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Convoy PQ 18
Part of Arctic Convoys of the Second World War
A depth-charge explosion near Convoy PQ 18
Date 2–21 September 1942 Location Arctic Ocean75°N 40°E / 75°N 40°E / 75; 40 (Barents Sea) Result Allied victory
Belligerents
United Kingdom  United States  Soviet Union	Germany
Commanders and leaders
Robert Burnett	Rolf Carls
Strength
40 merchant ships 40–50 escorts (in relays) 2 submarines 1 escort carrier (12 fighters, 3 reconnaissance aircraft)	12 U-boats 92 torpedo-bombers 120 bombers long-range reconnaissance aircraft
Casualties and losses
550+ survivors rescued 13 merchant ships 4 Sea Hurricane fighters	4 U-boats, 22–44 aircraft
A Sea Hurricane was washed overboard

Convoy PQ 18 (2–21 September 1942) was an Arctic convoy of forty Allied freighters from Scotland and Iceland to Arkhangelsk in the Soviet Union during the Second World War. The convoy departed Loch Ewe, Scotland on 2 September 1942, rendezvoused with more ships and escorts at Iceland and arrived at Arkhangelsk on 21 September. An exceptionally large number of escorts were provided by the Royal Navy in Operation EV, including the first escort carrier to accompany an Arctic convoy. Detailed information on German intentions was provided by the code breakers at Bletchley Park and elsewhere, through Ultra signals decrypts and eavesdropping on Luftwaffe wireless communications. The German B-Dienst code-breakers read some British signals and the Luftwaffe used the lull in convoys after Convoy PQ 17 (27 June – 10 July) to prepare a maximum effort with the Kriegsmarine.

From 12 to 21 September Convoy PQ 18 was attacked by bombers, torpedo-bombers, U-boats and mines, which sank thirteen ships at a cost of forty-four aircraft and four U-boats. The convoy was defended by escort ships and the aircraft of the escort carrier HMS Avenger which used signals intelligence gleaned from Ultra and Luftwaffe wireless frequencies to provide early warning of some air attacks and to attempt evasive routeing of the convoy around concentrations of U-boats. United States Navy Armed Guard and British Naval and Royal Artillery Maritime Regiment gunners were embarked on the freighters to operate anti-aircraft guns and barrage balloons, which made air attacks more difficult and because of inexperience, occasionally wounded men and damaged ships and cargo, with wild shooting.

The convoy handed over its distant escorts and Avenger to the homeward bound Convoy QP 14 near Archangelsk on 16 September and continued with the close escort and local escorts, riding out a storm in the Northern Dvina estuary and the last attacks by the Luftwaffe, before reaching Archangelsk on 21 September. Several ships ran aground in the storm but all were eventually refloated; unloading the convoy took a month. Because of its losses and the transfer in November of its most effective remaining aircraft to the Mediterranean to oppose Operation Torch, the Luftwaffe effort could never be repeated.

Aftermath

Analysis

In the official history (1956 ) Stephen Roskill called Convoy PQ 18 an Allied success. The convoy operation brought 28 ships safely to their destinations and the Arctic convoy route, which had been suspended since the loss of Convoy PQ 17, was open again. In 2001, Werner Rahn wrote that the Seekriegsleitung (SKL, Naval War Staff) had called the results "dearly bought and unsatisfactory". In 2004, Richard Woodman referred to Convoy PQ 18 as a Pyrrhic victory. The Luftwaffe torpedo-bomber attacks, while costly, had been highly effective and would have inflicted more losses had not the British Headache operators not given early warning of some attacks, which enabled Sea Hurricanes to be scrambled in time. The Germans failed to prevent the convoy reaching Russia and their losses, particularly in trained pilots, were severe, reducing the ability of the Luftwaffe to repeat its anti-convoy operation. Attacks on Avenger had been defeated and the depth of the escort screen made torpedo attacks on the centre of the convoy extravagantly risky. Coastal Command operations in support of Convoy PQ 18 and the returning convoy QP 14, involved 111 aircraft from 14 squadrons, which flew 279 sorties and logged 2,290 flying hours, most being taken up by the fights to and from the convoy. In November, Luftflotte 5, the German air command in Norway and Finland, was ordered to transfer its Ju 88 and He 111 torpedo-bombers to the Mediterranean against Operation Torch, a decision which the British received through Ultra intercepts. Only the Heinkel 115 floatplanes, suitable for torpedo attacks on stragglers and some Ju 87 dive-bombers remained in Norway, along with a few long-range reconnaissance aircraft to observe for the surface and U-boat forces.

