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History of the Cold War
Origins World War II Hiroshima and Nagasaki Aftermath Eastern Bloc Western Bloc Iron Curtain
Periods Cold War (1947–1948) Cold War (1948–1953) Cold War (1953–1962) Cold War (1962–1979) Cold War (1979–1985) Cold War (1985–1991) Frozen conflicts
Related topics Timeline of events Historiography Related conflicts Post–Cold War era Relations since 1989 Second Cold War Post-Soviet conflicts Arab Cold War Cold War in Asia Reagan Doctrine
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The time period of around 1985–1991 marked the final period of the Cold War. It was characterized by systemic reform within the Soviet Union, the easing of geopolitical tensions between the Soviet-led bloc and the United States-led bloc, the collapse of the Soviet Union's influence in Eastern Europe, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.

The beginning of this period is marked by the ascent of Mikhail Gorbachev to the position of General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Seeking to bring an end to the economic stagnation associated with the Brezhnev Era, Gorbachev initiated economic reforms (perestroika), and political liberalization (glasnost). While the exact end date of the Cold War is debated among historians, it is generally agreed upon that the implementation of nuclear and conventional arms control agreements, the withdrawal of Soviet military forces from Afghanistan and Eastern Europe, and the collapse of the Soviet Union marked the end of the Cold War.

Thaw in relations

After the deaths of three successive elderly Soviet leaders since 1982, the Soviet Politburo elected Gorbachev Communist Party General Secretary in March 1985, marking the rise of a new generation of leadership. Under Gorbachev, relatively young reform-oriented technocrats, who had begun their careers in the heyday of "de-Stalinization" under reformist leader Nikita Khrushchev, rapidly consolidated power, providing new momentum for political and economic liberalization, and the impetus for cultivating warmer relations and trade with the West.

On the Western front, President Reagan's administration had taken a hard line against the Soviet Union. Under the Reagan Doctrine, the Reagan administration began providing military support to anti-communist armed movements in Afghanistan, Angola, Nicaragua and elsewhere.

A major breakthrough came in 1985–87, with the successful negotiation of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF). The INF Treaty of December 1987, signed by Reagan and Gorbachev, eliminated all nuclear and conventional missiles, as well as their launchers, with ranges of 500–1,000 kilometres (310–620 mi) (short-range) and 1,000–5,500 kilometres (620–3,420 mi) (intermediate-range). The treaty did not cover sea-launched missiles. By May 1991, after on-site investigations by both sides, 2,700 missiles had been destroyed.

The Reagan administration also persuaded the Saudi Arabian oil companies to increase oil production. This led to a three-times drop in the prices of oil, and oil was the main source of Soviet export revenues. Following the USSR's previous large military buildup, President Reagan ordered an enormous peacetime defense buildup of the United States Armed Forces; the Soviets did not respond to this by building up their military because the military expenses, in combination with collectivized agriculture in the nation, and inefficient planned manufacturing, would cause a heavy burden for the Soviet economy. It was already stagnant and in a poor state prior to the tenure of Mikhail Gorbachev who, despite significant attempts at reform, was unable to revitalise the economy. In 1985, Reagan and Gorbachev held their first of four "summit" meetings, this one in Geneva, Switzerland. After discussing policy, facts, etc., Reagan invited Gorbachev to go with him to a small house near the beach. The two leaders spoke in that house well over their time limit, but came out with the news that they had planned two more (soon three more) summits.

The second summit took place the following year, in 1986 on October 11, in Reykjavík, Iceland. The meeting was held to pursue discussions about scaling back their intermediate-range ballistic missile arsenals in Europe. The talks came close to achieving an overall breakthrough on nuclear arms control, but ended in failure due to Reagan's proposed Strategic Defense Initiative and Gorbachev's proposed cancellation of it. Nonetheless, cooperation continued to increase and, where it failed, Gorbachev reduced some strategic arms unilaterally.

Fundamental to the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Gorbachev policy initiatives of Restructuring (Perestroika) and Openness (Glasnost) had ripple effects throughout the Soviet world, including eventually making it impossible to reassert central control over Warsaw Pact member states without resorting to military force.

On June 12, 1987, Reagan challenged Gorbachev to go further with his reforms and democratization by tearing down the Berlin Wall. In a speech at the Brandenburg Gate next to the wall, Reagan stated:

General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union, Central and South-East Europe, if you seek liberalization, come here to this gate; Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!

While the aging communist European leaders kept their states in the grip of "normalization", Gorbachev's reformist policies in the Soviet Union exposed how a once revolutionary Communist Party of the Soviet Union had become moribund at the very center of the system. Facing declining revenues due to declining oil prices and rising expenditures related to the arms race and the command economy, the Soviet Union was forced during the 1980s to take on significant amounts of debt from the Western banking sector. The growing public disapproval of the Soviet–Afghan War, and the socio-political effects of the Chernobyl accident in Ukraine increased public support for these policies. By the spring of 1989, the USSR had not only experienced lively media debate, but had also held its first multi-candidate elections. For the first time in recent history, the force of liberalization was spreading from West to East.

