Misplaced Pages

Part of a series on
Strategy
Analysis methods Strategy • Strategic management Military strategy • Strategic studies Strategic planning • Strategic thinking Decision theory • Game theory
Major thinkers Michael Porter  • Rita Gunther McGrath Bruce Henderson  • Gary Hamel Candace A. Yano  • C. K. Prahalad Jim Collins  • Liddell Hart Carl von Clausewitz  • Sun Tzu Julian Corbett  • Alfred Thayer Mahan J.C. Wylie  • Adrian Slywotzky Sharon Oster  • Chris Zook Henry Mintzberg
Concepts Business model  • Competitive advantage Value chain  • Performance effects Core competency • Generic strategies Mission statement
Frameworks and tools SWOT • Five forces Balanced scorecard • Ansoff matrix OGSM • Managerial grid model PEST analysis • Growth–share matrix STP • MECE principle Business Model Canvas • Kraljic matrix Strategic Grid Model • Strategy map • VRIO
v t e

Management (or managing) is the administration of organizations, whether they are a business, a nonprofit organization, or a government body through business administration, nonprofit management, or the political science sub-field of public administration respectively. It is the process of managing the resources of businesses, governments, and other organizations.

Larger organizations generally have three hierarchical levels of managers, in a pyramid structure:

• Senior management roles include the board of directors and a chief executive officer (CEO) or a president of an organization. They set the strategic goals and policy of the organization and make decisions on how the overall organization will operate. Senior managers are generally executive-level professionals who provide direction to middle management.
• Middle management roles include branch managers, regional managers, department managers, and section managers. They provide direction to front-line managers and communicate the strategic goals and policies of senior management to them.
• Line management roles include supervisors and the front-line team leaders, who oversee the work of regular employees, or volunteers in some voluntary organizations, and provide direction on their work. Line managers often perform the managerial functions that are traditionally considered the core of management. Despite the name, they are usually considered part of the workforce and not part of the organization's management class.

Part of the Politics series
Politics
Outline Index Category
Primary topics Outline of political science Index of politics articles Politics by country Politics by subdivision Political economy Political history Political history of the world Political philosophy
Political systems Anarchy City-state Collective leadership Confessional system Democracy Dictatorship Directorial Federacy Feudalism Hybrid regime Meritocracy Monarchy Parliamentary Presidential Republic Semi-parliamentary Semi-presidential Theocracy
Academic disciplines Political science (political scientists) International relations (theory) Comparative politics Election science Political analysis Political theory Policy studies Political psychology Political sociology
Public administration Bureaucracy (street-level) Technocracy Adhocracy Service (Public / Civil)
Policy Public policy (doctrine) Domestic policy Foreign policy Civil society Public interest
Government branches Separation of powers Legislature Executive Judiciary Election commission
Related topics Sovereignty Polity / State / Country Theories of political behavior Biology and political orientation Political organisations Critique of political economy
Subseries Electoral systems Elections voting Unitarism Federalism Government (forms / Governance) Ideology Culture Political campaigning Political parties
Politics portal
v t e

Management is taught across different disciplines at colleges and universities. Prominent major degree programs in management include Management, Business Administration and Public Administration. Social scientists study management as an academic discipline, investigating areas such as social organization, organizational adaptation, and organizational leadership. In recent decades, there has been a movement for evidence-based management.

Etymology

The English verb manage has its roots in the fifteenth-century French verb mesnager, which often referred in equestrian language "to hold in hand the reins of a horse". Also the Italian term maneggiare (to handle, especially tools or a horse) is possible. In Spanish, manejar can also mean to rule the horses. These three terms derive from the two Latin words manus (hand) and agere (to act).

The French word for housekeeping, ménagerie, derived from ménager ("to keep house"; compare ménage for "household"), also encompasses taking care of domestic animals. Ménagerie is the French translation of Xenophon's famous book Oeconomicus (Ancient Greek: Οἰκονομικός) on household matters and husbandry. The French word mesnagement (or ménagement) influenced the semantic development of the English word management in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Definitions

Views on the definition and scope of management include:

• Henri Fayol (1841–1925) stated: "To manage is to forecast and to plan, to organize, to command, to co-ordinate and to control".
• Fredmund Malik (1944– ) defines management as "the transformation of resources into utility".
• Management is included as one of the factors of production – along with machines, materials and money.
• Ghislain Deslandes defines management as "a vulnerable force, under pressure to achieve results and endowed with the triple power of constraint, imitation, and imagination, operating on subjective, interpersonal, institutional and environmental levels".
• Peter Drucker (1909–2005) saw the basic task of management as twofold: marketing and innovation. Nevertheless, innovation is also linked to marketing (product innovation is a central strategic marketing issue). Drucker identifies marketing as a key essence for business success, but management and marketing are generally understood as two different branches of business administration knowledge.