Casualties

Roskill in 1962 and Woodman in 2004 wrote that the Germans managed to sink thirteen merchant ships for a loss of four U-boats and 44 aircraft, 38 torpedo-bombers and six long-range bombers and reconnaissance aircraft. Michael Howard, in 1972, recorded that the Allies lost 38 aircraft from 309, 126 tanks from 448 and 85 of the 106 lorries carried in the convoy. Convoy PQ 19 was assembled at Loch Ewe but not dispatched, a net loss to the Allied war effort.

Allied order of battle

Convoy, Loch Ewe to Archangel

Loch Ewe to Archangel

Name	Year	Flag	GRT	Notes
SS Africander	1921	Panama	5,441	Sunk in air attack
MV Atheltemplar	1930	United Kingdom	8,992	Damaged by U-457 Sunk by U-408, 16 casualties
SS Beauregard	1920	United States	5,976	Engine trouble, returned Loch Ewe
SS Campfire	1919	United States	5,671
SS Charles R. McCormick	1920	United States	6,027
SS Copeland	1923	United Kingdom	1,526	Rescue ship
SS Dan-y-Bryn	1940	United Kingdom	5,117	Vice-Convoy Commodore
SS Empire Baffin	1941	United Kingdom	6,978
SS Empire Beaumont	1942	United Kingdom	7,044	Sunk in air attack
SS Empire Morn	1941	United Kingdom	7,092	CAM ship
SS Empire Snow	1941	United Kingdom	6,327
SS Empire Stevenson	1941	United Kingdom	6,209	Sunk in air attack
SS Empire Tristram	1942	United Kingdom	7,167
SS Esek Hopkins	1942	United States	7,191
SS Goolistan	1929	United Kingdom	5,851
SS Hollywood	1920	United States	5,498
SS John Penn	1942	United States	7,177	Sunk in air attack
SS Kentucky	1921	United States	5,446	Sunk in air attack
SS Lafayette	1919	United States	5,887
SS Macbeth	1920	Panama	4,941	Sunk in air attack
SS Mary Luckenbach	1919	United States	5,049	Sunk in air attack
SS Meanticut	1921	United States	6,061
SS Nathanael Greene	1942	United States	7,177
SS Ocean Faith	1942	United Kingdom	7,174
RFA Oligarch	1918	Royal Navy	6,894	Fleet oiler Joined from Spitzbergen group
SS Oliver Ellsworth	1942	United States	7,191	Sunk by U-408 1 casualty
SS Oregonian	1917	United States	4,862	Sunk in air attack
SS Patrick Henry	1941	United States	7,191
SS Sahale	1919	United States	5,028
SS Schoharie	1919	United States	4,971
SS St. Olaf	1942	United States	7,191
SS Temple Arch	1940	United Kingdom	5,138	Flagship Convoy Commodore E. K. Boddam-Whetham
SS Virginia Dare	1942	United States	7,177
SS Wacosta	1920	United States	5,432	Sunk in air attack
SS White Clover	1920	Panama	5,462
SS William Moultrie	1942	United States	7,177
MMS 90	—	Royal Navy	—	7–21 September 1942, MMS-class minesweeper rescue ship
MMS 203	—	Royal Navy	—	7–21 September 1942, MMS-class minesweeper rescue ship
MMS 212	—	Royal Navy	—	7–21 September 1942, MMS-class minesweeper rescue ship

Force Q

Force Q oilers

Name	Year	Flag	GRT	Type	Notes
RFA Black Ranger	1941	Royal Navy	3,417	Ranger-class tanker	Fleet oiler, sailed in convoy
RFA Gray Ranger	1941	Royal Navy	3,313	Ranger-class tanker	Fleet oiler, sailed in convoy