Revolt spreads through Communist Europe

Grassroots organizations, such as Poland's Solidarity movement, rapidly gained ground with strong popular bases. In February 1989 the Polish People's Republic opened talks with opposition, known as the Polish Round Table Agreement, which allowed elections with participation of anti-Communist parties in June 1989.

The initially inconspicuous opening of a border gate of the Iron Curtain between Austria and Hungary in August 1989 then triggered a chain reaction, at the end of which the German Democratic Republic no longer existed and the Eastern Bloc had disintegrated. The idea for the Pan-European Picnic came from Otto von Habsburg and was intended as a test of whether the Soviet Union would react when the iron curtain was opened. The Pan-European Union Austria then advertised with leaflets in Hungary to make East Germans aware of the possibility of escape. The result of the greatest mass exodus since the building of the Berlin Wall and the non-reaction of the Eastern bloc states showed the oppressed population that their governments had lost absolute power. Subsequently, large numbers of East German refugees attempted to flee through Hungary and the weak reactions showed that the communist leaders lost even more power.

Also in 1989 the Communist government in Hungary started to negotiate organizing of competitive elections which took place in 1990. In Czechoslovakia and East Germany, mass protests unseated entrenched Communist leaders. The Communist regimes in Bulgaria and Romania also crumbled, in the latter case as the result of a violent uprising. Attitudes had changed enough that US Secretary of State James Baker suggested that the American government would not be opposed to Soviet intervention in Romania, on behalf of the opposition, to prevent bloodshed. The tidal wave of change culminated with the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, which symbolized the collapse of European Communist governments and graphically ended the Iron Curtain divide of Europe.

The collapse of the Eastern European governments with Gorbachev's tacit consent inadvertently encouraged several Soviet republics to seek greater independence from Moscow's rule. Agitation for independence in the Baltic states led to first Lithuania, and then Estonia and Latvia, declaring their independence. Disaffection in the other republics was met by promises of greater decentralization. More open elections led to the election of candidates opposed to Communist Party rule.

In an attempt to halt the rapid changes to the system, a group of Soviet hard-liners represented by Vice-president Gennady Yanayev launched a coup overthrowing Gorbachev in August 1991. Russian President Boris Yeltsin rallied the people and much of the army against the coup and the effort collapsed. Although restored to power, Gorbachev's authority had been irreparably undermined. In September, the Baltic states were granted independence. On December 1, Ukraine withdrew from the USSR. On December 26, 1991, the USSR officially dissolved, breaking up into fifteen separate nations.

End of the Cold War

After the end of the Revolutions of 1989, Gorbachev and President Bush Sr. met on the neutral island of Malta to discuss the events of the year, the withdrawal of the Soviet military from Eastern Europe, and the future course of their relationship. After their discussions, the two leaders publicly announced they would work together for German reunification, the normalization of relations, the resolution of Third World conflicts, and the promotion of peace and democracy (referred to by President Bush as a "New World Order").

Between the Malta Summit and the Dissolution of the Soviet Union negotiations on several arms control agreements began, resulting in agreements such as START I and the Chemical Weapons Convention. Additionally, the United States, still believing the Soviet Union would continue to exist in the long term, began to take steps to create a positive long-term relationship.

This new relationship was demonstrated by the joint American-Soviet opposition to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. The Soviet Union voted in the United Nations Security Council in favor of Resolution 678 authorizing the use of military force against its former Middle Eastern ally.

Several conflicts in third world nations (i.e. Cambodia, Angola, Nicaragua) related to the Cold War would come to an end during this era of cooperation, with both the Soviet Union and the United States working together to pressure their respective proxies to make peace with one another. Overall, this détente which accompanied the final twilight of the Cold War would help bring about a relatively more peaceful world.

As a consequence of the Revolutions of 1989 and the adoption of a foreign policy based on non-interference by the Soviet Union, the Warsaw Pact was dissolved and Soviet troops began withdrawing back to the Soviet Union, completing their withdrawal by the mid-1990s.

The United States had established a complex global presence by the 1990s and policymakers felt that some structure to explain the "threats, interests and priories" that guide foreign policy was needed, but there was no agreement on how to proceed. Anthony Lake has said that attempts at doctrine making during this period risked introducing "neo-know-nothing" isolationism or what he termed "irrational" ideas. The goal then of Bush Sr. and Clinton during their terms in office was to develop foreign policy objectives that would support consensus rather than accelerate fragmentation inside America's sphere of influence.

Causes

Scholars have pointed to materialist and ideational reasons for the end of the Cold War. Materialists emphasize Soviet economic difficulties (such as economic stagnation and sovereign debt), whereas ideationalists argue that the worldviews and personas of Gorbachev and Reagan mattered. Ideationalists point to a Gorbachev and Reagan's mutual desire to abolish nuclear weapons, as well as Gorbachev's perceptions of the legitimate ends and means of foreign policy.