Theoretical scope

Management involves identifying the mission, objective, procedures, rules and manipulation of the human capital of an enterprise to contribute to the success of the enterprise. Scholars have focused on the management of individual, organizational, and inter-organizational relationships. This implies effective communication: an enterprise environment (as opposed to a physical or mechanical mechanism) implies human motivation and implies some sort of successful progress or system outcome. As such, management is not the manipulation of a mechanism (machine or automated program), not the herding of animals, and can occur either in a legal or in an illegal enterprise or environment. From an individual's perspective, management does not need to be seen solely from an enterprise point of view, because management is an essential function in improving one's life and relationships. Management is therefore everywhere and it has a wider range of application. Communication and a positive endeavor are two main aspects of it either through enterprise or through independent pursuit. Plans, measurements, motivational psychological tools, goals, and economic measures (profit, etc.) may or may not be necessary components for there to be management. At first, one views management functionally, such as measuring quantity, adjusting plans, and meeting goals, but this applies even in situations where planning does not take place. From this perspective, Henri Fayol (1841–1925) considers management to consist of five functions:

• planning (forecasting)
• organizing
• commanding
• coordinating
• controlling

In another way of thinking, Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), allegedly defined management as "the art of getting things done through people". She described management as a philosophy.

Critics, however, find this definition useful but far too narrow. The phrase "management is what managers do" occurs widely, suggesting the difficulty of defining management without circularity, the shifting nature of definitions and the connection of managerial practices with the existence of a managerial cadre or of a class.

One habit of thought regards management as equivalent to "business administration" and thus excludes management in places outside commerce, for example in charities and in the public sector. More broadly, every organization must "manage" its work, people, processes, technology, etc. to maximize effectiveness. Nonetheless, many people refer to university departments that teach management as "business schools". Some such institutions (such as the Harvard Business School) use that name, while others (such as the Yale School of Management) employ the broader term "management".

English speakers may also use the term "management" or "the management" as a collective word describing the managers of an organization, for example of a corporation. Historically this use of the term often contrasted with the term labor – referring to those being managed.

Levels

A common management structure of organizations includes three management levels: low-level, middle-level, and top-level managers. Low-level managers manage the work of non-managerial individuals who are directly involved with the production or creation of the organization's products. Low-level managers are often called supervisors, but may also be called line managers, office managers, or even foremen. Middle managers include all levels of management between the low level and the top level of the organization. These managers manage the work of low-level managers and may have titles such as department head, project leader, plant manager, or division manager. Top managers are responsible for making organization-wide decisions and establishing the plans and goals that affect the entire organization. These individuals typically have titles such as executive vice president, president, managing director, chief operating officer, chief executive officer, or board chairman.

These managers are classified in a hierarchy of authority and perform different tasks. In many organizations, the number of managers at every level resembles a pyramid. Each level is explained below in specifications of their different responsibilities and likely job titles.

Top management

The top or senior layer of management is a small group which consists of the board of directors (including non-executive directors, executive directors and independent directors), president, vice-president, CEOs and other members of the C-level executives. Different organizations have various members in their C-suite, which may include a chief financial officer, chief technology officer, and so on. They are responsible for controlling and overseeing the operations of the entire organization. They set a "tone at the top" and develop strategic plans, company policies, and make decisions on the overall direction of the organization. In addition, top-level managers play a significant role in the mobilization of outside resources. Senior managers are accountable to the shareholders, the general public, and public bodies that oversee corporations and similar organizations. Some members of the senior management may serve as the public face of the organization, and they may make speeches to introduce new strategies or appear in marketing.

The board of directors is typically primarily composed of non-executives who owe a fiduciary duty to shareholders and are not closely involved in the day-to-day activities of the organization. However, this varies depending on the type (e.g., public versus private), size, and culture of the organization. These directors are theoretically liable for breaches of that duty and are typically insured under directors and officers liability insurance. Fortune 500 directors are estimated to spend 4.4 hours per week on board duties, and median compensation was $212,512 in 2010. The board sets corporate strategy, makes major decisions such as major acquisitions, and hires, evaluates, and fires the top-level manager (chief executive officer or CEO). The CEO typically hires other positions. However, board involvement in the hiring of other positions such as the chief financial officer (CFO) has increased. In 2013, a survey of over 160 CEOs and directors of public and private companies found that the top weaknesses of CEOs were "mentoring skills" and "board engagement", and 10% of companies never evaluated the CEO. The board may also have certain employees (e.g., internal auditors) report to them or directly hire independent contractors; for example, the board (through the audit committee) typically selects the auditor.

Helpful skills for top management vary by the type of organization but typically include a broad understanding of competition, world economies, and politics. In addition, the CEO is responsible for implementing and determining (within the board's framework) the broad policies of the organization. Executive management accomplishes the day-to-day details, including instructions for the preparation of department budgets, procedures, and schedules; appointment of middle-level executives such as department managers; coordination of departments; media and governmental relations; and shareholder communication.

Middle management

Consist of general managers, branch managers and department managers. They are accountable to the top management for their department's function. They devote more time to organizational and directional functions. Their roles can be emphasized as executing organizational plans in conformance with the company's policies and the top management's objectives, defining and discussing information and policies from top management to lower management, and most importantly, inspiring and providing guidance to lower-level managers towards better performance.

Middle management is the midway management of a categorized organization, being secondary to the senior management but above the deepest levels of operational members. An operational manager may be well-thought-out by middle management or may be categorized as a non-management operator, liable to the policy of the specific organization. The efficiency of the middle level is vital in any organization since it bridges the gap between top-level and bottom-level staff.