Convoy, Loch Ewe to Reykjavík

Loch Ewe to Reykjavík

Name	Year	Flag	GRT	Notes
SS Gateway City	1920	United States	5,432	Loch Ewe to Reykjavík only
SS Oremar	1919	United States	6,854
SS San Zotico	1919	United Kingdom	5,582

Convoy, Reykjavík to Arkhangelsk

Reykjavík to Archangel

Name	Year	Flag	GRT	Notes
SS Andre Marti	1918	Soviet Union	2,352	Joined from Reykjavík
SS Exford	1919	United States	4,969
SS Komiles	1932	Soviet Union	3,966
SS Petrovski	1921	Soviet Union	3,771
SS Richard Bassett	1942	United States	7,191	Joined from, returned to, Reykjavík (engine trouble)
SS Stalingrad	1931	Soviet Union	3,559	Joined from Reykjavík, sunk by U-408, 21 casualties
SS Sukhona	1918	Soviet Union	3,124	Sunk in air attack
SS Tbilisi	1912	Soviet Union	7,169

Convoy formation

The Motor Minesweepers MMS 90, MMS 203 and MMS 212 were being delivered to the Soviet Northern Fleet and were to act as rescue ships en route, receiving no position number.

Operation EV

Loch Ewe to Iceland

Local escort

Name	Navy	Class	Dates	Notes
HMS Echo	Royal Navy	E-class destroyer	2–8 September 1942
HMS Campbell	Royal Navy	Scott-class destroyer leader	2–8 September 1942	Joined Heavy Cover Force
HMS Mackay	Royal Navy	Scott-class destroyer leader	2–8 September 1942	Joined Heavy Cover Force
HMS Montrose	Royal Navy	Scott-class destroyer leader	2–8 September 1942	Joined Heavy Cover Force
HMS Walpole	Royal Navy	W-class destroyer	2–8 September 1942
HNoMS Eskdale	Royal Norwegian Navy	Hunt-class destroyer	2–8 September 1942
HMS Farndale	Royal Navy	Hunt-class destroyer	2–8 September 1942
HMT Arab	Royal Navy	ASW trawler	2–8 September 1942	To Reykjavík as escort
HMT Duncton	Royal Navy	ASW trawler	2–8 September 1942
HMT Hugh Walpole	Royal Navy	ASW trawler	2–8 September 1942
HMT King Sol	Royal Navy	ASW trawler	2–8 September 1942
HMT Paynter	Royal Navy	ASW trawler	2–8 September 1942

Escorts, Iceland to Archangelsk

Close escort

Name	Flag	Class	Dates	Notes
HMS Alynbank	Royal Navy	Auxiliary anti-aircraft cruiser	7–21 September 1942
HMS Ulster Queen	Royal Navy	Auxiliary anti-aircraft cruiser	7–21 September 1942
HMS Achates	Royal Navy	A-class destroyer	7–21 September 1942
HMS Malcolm	Royal Navy	Scott-class destroyer	7–21 September 1942	Cdr A. B. Russell SOE
HMS Amazon	Royal Navy	W class destroyer	7–21 September 1942
HMS Bergamot	Royal Navy	Flower-class corvette	7–21 September 1942
HMS Bluebell	Royal Navy	Flower-class corvette	7–21 September 1942
HMS Bryony	Royal Navy	Flower-class corvette	7–21 September 1942
HMS Camellia	Royal Navy	Flower-class corvette	7–21 September 1942
HMS Gleaner	Royal Navy	Halcyon-class minesweeper	7–21 September 1942
HMS Harrier	Royal Navy	Halcyon-class minesweeper	7–21 September 1942
HMS Sharpshooter	Royal Navy	Halcyon-class minesweeper	7–21 September 1942
HMT Cape Argona	Royal Navy	ASW trawler	7–21 September 1942
HMT Cape Mariato	Royal Navy	ASW trawler	7–21 September 1942
HMT Daneman	Royal Navy	ASW trawler	7–21 September 1942
HMT St Kenan	Royal Navy	ASW trawler	7–21 September 1942