Legacy

Countries such as the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Slovakia experienced economic reconstruction, growth and fast integration with EU and NATO while some of their eastern neighbors created hybrids of free market oligarchy system, post-communist corrupted administration and dictatorship.

Russia and some other Soviet successor states faced a chaotic and harsh transition from a command economy to free market capitalism following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. A large percentage of the population lived in poverty, GDP growth declined, and life expectancy dropped sharply. Living conditions also declined in some other parts of the former Eastern bloc.

The post–Cold War era saw a period of unprecedented prosperity in the West, especially in the United States, and a wave of democratization throughout Latin America, Africa, and Central, South-East and Eastern Europe.

Sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein expresses a less triumphalist view, arguing that the end of the Cold War is a prelude to the breakdown of Pax Americana. In his essay "Pax Americana is Over", Wallerstein argues, "The collapse of communism in effect signified the collapse of liberalism, removing the only ideological justification behind US hegemony, a justification tacitly supported by liberalism's ostensible ideological opponent".

Space exploration has petered out in both the United States and Russia without the competitive pressure of the space race. Military decorations have become more common, as they were created, and bestowed, by the major powers during the near 50 years of undeclared hostilities.

Timeline of related events

1985

• January 20, 1985 – Ronald Reagan is sworn in for a second term as President of the United States.
• March 10, 1985 – General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Konstantin Chernenko dies.
• March 11, 1985 – Soviet Politburo member Mikhail Gorbachev becomes the General Secretary of the Communist Party.
• March 24, 1985 – Major Arthur D. Nicholson, a US Army Military Intelligence officer is shot to death by a Soviet sentry in East Germany. He is listed as the last US casualty in the Cold War.

1986

• February 22–25, 1986 – People Power Revolution successfully overthrows Ferdinand Marcos in the Philippines.
• April 26, 1986 – The Chernobyl Disaster.
• October 11–12 – The Reykjavik summit.

1987

• January 1987 – Gorbachev introduces the policy of demokratizatsiya in the Soviet Union.
• January 27, 1987 – The United States recognizes the independence of Mongolia and establishes diplomatic relations.
• March 4, 1987 – In a televised address, Reagan takes full responsibility for the Iran–Contra affair.
• June 12, 1987 – "Tear down this wall" speech by Reagan in West Berlin.
• June 29, 1987 – June Struggle in South Korea.
• July 15, 1987 – The Republic of China ends 38 years of martial law.
• November 15, 1987 – Brașov rebellion in Romania.
• December 8, 1987 – The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty is signed in Washington, D.C.

1988

• February 12, 1988 – Hostile rendezvous off coast of Crimea in Black Sea when the Soviet frigate Bezzavetnyy rammed the American missile cruiser USS Yorktown.
• February 20, 1988 – The regional soviet of Nagorno-Karabakh in Azerbaijan decides to be part of Armenia, but the Kremlin refuses to do it. The subsequent First Nagorno-Karabakh War would be the first of the internal conflicts in the Soviet Union that would become the post-Soviet separatist conflicts.
• August 8, 1988 – 8888 Uprising in Burma.
• August 17, 1988 – Pakistani president Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq dies.
• August 20, 1988 – End of Iran–Iraq War.
• September 17, 1988 – Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea; first time since 1976 that both Soviet Union and the United States participate; it is also the last Olympic Games for the Soviet Union and its satellite states.
• October 5, 1988 – Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet is defeated in a nationwide referendum.
• December 21, 1988 – Pan Am Flight 103 bombing.

1989

• January 7, 1989 – Japanese Emperor Hirohito dies, he was succeeded by his son Akihito.
• January 20, 1989 – George H. W. Bush becomes president of the United States.
• February 1989 – End of Soviet–Afghan War; continuation of internal conflict without Soviet troops.
• June 3, 1989 – Iranian leader Ayatollah Khomeini dies.
• June 4, 1989 – Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 in Beijing, People's Republic of China.
• June 4, 1989 – Solidarity's decisive victory in the first partially free parliamentary elections in post-war Poland sparks off a succession of anti-communist Revolutions of 1989 across Central, later South-East and Eastern Europe.
• August 14, 1989 – South African president Pieter Willem Botha resigns in reaction to the implementation of Tripartite Accord.
• August 19, 1989 – The opening of the border gate between Austria and Hungary at the Pan-European Picnic set in motion a chain reaction, at the end of which there was no longer a GDR and the Eastern Bloc had disintegrated.
• August 23, 1989 – Soviet Politburo member Alexander Yakovlev denounces the secret protocols of the Hitler-Stalin Pact.
• August 24, 1989 – Tadeusz Mazowiecki becomes the Prime Minister of Poland forming the first non-communist government in the Communist bloc.
• October 23, 1989 – End of Communism in Hungary.
• November 9, 1989 – Fall of the Berlin Wall.
• November 24, 1989 – Communist Party of Czechoslovakia leaders resign during the Velvet Revolution, effectively ending one-party rule in that country.
• December 2–3, 1989 – Malta Summit between Bush and Gorbachev, who said, "I assured the President of the United States that I will never start a hot war against the USA".
• December 10, 1989 – Czechoslovak President Gustáv Husák's resignation amounted to the fall of the Communist regime in Czechoslovakia, leaving Ceaușescu's Romania as the only remaining hard-line Communist regime in the Warsaw Pact.
• December 25, 1989 – Execution of Nicolae Ceauşescu during the Romanian Revolution against Communist Party rule.
• December 29, 1989 – Václav Havel assumes the presidency of Czechoslovakia at the conclusion of Velvet Revolution.
• December 30, 1989 – The Securitate, the secret police of Romania, is dissolved.