Their functions include:

• Designing and implementing effective group and inter-group work and information systems
• Defining and monitoring group-level performance indicators
• Diagnosing and resolving problems within and among workgroups
• Designing and implementing reward systems that support cooperative behavior, as well as making decisions and sharing ideas with top managers

Line management

Line managers include supervisors, section leaders, forepersons, and team leaders. They focus on controlling and directing regular employees. They are usually responsible for assigning employees tasks, guiding and supervising employees on day-to-day activities, ensuring the quality and quantity of production and/or service, making recommendations and suggestions to employees on their work, and channeling employee concerns that they cannot resolve to mid-level managers or other administrators. Low-level or "front-line" managers also act as role models for their employees. In some types of work, front-line managers may also do some of the same tasks that employees do, at least some of the time. For example, in some restaurants, the front-line managers will also serve customers during a very busy period of the day. In general, line managers are considered part of the workforce and not part of the organization's proper management despite performing traditional management functions.

Front-line managers typically provide:

• Training for new employees
• Basic supervision
• Motivation
• Performance feedback and guidance

Some front-line managers may also provide career planning for employees who aim to rise within the organization.

Training and education

Colleges and universities around the world offer bachelor's degrees, graduate degrees, diplomas, and certificates in management; generally within their colleges of business, business schools, or faculty of management but also in other related departments.

Higher education has been characterized as a necessary factor in the managerial revolution in the 20th century.

Requirement

While some professions require academic credentials in order to work in the profession (e.g., law, medicine, and engineering, which require, respectively the Bachelor of Law, Doctor of Medicine, and Bachelor of Engineering degrees), management and administration positions do not necessarily require the completion of academic degrees. Some well-known senior executives in the US who did not complete a degree include Steve Jobs, Bill Gates and Mark Zuckerberg. However, many managers and executives have completed some type of business or management training, such as a Bachelor of Commerce or a Master of Business Administration degree. Some major organizations, including companies, non-profit organizations, and governments, require applicants to managerial or executive positions to hold at minimum bachelor's degree in a field related to administration or management, or in the case of business jobs, a Bachelor of Commerce or a similar degree.

Undergraduate

At the undergraduate level, the most common business programs are the Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) and Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.). These typically comprise a four-year program designed to give students an overview of the role of managers in planning and directing within an organization. Course topics include accounting, financial management, statistics, marketing, strategy, and other related areas.

Many other undergraduate degrees include the study of management, such as Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science degrees with a major in business administration or management and the Bachelor of Arts (BA) or Bachelor of Science (BS) in political science (PoliSci) with a concentration in public administration or the Bachelor of Public Administration (B.P.A), a degree designed for individuals aiming to work as bureaucrats in the government jobs. Many colleges and universities also offer certificates and diplomas in business administration or management, which typically require one to two years of full-time study.

To manage technological areas, one often needs an undergraduate degree in a STEM area.

Graduate

At the graduate level students aiming at careers as managers or executives may choose to specialize in major subareas of management or business administration such as entrepreneurship, human resources, international business, organizational behavior, organizational theory, strategic management, accounting, corporate finance, entertainment, global management, healthcare management, investment management, sustainability and real estate.

A Master of Business Administration (MBA) is the most popular professional degree at the master's level and can be obtained from many universities in the United States. MBA programs provide further education in management and leadership for graduate students. Other master's degrees in business and management include Master of Management (MM) and the Master of Science (M.Sc.) in business administration or management, which is typically taken by students aiming to become researchers or professors.

There are also specialized master's degrees in administration for individuals aiming at careers outside of business, such as the Master of Public Administration (MPA) degree (also offered as a Master of Arts or Master of Science in public administration in some universities), for students aiming to become managers or executives in the public service and the Master of Health Administration, for students aiming to become managers or executives in the health care and hospital sector.

Management doctorates are the most advanced terminal degrees in the field of business and management. Most individuals obtaining management doctorates take the programs to obtain the training in research methods, statistical analysis, and writing academic papers that they will need to seek careers as researchers, senior consultants, and/or professors in business administration or management. There are several types of management doctorates: the Doctor of Management (DM), the Doctor of Business Administration (DBA), the Doctor of Public Administration(DPA), the Ph.D. in business administration, the Ph.D. in management, and the Ph.D. in political science with a concentration in public administration. In the 2010s, doctorates in business administration and management were available with many specializations.

Good practices

While management trends can change fast, the long-term trend in management has been defined by a market embracing diversity and a rising service industry. Managers are currently being trained to encourage greater equality for minorities and women in the workplace, by offering increased flexibility in working hours, better retraining, and innovative (and usually industry-specific) performance markers. Managers destined for the service sector are being trained to use unique measurement techniques, better worker support, and more charismatic leadership styles. Human resources finds itself increasingly working with management in a training capacity to help collect management data on the success (or failure) of management actions with employees.

Good practices identified for managers include "walking the shop floor", and, especially for managers who are new in post, identifying and achieving some "quick wins" which demonstrate visible success in establishing appropriate objectives. Leadership writer John Kotter uses the phrase "Short-Term Wins" to express the same idea. As in all work, achieving an appropriate work-life balance for self and others is an important management practice.