Carrier group

Avenger and escorts

Name	Navy	Class	Date	Notes
HMS Avenger	Royal Navy	Avenger-class escort carrier	9–17 September 1942
HMS Wheatland	Royal Navy	Hunt-class destroyer	9–17 September 1942
HMS Wilton	Royal Navy	Hunt-class destroyer	9–17 September 1942

Fighting Destroyer Escort

Force A

Fighting Destroyer Escort Force A

Name	Flag	Class	Dates	Notes
HMS Scylla	Royal Navy	Dido-class cruiser	9–17 September 1942	Flagship Rear Admiral Robert "Bullshit Bob" Burnett
HMS Offa	Royal Navy	O-class destroyer	9–17 September 1942
HMS Onslaught	Royal Navy	O-class destroyer	9–17 September 1942
HMS Onslow	Royal Navy	O-class destroyer	9–17 September 1942
HMS Opportune	Royal Navy	O-class destroyer	9–17 September 1942
HMS Ashanti	Royal Navy	Tribal-class destroyer	9–17 September 1942
HMS Eskimo	Royal Navy	Tribal-class destroyer	9–17 September 1942
HMS Somali	Royal Navy	Tribal-class destroyer	9–17 September 1942
HMS Tartar	Royal Navy	Tribal-class destroyer	9–17 September 1942

Force B

Fighting Destroyer Escort Force B

Name	Flag	Class	Dates	Notes
HMS Faulknor	Royal Navy	F-class destroyer	9–17 September 1942
HMS Fury	Royal Navy	F-class destroyer	9–17 September 1942
HMS Impulsive	Royal Navy	I-class destroyer	9–17 September 1942
HMS Intrepid	Royal Navy	I-class destroyer	9–17 September 1942
HMS Marne	Royal Navy	M-class destroyer	9–17 September 1942
HMS Martin	Royal Navy	M-class destroyer	9–17 September 1942
HMS Meteor	Royal Navy	M-class destroyer	9–17 September 1942
HMS Milne	Royal Navy	M-class destroyer	9–17 September 1942	Captain (D) Ian Campbell

Eastern Local Escort

Eastern local escort from Archangelsk

Name	Flag	Class	Dates	Notes
Gremyashchi	Soviet Navy	Gnevny-class destroyer	17–22 September 1942
Kuibishev	Soviet Navy	Orfey-class destroyer	17–22 September 1942
Sokrushitelny	Soviet Navy	Gnevny-class destroyer	17–22 September 1942
Uritski	Soviet Navy	Orfey-class destroyer	17–22 September 1942
HMS Britomart	Royal Navy	Halcyon-class minesweeper	17–22 September 1942
HMS Halcyon	Royal Navy	Halcyon-class minesweeper	17–22 September 1942
HMS Hazard	Royal Navy	Halcyon-class minesweeper	17–22 September 1942
HMS Salamander	Royal Navy	Halcyon-class minesweeper	17–22 September 1942

Cruiser Covering Force

Cruiser Covering Force

Name	Flag	Class	Dates	Notes
HMS London	Royal Navy	County-class cruiser	14–22 September 1942
HMS Norfolk	Royal Navy	County-class cruiser	14–22 September 1942	Flagship Vice-Admiral Stuart Bonham Carter
HMS Suffolk	Royal Navy	County-class cruiser	14–22 September 1942
HMS Bulldog	Royal Navy	B-class destroyer	14–22 September 1942
HMS Venomous	Royal Navy	W-class destroyer	14–22 September 1942

Distant cover

Distant cover (Home Fleet)