1990

• January 13, 1990 – The Stasi, the secret police of East Germany, is dissolved.
• January 22, 1990 – the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, the ruling party of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, is dissolved during its congress, ending the one party system in the country.
• February 1, 1990 – StB, the secret police of Czechoslovakia is dissolved.
• March 15, 1990 – Inauguration of Gorbachev as the first President of the Soviet Union.
• April 12, 1990 – The Socialist Republic of Slovenia within Yugoslavia holds its first multi-party elections.
• April 22–23 and May 6–7, 1990 – the Socialist Republic of Croatia within Yugoslavia holds its first multi-party elections.
• April 25, 1990 – Violeta Chamorro is sworn in as president of Nicaragua, ending the Sandinista rule and the Contras insurgency.
• May 22, 1990 – South and North Yemens are unified.
• June 8, 1990 – the Message from Turnberry, described as the "first official recognition of the end of the Cold War", is issued.
• July 5–6, 1990 – NATO holds its 11th summit in London.
• July 13, 1990 – The 28th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union announces the end of its monopoly of power.
• August 2, 1990 – Beginning of Gulf War.
• September 9, 1990 – Helsinki Summit between Bush and Gorbachev.
• September 12, 1990 – The Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany is signed in Moscow.
• October 3, 1990 – Official reunification of Germany.
• November 6, 1990 – Hungary become the first Soviet Bloc country to join the Council of Europe.
• November 11, 1990 – The Socialist Republic of Macedonia within Yugoslavia holds its first multi-party elections.
• November 18, 1990 – The Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina within Yugoslavia holds its first multiparty elections.
• November 19, 1990 – NATO and Warsaw Pact sign the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe.
• November 28, 1990 – Margaret Thatcher falls from power as UK Prime Minister; John Major takes office.
• December 9, 1990 – The Socialist Republic of Montenegro within Yugoslavia holds its first multi-party elections.
• December 9–23, 1990 – The Socialist Republic of Serbia within Yugoslavia holds its first multi-party elections.
• December 22, 1990 – Lech Wałęsa becomes president of Poland; Polish government-in-exile ends.
• December 23, 1990 – Slovenia holds an independence referendum resulting in a majority of Slovenians voting in favour of Slovenia seeking independence from Yugoslavia.

1991

• January 1991 – Money transfers from the Czech Republic budget to the Slovak Republic are stopped, beginning the process that would lead to Velvet Divorce.
• February 28, 1991 – End of Gulf War.
• March 3, 1991 – Estonia and Latvia hold an independence referendum with a majority voting to restore independence.
• March 31, 1991 – Georgia holds an independence referendum resulting in a majority of Georgians voting in favour of Georgia becoming independent from the Soviet Union.
• May 1, 1991 – The Republic of China abolishes the Temporary Provisions against the Communist Rebellion which was in place during the Chinese Civil War.
• May 19, 1991 – Croatia holds an independence referendum resulting in a majority of Croatians voting in favour of Croatia seeking independence from Yugoslavia.
• May 24, 1991 – End of Eritrean War of Independence in Ethiopia.
• June 27, 1991 – Beginning of the Yugoslav Wars in Slovenia.
• June 28, 1991 – Comecon is dissolved.
• July 1, 1991 – The Warsaw Pact is dissolved.
• July 10, 1991 – Boris Yeltsin becomes president of Russia.
• July 31, 1991 – Ratification of START I treaty between United States and the Soviet Union.
• August 19, 1991 – Start of the Soviet Union coup d'état attempt.
• August 21, 1991 – The Soviet Union coup d'état is dissolved.
• August 24, 1991 – Gorbachev resigns from the post of General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
• September 6, 1991 – The Soviet Union recognizes the independence of the Baltic States.
• September 8, 1991 – The Republic of Macedonia holds an independence referendum resulting in a majority of Macedonians voting in favour of Macedonia seeking independence from Yugoslavia.
• September 21, 1991 – Armenia holds an independence referendum resulting in a majority of Armenians voting in favour of Armenia becoming independent from the Soviet Union.
• October 26, 1991 – Turkmenistan holds an independence referendum resulting in a majority of voting in favour of Turkmenistan becoming independent of the Soviet Union.
• November 6, 1991 – The Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Soviet KGB are dissolved.
• November 7–8, 1991 – NATO holds its 12th summit in Rome.
• December 8, 1991 – The Belavezha Accords are signed by the leaders of Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, sealing the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the creation of the CIS.
• December 24, 1991 – Gorbachev resigns as President of the Soviet Union and the post is abolished; the red Soviet flag is lowered from the Moscow Kremlin, and in its place the flag of the Russian Federation is raised.
• December 25, 1991 – The Supreme Soviet dissolves the Soviet Union.