Evidence-based management

Evidence-based management is an emerging movement to use the current, best evidence in management and decision-making. It is part of the larger movement towards evidence-based practices. Evidence-based management entails managerial decisions and organizational practices informed by the best available evidence. As with other evidence-based practice, this is based on the three principles of published peer-reviewed (often in management or social science journals) research evidence that bears on whether and why a particular management practice works; judgment and experience from contextual management practice, to understand the organization and interpersonal dynamics in a situation and determine the risks and benefits of available actions; and the preferences and values of those affected.

History

Some see management as a late-modern (in the sense of late modernity) conceptualization. On those terms it cannot have a pre-modern history – only harbingers (such as stewards). Others, however, detect management-like thought among ancient Sumerian traders and the builders of the pyramids of ancient Egypt. Slave owners through the centuries faced the problems of exploiting and motivating a dependent but sometimes unenthusiastic or recalcitrant workforce, but many pre-industrial enterprises, given their small scale, did not feel compelled to face the issues of management systematically. However, innovations such as the spread of Arabic numerals (5th to 15th centuries) and the codification of double-entry book-keeping (1494) provided tools for management assessment, planning and control.

• An organization is more stable if members have the right to express their differences and solve their conflicts within it.
• While one person can begin an organization, "it is lasting when it is left in the care of many and when many desire to maintain it".
• A weak manager can follow a strong one, but not another weak one, and maintain authority.
• A manager seeking to change an established organization "should retain at least a shadow of the ancient customs".

With the changing workplaces of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries, military theory and practice contributed approaches to managing the newly popular factories.

Given the scale of most commercial operations and the lack of mechanized record-keeping and recording before the Industrial Revolution, it made sense for most owners of enterprises in those times to carry out management functions by and for themselves. But with the growing size and complexity of organizations, a distinction between owners (individuals, industrial dynasties, or groups of shareholders) and day-to-day managers (independent specialists in planning and control) gradually became more common.

Early writing

The field of management originated in ancient China, including possibly the first highly centralized bureaucratic state, and the earliest (by the second century BC) example of an administration based on merit through testing. Some theorists have cited ancient military texts as providing lessons for civilian managers. For example, Chinese general Sun Tzu in his 6th-century BC work The Art of War recommends (when re-phrased in modern terminology) being aware of and acting on strengths and weaknesses of both a manager's organization and a foe's. The writings of influential Chinese Legalist philosopher Shen Buhai may be considered to embody a rare premodern example of abstract theory of administration. American philosopher Herrlee G. Creel and other scholars find the influence of Chinese administration in Europe by the 12th century. Thomas Taylor Meadows, Britain's consul in Guangzhou, argued in his Desultory Notes on the Government and People of China (1847) that "the long duration of the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to the good government which consists in the advancement of men of talent and merit only," and that the British must reform their civil service by making the institution meritocratic. Influenced by the ancient Chinese imperial examination, the Northcote–Trevelyan Report of 1854 recommended that recruitment should be on the basis of merit determined through competitive examination, candidates should have a solid general education to enable inter-departmental transfers, and promotion should be through achievement rather than "preferment, patronage, or purchase". This led to implementation of Her Majesty's Civil Service as a systematic, meritocratic civil service bureaucracy. Like the British, the development of French bureaucracy was influenced by the Chinese system. Voltaire claimed that the Chinese had "perfected moral science" and François Quesnay advocated an economic and political system modeled after that of the Chinese. French civil service examinations adopted in the late 19th century were also heavily based on general cultural studies. These features have been likened to the earlier Chinese model.

Various ancient and medieval civilizations produced "mirrors for princes" books, which aimed to advise new monarchs on how to govern. Plato described job specialization in 350 BC, and Alfarabi listed several leadership traits in AD 900. Other examples include the Indian Arthashastra by Chanakya (written around 300 BC), and The Prince by Italian author Niccolò Machiavelli (c. 1515).

Written in 1776 by Adam Smith, a Scottish moral philosopher, The Wealth of Nations discussed efficient organization of work through division of labour. Smith described how changes in processes could boost productivity in the manufacture of pins. While individuals could produce 200 pins per day, Smith analyzed the steps involved in the manufacture and, with 10 specialists, enabled the production of 48,000 pins per day.

19th century

Classical economists such as Adam Smith (1723–1790) and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) provided a theoretical background to resource allocation, production (economics), and pricing issues. About the same time, innovators like Eli Whitney (1765–1825), James Watt (1736–1819), and Matthew Boulton (1728–1809) developed elements of technical production such as standardization, quality-control procedures, cost-accounting, interchangeability of parts, and work-planning. Many of these aspects of management existed in the pre-1861 slave-based sector of the US economy. That environment saw 4 million people, as the contemporary usages had it, "managed" in profitable quasi-mass production before wage slavery eclipsed chattel slavery.