Name	Flag	Class	Dates	Notes
HMS Anson	Royal Navy	King George V-class battleship	11–14 September 1942	Flagship, Vice-Admiral Bruce Fraser
HMS Duke of York	Royal Navy	King George V-class battleship	11–14 September 1942
HMS Jamaica	Royal Navy	Fiji-class cruiser	11–14 September 1942
HMS Campbell	Royal Navy	Scott-class destroyer leader	11–14 September 1942	Joined from local escort group
HMS Mackay	Royal Navy	Scott-class destroyer leader	11–14 September 1942	Joined from local escort group
HMS Montrose	Royal Navy	Scott-class destroyer leader	11–14 September 1942	Joined from local escort group
HMS Broke	Royal Navy	Thornycroft type destroyer leader	11–14 September 1942
HMS Keppel	Royal Navy	Thornycroft type destroyer leader	11–14 September 1942	Commander Jack Broome
HMS Bramham	Royal Navy	Hunt-class destroyer	11–14 September 1942

Spitzbergen fuelling base

Spitzbergen fuelling base

Name	Flag	Class	Dates	Notes
RFA Blue Ranger	Royal Navy	Oiler	9–21 September 1942
RFA Oligarch	Royal Navy	Oiler	9–21 September 1942
HMS Windsor	Royal Navy	W-class destroyer	9–21 September 1942
HMS Worcester	Royal Navy	W-class destroyer	9–21 September 1942
HMS Cowdray	Royal Navy	Hunt-class destroyer	9–21 September 1942
HMS Oakley	Royal Navy	Hunt-class destroyer	9–21 September 1942

Operation Gearbox II

Gearbox II (Spitzbergen supply run)

Name	Flag	Class	Dates	Notes
HMS Cumberland	Royal Navy	County-class cruiser	14 September 1942
HMS Sheffield	Royal Navy	Town-class cruiser	14 September 1942
HMS Eclipse	Royal Navy	E-class destroyer	14 September 1942

Submarine patrols

Submarine patrols (September–October 1942)

Name	Flag	Type	Patrol	Notes
HMS Shakespeare	Royal Navy	S-class submarine	7–23 September	Off Norwegian coast
HMS Sturgeon	Royal Navy	S-class submarine	2–6 September	Patrol force, returned port
Rubis	Free French Naval Forces	Saphir-class submarine		Minelayer
HMS Tigris	Royal Navy	T-class submarine	2 September – 1 October	Patrol force
HMS Tribune	Royal Navy	T-class submarine	2 September – 1 October	Patrol force
HMS Unique	Royal Navy	U-class submarine	7 September – 1 October	Off Norwegian coast
HMS Unrivalled	Royal Navy	U-class submarine	7 September – 1 October	Off Norwegian coast
HMS Unshaken	Royal Navy	U-class submarine	2 September – 1 October	Patrol force
HNoMS Uredd	Royal Norwegian Navy	U-class submarine	2 September – 1 October	Patrol force
K-1	Soviet Navy	Soviet K-class submarine		Patrol
K-2	Soviet Navy	Soviet K-class submarine		Patrol
K-21	Soviet Navy	Soviet K-class submarine		Patrol
M-174	Soviet Navy	Soviet M-class submarine		Patrol
Shch-422	Soviet Navy	Shchuka-class submarine		Patrol

RAF

Axis order of battle

U-boats

Wolfpack Eispalast (Ice Palace)

Name	Flag	Commander	Class	Notes
U-88	Kriegsmarine	Heino Bohmann	Type VIIC submarine	Sunk, Faulknor
U-255	Kriegsmarine	Reinhard Reche	Type VIIC submarine
U-377	Kriegsmarine	Otto Köhler	Type VIIC submarine
U-378	Kriegsmarine	Hans-Jürgen Zetzsche	Type VIIC submarine
U-403	Kriegsmarine	Heinz-Ehlert Clausen	Type VIIC submarine
U-405	Kriegsmarine	Rolf-Heinrich Hopmann	Type VIIC submarine
U-408	Kriegsmarine	Reinhard von Hymmen	Type VIIC submarine	Sank Stalingrad
U-435	Kriegsmarine	Siegfried Strelow	Type VIIC submarine
U-457	Kriegsmarine	Karl Brandenburg	Type VIIC submarine	Damaged Atheltemplar, sunk Impulsive
U-589	Kriegsmarine	Hans-Joachim Horrer	Type VIIC submarine	Sank Oliver Ellsworth, sunk Onslow
U-592	Kriegsmarine	Carl Borm	Type VIIC submarine
U-703	Kriegsmarine	Heinz Bielfeld	Type VIIC submarine