See also

• History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)
• History of the United States (1980–1991)
• Post-Communism
• Reagan Doctrine
• Solidarity
• Timeline of events in the Cold War

Footnotes

1. Lynn E. Davis, "Lessons of the INF Treaty." Foreign Affairs 66.4 (1988): 720–734. in JSTOR
2. CQ Press (2012). Guide to Congress. SAGE. pp. 252–53. ISBN 978-1-4522-3532-5.
3. ^ Gaidar, Yegor. "Public Expectations and Trust towards the Government: Post-Revolution Stabilization and its Discontents". Retrieved 2008-03-15.
4. Gaidar, Yegor (2007-10-17). Collapse of an Empire: Lessons for Modern Russia (in Russian). Brookings Institution Press. pp. 190–210. ISBN 978-5-8243-0759-7.
5. "Reagan's 'tear down this wall' speech turns 20". USA Today. 2007-06-12. Retrieved 2008-03-20.
6. Leebaert, Derek (2002). The Fifty-Year Wound. New York, USA: Little, Brown and Company. p. 595.
7. Michael Frank: Paneuropäisches Picknick – Mit dem Picknickkorb in die Freiheit (German: Pan-European picnic - With the picnic basket to freedom), in: Süddeutsche Zeitung 17 May 2010.
8. Thomas Roser: DDR-Massenflucht: Ein Picknick hebt die Welt aus den Angeln (German - Mass exodus of the GDR: A picnic clears the world) in: Die Presse 16 August 2018.
9. „Der 19. August 1989 war ein Test für Gorbatschows“ (German - August 19, 1989 was a test for Gorbachev), in: FAZ 19 August 2009.
10. Miklós Németh in Interview, Austrian TV - ORF "Report", 25 June 2019
11. Garthof, Raymond L. "The Great Transition: American-Soviet Relations and the End of the Cold War" (Washington: Brookings Institution, 1994).
12. "1989: Malta summit ends Cold War". British Broadcasting Corporation. 1989-12-03. Retrieved 2018-03-31.
13. Arjen Molen (2015-09-14), Cold War - Conclusions 1989-1991 - Part 24/24, archived from the original on 2021-12-19, retrieved 2018-03-31
14. "S/RES/678(1990) - E". undocs.org. Retrieved 2018-03-31.
15. Cohen, Michael (December 15, 2011). "Peace in the Post-Cold War World". The Atlantic. Retrieved March 31, 2018.
16. Bohlen, Celestine (February 26, 1991). "Warsaw Pact Agrees to Dissolve Its Military Alliance by March 31". The New York Times. p. 1,10. Retrieved March 31, 2018.
17. Marshall, Tyler (April 1, 1993). "Few Russian Troops Remain in Ex-Satellite States: Military: Of an estimated 600,000 in Eastern Europe in the late 1980s, only about 113,000 haven't gone home". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved March 31, 2018.
18. Brands, Hal (2008). From Berlin to Baghdad: America's Search for Purpose in the Post-Cold War World. The University Press of Kentucky. p. 3. ISBN 9780813159324. Retrieved 29 July 2019.
19. Bartel, Fritz (2021), Bartel, Fritz; Monteiro, Nuno P. (eds.), "Overcoming Stagnation", Before and After the Fall: World Politics and the End of the Cold War, Cambridge University Press, pp. 27–44, doi:10.1017/9781108910194.003, ISBN 978-1-108-90677-7, S2CID 244846930
20. Jervis, Robert (2021), Bartel, Fritz; Monteiro, Nuno P. (eds.), "The Nuclear Age", Before and After the Fall: World Politics and the End of the Cold War, Cambridge University Press, pp. 115–131, doi:10.1017/9781108910194.008, ISBN 978-1-108-90677-7, S2CID 244858515
21. Radchenko, Sergey (2021), Bartel, Fritz; Monteiro, Nuno P. (eds.), "Mikhail Gorbachev", Before and After the Fall: World Politics and the End of the Cold War, Cambridge University Press, pp. 45–61, ISBN 978-1-108-90677-7
22. "Wallerstein, Immanuel. "Pax Americana is Over"". Archived from the original on 2012-02-04. Retrieved 2006-02-22.
23. "Mongolia - Countries - Office of the Historian". history.state.gov. Retrieved 2020-06-15.
24. (in English) 1988 soviet ramming USS Yorktown CG 48 in black sea (video)
25. Soviet Union Defiance in the Streets, Time, March 07, 1988
26. Roger East, Jolyon Pontin, Bloomsbury Publishing, 6 oct. 2016, Revolution and Change in Central and Eastern Europe: Revised Edition, p. 182
27. Florin Abraham, Bloomsbury Publishing, Nov 17, 2016, Romania since the Second World War: A Political, Social and Economic History, p. 107
28. The New York Times, 10 December 1989