Salaried managers as an identifiable group first became prominent in the late 19th century. As large corporations began to overshadow small family businesses the need for personnel management positions became more necessary. Businesses grew into large corporations and the need for clerks, bookkeepers, secretaries and managers expanded. The demand for trained managers led college and university administrators to consider and move forward with plans to create the first schools of business on their campuses.

20th century

At the turn of the twentieth century, the need for skilled and trained managers had become increasingly apparent. The demand occurred as personnel departments began to expand rapidly. In 1915, less than one in twenty manufacturing firms had a dedicated personnel department. By 1929 that number had grown to over one-third. Formal management education became standardized at colleges and universities. Colleges and universities capitalized on the needs of corporations by forming business schools and corporate placement departments. This shift toward formal business education marked the creation of a corporate elite in the US.

By about 1900 one finds managers trying to place their theories on what they regarded as a thoroughly scientific basis (see scientism for perceived limitations of this belief). Examples include Henry R. Towne's Science of management in the 1890s, Frederick Winslow Taylor's The Principles of Scientific Management (1911), Lillian Gilbreth's Psychology of Management (1914), Frank and Lillian Gilbreth's Applied motion study (1917), and Henry L. Gantt's charts (1910s). J. Duncan wrote the first college management textbook in 1911. In 1912 Yoichi Ueno introduced Taylorism to Japan and became the first management consultant of the "Japanese management style". His son Ichiro Ueno pioneered Japanese quality assurance.

The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920. The Harvard Business School offered the first Master of Business Administration degree (MBA) in 1921. People like Henri Fayol (1841–1925) and Alexander Church (1866–1936) described the various branches of management and their inter-relationships. In the early 20th century, people like Ordway Tead (1891–1973), Walter Scott (1869–1955) and J. Mooney applied the principles of psychology to management. Other writers, such as Elton Mayo (1880–1949), Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), Chester Barnard (1886–1961), Max Weber (1864–1920), who saw what he called the "administrator" as bureaucrat, Rensis Likert (1903–1981), and Chris Argyris (born 1923) approached the phenomenon of management from a sociological perspective.

Peter Drucker (1909–2005) wrote one of the earliest books on applied management: Concept of the Corporation (published in 1946). It resulted from Alfred Sloan (chairman of General Motors until 1956) commissioning a study of the organization. Drucker went on to write 39 books, many in the same vein.

H. Dodge, Ronald Fisher (1890–1962), and Thornton C. Fry introduced statistical techniques into management studies. In the 1940s, Patrick Blackett worked in the development of the applied-mathematics science of operations research, initially for military operations. Operations research, sometimes known as "management science" (but distinct from Taylor's scientific management), attempts to take a scientific approach to solving decision problems and can apply directly to multiple management problems, particularly in the areas of logistics and operations.

Some of the later 20th-century developments include the theory of constraints (introduced in 1984), management by objectives (systematized in 1954), re-engineering (the early 1990s), Six Sigma (1986), management by walking around (1970s), the Viable system model (1972), and various information-technology-driven theories such as agile software development (so-named from 2001), as well as group-management theories such as Cog's Ladder (1972) and the notion of "thriving on chaos" (1987).

As the general recognition of managers as a class solidified during the 20th century and gave perceived practitioners of the art/science of management a certain amount of prestige, so the way opened for popularised systems of management ideas to peddle their wares. In this context, many management fads may have had more to do with pop psychology than with scientific theories of management.

Business management includes the following branches:

1. financial management
2. human resource management
3. Management cybernetics
4. information technology management (responsible for management information systems )
5. marketing management
6. operations management and production management
7. strategic management

21st century

Branches of management theory also exist relating to nonprofits and to government: such as public administration, public management, and educational management. Further, management programs related to civil society organizations have also spawned programs in nonprofit management and social entrepreneurship.

Many of the assumptions made by management have come under attack from business-ethics viewpoints, critical management studies, and anti-corporate activism.

As one consequence, workplace democracy (sometimes referred to as Workers' self-management) has become both more common and more advocated, in some places distributing all management functions among workers, each of whom takes on a portion of the work. However, these models predate any current political issue and may occur more naturally than does a command hierarchy.

Nature of work

In profitable organizations, management's primary function is the satisfaction of a range of stakeholders. This typically involves making a profit (for the shareholders), creating valued products at a reasonable cost (for customers), and providing great employment opportunities for employees. In case of nonprofit management, one of the main functions is, keeping the faith of donors. In most models of management and governance, shareholders vote for the board of directors, and the board then hires senior management. Some organizations have experimented with other methods (such as employee-voting models) of selecting or reviewing managers, but this is rare.

Topics

Basics

According to Fayol, management operates through five basic functions: planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling.

• Planning: Deciding what needs to happen in the future and generating action plans (deciding in advance).
• Organizing (or staffing): Making sure the human and nonhuman resources are put into place.
• Commanding (or leading): Determining what must be done in a situation and getting people to do it.
• Coordinating: Creating a structure through which an organization's goals can be accomplished.
• Controlling: Checking progress against plans.

Basic roles

• Interpersonal: roles that involve coordination and interaction with employees.

Figurehead, leader, liaison

• Informational: roles that involve handling, sharing, and analyzing information.

Nerve centre, disseminator, spokesperson

• Decision: roles that require decision-making.