Surface ships

Sortie, 9 September 1942

Name	Flag	Type	Notes
Admiral Hipper	Kriegsmarine	Admiral Hipper-class cruiser
Admiral Scheer	Kriegsmarine	Deutschland-class cruiser	Flagship Vice Admiral Kummetz
Köln	Kriegsmarine	Königsberg-class cruiser
Z4 Richard Beitzen	Kriegsmarine	Type 1934 destroyer
Z23	Kriegsmarine	Type 1936A destroyer
Z27	Kriegsmarine	Type 1936A destroyer	Flag Kapitän zur See Gottfried Pönitz [de]
Z29	Kriegsmarine	Type 1936A destroyer
Z30	Kriegsmarine	Type 1936A destroyer

Luftwaffe

Aircraft involved

Luftflotte 5

Notes

1. Spelled as it was originally named.
2. Spelled as it was originally named.
3. Woodman (2004) has 42 Heinkel and 35 Ju 88 torpedo-bombers.
4. Air Commander North (East)
5. Air Commander North (West)
6. Air Commander Lofotens
7. Fighter Commander Norway
8. Maritime Rescue Service Leader Norway

Footnotes

1. Hinsley 1994, pp. 141, 145–146.
2. Kahn 1973, pp. 238–241; Budiansky 2000, pp. 250, 289.
3. Woodman 2004, pp. 264–272.
4. Roskill 1962, pp. 282–283.
5. Rohwer & Hümmelchen 2005, p. 196.
6. Woodman 2004, pp. 273–282.
7. Roskill 1962, p. 287.
8. Rahn 2001, p. 456.
9. ^ Woodman 2004, p. 283.
10. Hinsley 1994, p. 156.
11. Richards & Saunders 1975, p. 85.
12. PRO 2001, p. 115.
13. Woodman 2004, p. 280; Roskill 1962, p. 287.
14. Howard 1972, p. 42.
15. ^ Ruegg & Hague 1993, p. 43.
16. Smith 1975, p. 32.
17. ^ Rohwer & Hümmelchen 2005, p. 193.
18. ^ Woodman 2004, p. 261.
19. ^ Ruegg & Hague 1993, p. 42.
20. Smith 1975, p. 37.
21. Ruegg & Hague 1993, p. 43; Hague 2000, pp. 190–191.
22. Woodman 2004, pp. 260–261.
23. Roskill 1962, pp. 280–283; Woodman 2004, pp. 265, 267.
24. ^ Smith 1975, p. 213.
25. Rohwer & Hümmelchen 2005, pp. 193–194.
26. Schofield & Nesbit 1987, p. 195; Richards & Saunders 1975, pp. 81–82; Smith 1977, p. 225.
27. Smith 1977, pp. 231–232; Blair 2000, pp. 20–21, 250, 268.
28. Smith 1975, p. 50.
29. ^ Blair 2000, p. 20.
30. Smith 1975, pp. 150–151.
31. Smith 1975, pp. 132–134.
32. Rohwer & Hümmelchen 2005, p. 195.
33. Rohwer & Hümmelchen 2005, p. 196; Thiele 2004, pp. 42–43; Woodman 2004, p. 262.
34. Woodman 2004, p. 262.
35. Smith 1977, p. 225.
36. Niehorster 2015.