Further reading

• Ball, S. J. The Cold War: An International History, 1947–1991 (1998). British perspective
• Beschloss, Michael, and Strobe Talbott. At the Highest Levels:The Inside Story of the End of the Cold War (1993)
• Braithwaite, Rodric et al. "Could the Soviet Union Have Survived? We ask four historians whether the demise of one of the 20th century's superpowers was as inevitable as it now seems." History Today (Oct 2020) 70#10 pp 8–10 .
• Brooks, Stephen G., and William C. Wohlforth. "Power, globalization, and the end of the Cold War: Reevaluating a landmark case for ideas." International Security 25.3 (2001): 5-53.
• Engel, Jeffrey A. When the World Seemed New: George H. W. Bush and the End of the Cold War (2017)
• Gaddis, John Lewis. The Cold War: A New History (2005) online
• Gaddis, John Lewis. The United States and the End of the Cold War: Implications, Reconsiderations, Provocations (1992) online
• Garthoff, Raymond. The Great Transition: American-Soviet Relations and the End of the Cold War (1994) online
• Goertz, Gary and Jack S. Levy, eds. Causal explanations, necessary conditions, and case studies: World War I and the End of the Cold War (2005), 10 essays from political scientists; online
• Hogan, Michael, ed. The End of the Cold War. Its Meaning and Implications (1992) articles from Diplomatic History
• Kalinovsky, Artemy M. "New Histories of the End of the Cold War and the Late Twentieth Century." Contemporary European History 27.1 (2018): 149–161. online
• Kegley Jr, Charles W. "How did the cold war die? Principles for an autopsy." Mershon International Studies Review 38.Supplement_1 (1994): 11–41.
• Kenney, Padraic. 1989: Democratic Revolutions at the Cold War's End: A Brief History with Documents (2009) covers Poland, the Philippines, Chile, South Africa, Ukraine, and China
• Leffler, Melvyn P. For the Soul of Mankind: The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Cold War (2007) pp 338–450.
• Mann, James. The Rebellion of Ronald Reagan: A History of the End of the Cold War (2010). popular
• Matlock, Jack F. Autopsy on an Empire (1995) online by US ambassador to Moscow
• Matlock, Jack F. Reagan and Gorbachev : how the Cold War ended (2004) online
• Powaski, Ronald E. The Cold War: The United States and the Soviet Union, 1917–1991 (1998)
• Romero, Federico. "Cold War historiography at the crossroads." Cold War History 14.4 (2014): 685–703. online
• Shultz, George P. Turmoil and Triumph: My Years as Secretary of State (1993), a primary source
• Westad, Odd Arne. The Cold War: A World History (2017) pp 527–629
• Wilson, James Graham. The Triumph of Improvisation: Gorbachev's Adaptability, Reagan's Engagement, and the End of the Cold War (2014)
• Wohlforth, William C. "Realism and the End of the Cold War." International Security 19.3 (1994): 91–129. online
• Zubok, Vladislav M. "Gorbachev and the End of the Cold War: Perspectives on History and Personality," Cold War History (2002) 2:2, 61–100, DOI: 10.1080/713999954
• Zubok, Vladislav M. A failed empire: the Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev (2009). online

External links

• Cold War International History Project: The End of the Cold War
• Cold War Files: The End of the Cold War
• Jeffrey W. Knopf "Did Reagan Win the Cold War?"
• Cold War Air Museum: Aircraft from this period of the Cold War