Entrepreneur, negotiator, allocator, disturbance handler

Skills

Management skills include:

• Political: used to build a power base and to establish connections.
• Interpersonal: used to communicate, motivate, mentor and delegate.
• Diagnostic: ability to visualize appropriate responses to a situation.
• Leadership: ability to communicate a vision and inspire people to embrace that vision.
  • cross-cultural leadership: the ability to understand the effects of culture on leadership style.
• Behavioural: perception towards others, conflict resolution, time management, self-improvement, stress management and resilience, patience, clear communication.

Implementation of policies and strategies

• All policies and strategies must be discussed with all managerial personnel and staff.
• Managers must understand where and how they can implement their policies and strategies.
• An action plan must be devised for each department.
• Policies and strategies must be reviewed regularly.
• Contingency plans must be devised in case the environment changes.
• Top-level managers should carry out regular progress assessments.
• The business requires team spirit and a good environment.
• The missions, objectives, strengths, and weaknesses of each department must be analyzed to determine their roles in achieving the business's mission.
• The forecasting method develops a reliable picture of the business's future environment.
• A planning unit must be created to ensure that all plans are consistent and that policies and strategies are aimed at achieving the same mission and objectives.

Policies and strategies in the planning process

• They give mid and lower-level managers a good idea of the future plans for each department in an organization.
• A framework is created whereby plans and decisions are made.
• Mid and lower-level management may add their own plans to the business's strategies.

See also

• Certificate in Management Studies
• Engineering management
• Outline of management
• Outline of business management