References

• Blair, Clay (2000) . Hitler's U-Boat War: The Hunted 1942–1945. Vol. II (UK pbk. ed.). Cassell. ISBN 0-304-35261-6.
• Boog, H.; Rahn, W.; Stumpf, R.; Wegner, B. (2001) . Der globale Krieg: Die Ausweitung zum Weltkrieg und der Wechsel zur Initiative 1941 bis 1943 [Widening of the Conflict into a World War and the Shift of the Initiative 1941–1943]. Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg (Germany and the Second World War). Vol. VI. Translated by Osers, Ewald; Brownjohn, John; Crampton, Patricia; Willmot, Louise (eng. trans. Cambridge University Press, London ed.). Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt for the Militärgeschichtlichen Forschungsamt. ISBN 0-19-822888-0.
  • Rahn, W. "PART III The War at Sea in the Atlantic and in the Arctic Ocean IV. Operations on the Northern Flank of Europe". In Boog et al. (2001).
• Budiansky, S. (2000). Battle of Wits: The Complete Story of Codebreaking in World War II. New York: The Free Press (Simon & Schuster). ISBN 0-684-85932-7 – via Archive Foundation.
• Hague, Arnold (2000). The Allied Convoy System 1939–1945: Its Organisation, Defence and Operation. London: Chatham. ISBN 978-1-55125-033-5.
• Hinsley, F. H. (1994) . British Intelligence in the Second World War: Its Influence on Strategy and Operations. History of the Second World War (2nd rev. abr. ed.). London: HMSO. ISBN 978-0-11-630961-7.
• Howard, M. (1972). Grand Strategy: August 1942 – September 1943. History of the Second World War United Kingdom Military Series. Vol. IV. London: HMSO. ISBN 978-0-11-630075-1.
• Kahn, D. (1973) . The Codebreakers: The Story of Secret Writing (10th abr. Signet, Chicago ed.). New York: Macmillan. LCCN 63-16109. OCLC 78083316.
• Niehorster, Leo (5 May 2015). "German Air Force, Order of Battle, 5th Air Fleet, 1 June 1942". www.niehorster.org. Retrieved 10 November 2024.
• Richards, Denis; Saunders, H. St G. (1975) . Royal Air Force 1939–1945: The Fight Avails. History of the Second World War, Military Series. Vol. II (pbk. ed.). London: HMSO. ISBN 978-0-11-771593-6 – via Hyperwar.
• Rohwer, Jürgen; Hümmelchen, Gerhard (2005) . Chronology of the War at Sea, 1939–1945: The Naval History of World War Two (3rd rev. ed.). London: Chatham Publishing. ISBN 1-86176-257-7.
• Roskill, S. W. (1962) . The Period of Balance. History of the Second World War: The War at Sea 1939–1945. Vol. II (3rd impr. ed.). London: HMSO. OCLC 174453986 – via Hyperwar.
• Ruegg, R.; Hague, A. (1993) . Convoys to Russia: Allied Convoys and Naval Surface Operations in Arctic Waters 1941–1945 (2nd rev. enl. ed.). Kendal: World Ship Society. ISBN 0-905617-66-5.
• Schofield, Ernest; Nesbit, Roy Conyers (1987). Arctic Airmen: The RAF in Spitsbergen and North Russia 1942. London: W. Kimber. ISBN 978-0-7183-0660-1.
• Smith, Peter (1975). Convoy PQ18: Arctic Victory. London: William Kimber. ISBN 978-0-7183-0074-6.
• Smith, Peter (1977) . Convoy PQ18: Arctic Victory. London: New English Library. ISBN 978-0-7183-0074-6.
• The Rise and Fall of the German Air Force (repr. Public Record Office War Histories ed.). Richmond, Surrey: Air Ministry. 2001 . ISBN 978-1-903365-30-4. Air 41/10.
• Thiele, Harold (2004). Luftwaffe Aerial Torpedo Aircraft and Operations in World War II. Crowborough: Hikoki. ISBN 978-1-90-210942-8.
• Woodman, Richard (2004) . Arctic Convoys 1941–1945. London: John Murray. ISBN 978-0-7195-5752-1.

Further reading

• Claasen, A. R. A. (2001). Hitler's Northern War: The Luftwaffe's Ill-fated Campaign, 1940–1945. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-1050-2.
• Kington, J. A.; Selinger, F. (2006). Wekusta: Luftwaffe Meteorological Reconnaissance Units & Operations 1938–1945. Ottringham: Flight Recorder Publications. ISBN 978-0-9545605-8-4.
• Llewellyn-Jones, Malcolm, ed. (2014) . The Royal Navy and the Arctic Convoys: A Naval Staff History. Naval Staff Histories. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-86177-9.

External links

• Arnold Hague: PQ 18 at convoyweb

• Arctic convoys of World War II
• World War II orders of battle