v t e Ronald Reagan
40th President of the United States (1981–1989) 33rd Governor of California (1967–1975)
Life and politics	Birthplace Pitney Store Boyhood home Rancho del Cielo Filmography Political positions Governorship of California Presidential Library and Museum Reagan Era Death and state funeral
Presidency	Transition First inauguration Second inauguration Domestic policy Economic policy Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 Tax Reform Act of 1986 Assassination attempt Strategic Defense Initiative Foreign policy Reagan Doctrine Cold War 1st term 2nd term Soviet Union summits Geneva Reykjavík Washington INF Treaty Moscow Governors Island Constructive engagement Invasion of Grenada Iran–Contra affair Libya bombing Cannabis policy International trips The Grace Commission Cabinet Judicial appointments Supreme Court controversies Administration scandals "We begin bombing in five minutes" Impeachment efforts Executive orders Presidential proclamations Bush transition
Speeches	Ronald Reagan Speaks Out Against Socialized Medicine (1961) "A Time for Choosing" (1964) Neshoba County Fair "states' rights" speech (1980) First inaugural address (1981) Joint session of Congress (1981) "Ash heap of history" (1982) "Evil empire" (1983) Second inaugural address (1985) "Tear down this wall!" (1987) State of the Union 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988
Books	An American Life The Reagan Diaries
Elections	1966 California gubernatorial election 11th commandment 1970 California gubernatorial election Republican presidential primaries (1968 1976 1980 1984) Republican National Convention (1968 1976 1980 1984) 1976 presidential campaign 1980 presidential campaign "There you go again" "Let's make America great again" 1984 presidential campaign "Morning in America" "Bear in the woods" United States presidential election (1976 1980 1984)
Cultural depictions	Bibliography In music Let Them Eat Jellybeans! (1981) U.S. Postage stamps Rap Master Ronnie Ed the Happy Clown (1983 comic series) Spitting Image (TV series) (1984) A Mind Forever Voyaging (1985 game) The Dark Knight Returns (1986) film adaptation Pizza Man (1991 film) The Day Reagan Was Shot (2001 film) Reagan's War (2002 book) The Reagans (2003 film) Reagan (2011 documentary) The Butler (2013 film) Killing Reagan (2015 book) Killing Reagan (2016 film) Call of Duty: Black Ops Cold War (2020 game) The Reagans (2020 miniseries) Reagan (2023 film) "What would Reagan do?" Reykjavik (TBA)
Memorials	U.S. Capitol statue USS Ronald Reagan (CVN-76) Namesakes and memorials Ronald Reagan Day Reagan Day Dinner
Family	Jane Wyman (first wife) Nancy Reagan (second wife) Maureen Reagan (daughter) Michael Reagan (adopted son) Patti Davis (daughter) Ron Reagan (son) Jack Reagan (father) Nelle Wilson Reagan (mother) Neil Reagan (brother) Rex (dog)
← Jimmy Carter George H. W. Bush → Category

v t e George H. W. Bush
41st President of the United States (1989–1993) 43rd Vice President of the United States (1981–1989) Director of Central Intelligence (1976–1977) UN Ambassador (1971–1973) U.S. Representative for TX–7 (1967–1971)
Presidency	Transition Inauguration Timeline 1989 1990 1991 1992 January 1993 Environmental policy Soviet Union summits Malta Helsinki Invasion of Panama Chemical Weapons Accord Gulf War 1991 Madrid Conference National Space Council New world order Somali Civil War Unified Task Force Negotiations for the North American Free Trade Agreement Cannabis policy Vomiting incident Broccoli comments White House horseshoe pit Presidential pardons International trips Oval Office desk Cabinet Judicial appointments Thomas Supreme Court candidates controversies Executive orders Presidential proclamations
Life	Presidential Library Bush School of Government and Public Service Walker's Point Estate Post-presidency Death and state funeral
Speeches	Joint session of Congress (1989) State of the Union addresses 1990 1991 1992 Chicken Kiev
Elections	U.S. Senate 1964 1970 U.S. House 1966 1968 Vice Presidential 1980 campaign selection convention election transition 1984 campaign convention election Presidential 1980 campaign primaries 1988 campaign primaries running mate selection convention "a thousand points of light" "Read my lips: no new taxes" debates election 1992 campaign primaries convention debates election Clinton transition
Public image	Saturday Night Live parodies The X-Presidents Presidential Reunion (2010 short film) The Naked Gun 2½: The Smell of Fear (1991) What It Takes: The Way to the White House (1993) The Silence of the Hams (1994) George Bush: The Life of a Lone Star Yankee (1997) The Family: The Real Story of the Bush Dynasty (2004) George H.W. Bush (2008) Bad for Democracy (2008) Family of Secrets (2009) 41: A Portrait of My Father (2014 book) Destiny and Power (2015 book)
Books	A World Transformed (1998) All the Best (1999)
Legacy	Bibliography Presidential Library Medal of Freedom Bush School of Government Reagan Award George Bush Intercontinental Airport USS George H.W. Bush (CVN-77)
Family	Barbara Bush (wife) George W. Bush (son presidency) Pauline Robinson Bush (daughter) Jeb Bush (son) Neil Bush (son) Marvin Bush (son) Dorothy Bush Koch (daughter) Barbara Bush Coyne (granddaughter) Jenna Bush Hager (granddaughter) George P. Bush (grandson) Lauren Bush (granddaughter) Pierce Bush (grandson) Prescott Bush (father) Dorothy Walker Bush (mother) Nancy Walker Bush Ellis (sister) Jonathan Bush (brother) William H. T. Bush (brother) Samuel P. Bush (grandfather) George Herbert Walker (grandfather) James Smith Bush (great-grandfather) Obadiah Bush (great-great-grandfather) Millie (family dog) Sully (service dog)
← Ronald Reagan Bill Clinton → ← Walter Mondale Dan Quayle → Category