References

1. DuBrin, Andrew J. (2009). Essentials of management (8th ed.). Mason, OH: Thomson Business & Economics. ISBN 978-0-324-35389-1. OCLC 227205643.
2. Waring, S.P., 2016. Taylorism Transformed: Scientific management theory since 1945. UNC Press Books.
3. "What Is Evidence-Based Management? – Center for Evidence-Based Management". Retrieved 2022-03-03.
4. Mintzberg, Henry,. (2014). Manager l'essentiel : ce que font vraiment les managers ... et ce qu'ils pourraient faire mieux. Paris: Vuibert. ISBN 978-2-311-40094-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
5. Real Academia Española, Diccionario de la lengua española. "manejar | Diccionario de la lengua española" (in Spanish).
6. Xenophon (1734). "Oikonomikos. Oder Xenophon vom Haus-Wesen, aus der Griechischen- in die Teutsche Sprache übersetzet von Barthold Henrich Brockes, dem jüngern. Mit einer Vorrede S.T. Herrn Jo. Alb. Fabricii ... Nebst den wenigen Stücken, die aus der Lateinischen Uebersetzung Ciceronis noch übrig".
7. "Home : Oxford English Dictionary".
8. SS Gulshan. Management Principles and Practices by Lallan Prasad and SS Gulshan. Excel Books India. pp. 6–. ISBN 978-93-5062-099-1.
9. Ann Viola Ulvin
10. Deslandes G., (2014), “Management in Xenophon's Philosophy: a Retrospective Analysis”, 38th Annual Research Conference, Philosophy of Management, 2014, July 14–16, Chicago
11. Prabbal Frank attempts to make a subtle distinction between management and manipulation: Frank, Prabbal (2007). People Manipulation: A Positive Approach (2 ed.). New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd (published 2009). pp. 3–7. ISBN 978-81-207-4352-6. Retrieved 2015-09-05. There is a difference between management and manipulation. The difference is thin If management is handling, then manipulation is skillful handling. In short, manipulation is skillful management. Manipulation is in essence leveraged management. It is an alive thing while management is a dead concept. It requires a proactive approach rather than a reactive approach. People cannot be managed.
12. Powell, Thomas C. (2001). "Competitive advantage: logical and philosophical considerations". Strategic Management Journal. 22 (9): 875–888. doi:10.1002/smj.173. ISSN 1097-0266.
13. Langfred, Claus (2000). "The paradox of self-management: individual and group autonomy in work groups". Journal of Organizational Behavior. 21 (5): 563–585. doi:10.1002/1099-1379(200008)21:5<563::AID-JOB31>3.0.CO;2-H.
14. Wood, Robert; Bandura, Albert (1989). "Social Cognitive Theory of Organizational Management". The Academy of Management Review. 14 (3): 361–384. doi:10.2307/258173. ISSN 0363-7425. JSTOR 258173.
15. Julie Zink, Ph D.; Zink, Julie (2017). "Chapter 1: Introducing Organizational Communication". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
16. "Managerial Skills - 3 Types of Skills Each Manager Will Need". Entrepreneurs Box. 2021-06-06. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
17. "Management is Universal Process and Phenomenon (Explained)". www.iedunote.com. 2018-06-12. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
18. Administration industrielle et générale – prévoyance organization – commandment, coordination – contrôle, Paris: Dunod, 1966
19. Jones, Norman L. (2013-10-02). "Chapter Two: Of Poetry and Politics: The Managerial Culture of Sixteenth-Century England". In Kaufman, Peter Iver (ed.). Leadership and Elizabethan Culture. Jepson Studies in Leadership. Palgrave Macmillan (published 2013). p. 17. ISBN 978-1-137-34029-0. Retrieved 2015-08-29. Mary Parker Follett, the 'prophet of management' reputedly defined management as the 'art of getting things done through people.' Whether or not she said it, Follett describes the attributes of dynamic management as being coactive rather than coercive.
20. Vocational Business: Training, Developing and Motivating People by Richard Barrett – Business & Economics – 2003. p. 51.
21. Compare: Holmes, Leonard (2012-11-28). The Dominance of Management: A Participatory Critique. Voices in Development Management. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. (published 2012). p. 20. ISBN 978-1-4094-8866-8. Retrieved 2015-08-29. Lupton's (1983: 17) notion that management is 'what managers do during their working hours', if valid, could only apply to descriptive conceptualizations of management, where 'management' is effectively synonymous with 'managing', and where 'managing' refers to an activity, or set of activities carried out by managers.
22. Harper, Douglas. "management". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2015-08-29. – "Meaning 'governing body' (originally of a theater) is from 1739."
23. See for examples Melling, Joseph; McKinlay, Alan, eds. (1996). Management, Labour, and Industrial Politics in Modern Europe: The Quest for Productivity Growth During the Twentieth Century. Edward Elgar. ISBN 978-1-85898-016-4. Retrieved 2015-08-29.
24. Board of Directors: Duties & Liabilities Archived 2014-03-24 at the Wayback Machine. Stanford Graduate School of Business.
25. DeMars L. (2006). Heavy Vetting: Boards of directors now want to talk to would-be CFOs — and vice versa. CFO Magazine.
26. 2013 CEO Performance Evaluation Survey. Stanford Graduate School of Business.
27. Kleiman, Lawrence S. (2010), Management and Executive Development, Reference for Business: Encyclopedia of Business, accessed on 1 November 2024
28. Nicholas, Tom (2024). "Human Capital and the Managerial Revolution in the United States: Evidence from General Electric". Review of Economics and Statistics: 1–47. doi:10.1162/rest_a_01400. ISSN 0034-6535.
29. "AOM Placement Presentations".
30. "The Role of HR in Uncertain Times" (PDF). Economist Intelligence Unit. Retrieved 18 January 2015.
31. Verity, J., Five benefits of walking the 'shop floor', People Puzzles, accessed 11 March 2023
32. Kotter, J., The 8-Step Process for Leading Change, accessed 11 March 2023
33. Britt, H., 14 Ways To Improve Work-Life Balance, accessed 11 March 2023
34. Pfeffer J, Sutton RI (March 2006). Hard Facts, Dangerous Half-Truths And Total Nonsense: Profiting From Evidence-Based Management (first ed.). Boston, Mass: Harvard Business Review Press. ISBN 978-1-59139-862-2.
35. Spring B (July 2007). "Evidence-based practice in clinical psychology: what it is, why it matters; what you need to know". Journal of Clinical Psychology. 63 (7): 611–31. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.456.9970. doi:10.1002/jclp.20373. PMID 17551934.
36. Lilienfeld SO, Ritschel LA, Lynn SJ, Cautin RL, Latzman RD (November 2013). "Why many clinical psychologists are resistant to evidence-based practice: root causes and constructive remedies". Clinical Psychology Review. 33 (7): 883–900. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2012.09.008. PMID 23647856.
37. Waring, S.P., 2016, Taylorism transformed: Scientific management theory since 1945. UNC Press Books.
