
Kaur, A. (2016). Economic Change in East Malaysia: Sabah and Sarawak since 1850. Palgrave Macmillan UK. ISBN 978-0-230-37709-7.
Landa, Janet Tai (2016). Economic Success of Chinese Merchants in Southeast Asia: Identity, Ethnic Cooperation and Conflict. Springer. ISBN 978-3-642-54019-6.
Roy, Kaushik; Saha, Sourish (2016). Armed Forces and Insurgents in Modern Asia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-23193-6.
Yamaguchi, Toshiko; Deterding, David (2016). English in Malaysia: Current Use and Status. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-31430-6.
Wong, Bernard; Tan, Chee Beng (2017). China's Rise and the Chinese Overseas. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-351-86660-6.
Lin, Francis Chia-Hui (2017). Architectural Theorisations and Phenomena in Asia: The Polychronotypic Jetztzeit. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-58433-1.
Arokiasamy, Christina (2017). The Malaysian Kitchen: 150 Recipes for Simple Home Cooking. HMH Books. ISBN 978-0-544-81002-0.
Ma, Hailong (2017). The History of Chinese Muslims' Migration into Malaysia. King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies (KFCRIS). ISBN 978-603-8206-48-5.
Dayley, Robert (2018). Southeast Asia in the New International Era. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-429-97424-3.
Tan, Chee Beng (2018). Chinese Religion in Malaysia: Temples and Communities. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-35787-7.
Tyson, Adam (2018). The Political Economy of Brain Drain and Talent Capture: Evidence from Malaysia and Singapore. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-429-77316-7.
Wade, Geoff; Chin, James K. (2018). China and Southeast Asia: Historical Interactions. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-429-95212-8.
Zhang, Quan (2018). Pacific Rim Objective Measurement Symposium (PROMS) 2016 Conference Proceedings: Rasch and the Future. Springer Singapore. ISBN 978-981-10-8138-5.