v t e Margaret Thatcher
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1979–1990) Leader of the Conservative Party (1975–1990) MP for Finchley (1959–1992)
Member of Parliament	Public Bodies (Admission to Meetings) Act (1960) Circular 10/70 (1970) Shadow Cabinet "Britain Awake" (1976) Vote of no confidence in the Callaghan ministry (1979)
Ideology	Thatcherism Conservatism Free market Union democracy
Premiership	Ministers wets and dries Cold War 1st term 2nd–3rd term 1st ministry (1979–1983) Budget (1979) Budget (1980) "The lady's not for turning" (1980) Budget (1981) Gang of 25 Irish hunger strike (1981) Budget (1982) Falklands War (1982) "Rejoice" Diana Gould exchange "White flags over Port Stanley" Budget (1983) 2nd ministry (1983–1987) Budget (1984) Brighton hotel bombing (1984) GCHQ trade union ban (1984) CCSU case Miners' strike (1984–85) Budget (1985) Anglo-Irish Agreement (1985) Local Government Act (1985) rate-capping rebellion Westland affair (1986) Budget (1986) Budget (1987) 3rd ministry (1987–1990) Budget (1988) Broadcasting restrictions (1988) "Sermon on the Mound" (1988) Bruges speech (1988) Budget (1989) Community Charge (1989–90) Poll tax riots Budget (1990) Gulf War (1990) "No. No. No." (1990) Resignation Honours (1990)
Party elections	1975 1989 1990
General elections	1979 1983 1987
Books	The Downing Street Years (1993 autobiography) The Path to Power (1995 memoir) Statecraft: Strategies for a Changing World (2003)
Family	Denis Thatcher (husband) baronetcy Mark Thatcher (son) Carol Thatcher (daughter) Alfred Roberts (father) "We have become a grandmother" (1989)
Cultural depictions	Film and television Anyone for Denis? (1982 TV play) Spitting Image (1984–1996 & 2020 TV series) The New Statesman (1987–1991 TV series) Thatcher: The Final Days (1991 film) The Falklands Play (2002 play) Jeffrey Archer: The Truth (2002 TV film) The Alan Clark Diaries (2004 TV series) Pinochet in Suburbia (2006 docudrama) The Long Walk to Finchley (2008 film) Margaret (2009 film) The Queen (2009 TV serial) The Iron Lady (2011 film) The Hunt for Tony Blair (2011 episode) In Search of La Che (2011 film) The Crown (2020 TV series) Reagan (2024 film) Plays Handbagged (2010, 2013) The Audience (2013) Statues London Guildhall (1998) Palace of Westminster (2007) Grantham (2022) Paintings Richard Stone portrait
Related	Blatcherism Death and funeral Honours Thatchergate
← James Callaghan John Major →  Category

v t e John Major
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1990–1997) Chief Secretary to the Treasury (1987–1989) Foreign Secretary (1989) Chancellor of the Exchequer (1989–1990)
Politics	Premiership Major ministry First, 1990–1992 Second, 1992–1997 Shadow Cabinet One-nation conservatism Huntingdonshire Huntingdon
National	Budgets 1991 budget 1992 budget March 1993 budget November 1993 budget 1994 budget 1995 budget 1996 budget Citizen's Charter Charter Mark Cones Hotline Early 1990s recession Black Wednesday National Lottery Further and Higher Education Act 1992 Grant-maintained schools Maastricht Rebels 1993 Newbury by-election Northern Ireland peace process Downing Street mortar attack Downing Street Declaration 1993 reviews of the British honours system Council Tax Child Support Agency 1993 vote of confidence Back to Basics Privatisation of British Rail Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1995 Conservative Party leadership election Cullen Report (Dunblane massacre) Cash for Questions Committee on Standards in Public Life Arms-to-Iraq affair Scott Report United Kingdom BSE outbreak Wirral South by-election Resignation Honours
International	Gulf War Iraqi no-fly zones Sanctions against Iraq Harare Declaration Maastricht Treaty Bosnian War Operation Gabriel
General elections	1992 1997
European Parliament Election	1994
Party elections	1990 1995
Books	John Major: The Autobiography (1999) More Than a Game: The Story of Cricket's Early Years (2007) My Old Man: A Personal History of Music Hall (2012)
Family	Norma Major (wife) Terry Major-Ball (brother) Tom Major-Ball (father)
Cultural depictions	Thatcher: The Final Days (TV, 1991) Independence Day UK (Radio, 1996) Margaret (TV, 2009) The Iron Lady (Film, 2011) The Audience (Play, 2013) The Crown season 5 (TV, 2022)
← Margaret Thatcher Tony Blair → Category

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