38. Giddens, Anthony (1981). A Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism. Social and Politic Theory from Polity Press. Vol. 1. University of California Press. p. 125. ISBN 978-0-520-04490-6. Retrieved 2013-12-29. In the army barracks, and in the mass co-ordination of men on the battlefield (epitomized by the military innovations of Prince Maurice of Orange and Nassau in the sixteenth century) are to be found the prototype of the regimentation of the factory – as both Marx and Weber noted.
39. Ewan Ferlie, Laurence E. Lynn, Christopher Pollitt (2005) The Oxford Handbook of Public Management, p.30.
40. Kazin, Edwards, and Rothman (2010), 142. One of the oldest examples of a merit-based civil service system existed' in the imperial bureaucracy of China.
    • Tan, Chung; Geng, Yinzheng (2005). India and China: twenty centuries of civilization interaction and vibrations. University of Michigan Press. p. 128. China not only produced the world's first "bureaucracy", but also the world's first "meritocracy"
    • Konner, Melvin (2003). Unsettled: an anthropology of the Jews. Viking Compass. p. 217. ISBN 9780670032440. China is the world's oldest meritocracy
    • Tucker, Mary Evelyn (2009). "Touching the Depths of Things: Cultivating Nature in East Asia". Ecology and the Environment: Perspectives from the Humanities: 51. To staff these institutions, they created the oldest meritocracy in the world, in which government appointments were based on civil service examinations that drew on the values of the Confucian Classics
41. Gomez-Mejia, Luis R.; David B. Balkin; Robert L. Cardy (2008). Management: People, Performance, Change, 3rd edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-07-302743-2.
42. Creel, 1974 pp. 4–5 Shen Pu-hai: A Chinese Political Philosopher of the Fourth Century B.C.
43. Creel, What Is Taoism?, 94
    • Creel, 1974 p.4, 119 Shen Pu-hai: A Chinese Political Philosopher of the Fourth Century B.C.
    • Creel 1964: 155–6
    • Herrlee G. Creel, 1974 p.119. Shen Pu-Hai: A Secular Philosopher of Administration, Journal of Chinese Philosophy Volume 1.
    • Paul R. Goldin, p.16 Persistent Misconceptions about Chinese Legalism. https://www.academia.edu/24999390/Persistent_Misconceptions_about_Chinese_Legalism_
44. Ewan Ferlie, Laurence E. Lynn, Christopher Pollitt 2005 p.30, The Oxford Handbook of Public Management
45. Herrlee G. Creel, 1974 p.119. "Shen Pu-Hai: A Secular Philosopher of Administration", Journal of Chinese Philosophy Volume 1.
46. Creel, "The Origins of Statecraft in China, I", The Western Chou Empire, Chicago, pp.9–27
47. Otto B. Van der Sprenkel, "Max Weber on China", History and Theory 3 (1964), 357.
48. ^ Bodde, Derke. "China: A Teaching Workbook". Columbia University.
49. Full text of the Northcote-Trevelyan Report Archived 22 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine
50. Walker, David (2003-07-09). "Fair game". The Guardian. London, UK. Retrieved 2003-07-09.
51. Mark W. Huddleston; William W. Boyer (1996). The Higher Civil Service in the United States: Quest for Reform. University of Pittsburgh Pre. p. 15. ISBN 0822974738.
52. Rung, Margaret C. (2002). Servants of the State: Managing Diversity & Democracy in the Federal Workforce, 1933-1953. University of Georgia Press. pp. 8, 200–201. ISBN 0820323624.
53. Griffin, Ricky W. CUSTOM Management: Principles and Practices, International Edition, 11th Edition. Cengage Learning UK, 08/2014
54. ^ Gomez-Mejia, Luis R.; David B. Balkin; Robert L. Cardy (2008). Management: People, Performance, Change (3 ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-07-302743-2.
55. Rosenthal, Caitlin (2018). Accounting for Slavery: Masters and Management. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674988576. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
56. Khurana, Rakesh (2010) . From Higher Aims to Hired Hands: The Social Transformation of American Business Schools and the Unfulfilled Promise of Management as a Profession. Princeton University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-4008-3086-2. Retrieved 2013-08-24. When salaried managers first appeared in the large corporations of the late nineteenth century, it was not obvious who they were, what they did, or why they should be entrusted with the task of running corporations.
57. Groeger, Cristina V. (February 2018). "A "Good Mixer": University Placement in Corporate America, 1890–1940". History of Education Quarterly. 58 (1): 33–64. doi:10.1017/heq.2017.48. ISSN 0018-2680. S2CID 149037078.
58. Jacoby, S.M. (1985). "Employing Bureaucracy: Managers, Unions, and the Transformation of Work in American Industry, 1900-1945". Columbia University Press.
59. Cruikshank, L (1987). "A Delicate Experiment: The Harvard Business School, 1908-1945". Harvard Business School Press.
60. Groeger, Cristina V. (February 2018). "A "Good Mixer": University Placement in Corporate America, 1890–1940". History of Education Quarterly. 58 (1): 33–64. doi:10.1017/heq.2017.48. ISSN 0018-2680. S2CID 149037078.
61. Gilbreth, Lillian Moller. The Psychology of Management: The Function of the Mind in Determining, Teaching and Installing Methods of Least Waste – via Internet Archive.
62. Legge, David; Stanton, Pauline; Smyth, Anne (October 2005). "Learning management (and managing your own learning)". In Harris, Mary G. (ed.). Managing Health Services: Concepts and Practice. Marrickville, NSW: Elsevier Australia (published 2006). p. 13. ISBN 978-0-7295-3759-9. Retrieved 2014-07-11. The manager as bureaucrat is the guardian of roles, rules, and relationships; his or her style of management relies heavily on working according to the book. In the Weberian tradition, managers are necessary to coordinate the different roles that contribute to the production process and to mediate communication from the head office to the shop floor and back. This style of management assumes a world view in which the bureaucratic role is seen as separate from, and taking precedence over, other constructions of self (including the obligations of citizenship), at least for the working day.
63. Peters, Thomas J. (1987). Thriving on Chaos: Handbook for a Management Revolution. Perennial Library. Vol. 7184. Knopf. ISBN 9780394560618. Retrieved 7 September 2020.
64. Jean-Louis Peaucelle (2015). Henri Fayol, the Manager. Routledge. pp. 55–. ISBN 978-1-317-31939-9.

External links

• Online books, and library resources in your library and in other libraries about Management
• Media related to Management at Wikimedia Commons
• Quotations related to Management at Wikiquote

v t e Management
Outline of management Index of management articles
By type of organization	Academic Association Business Restaurant Court Healthcare Intelligence Military Public Reputation
By focus, within an organization	On scope Strategic (top-level) Capability Capital Change Communication Financial Innovation Legal Performance Risk Systems On component Facility Product Product lifecycle Brand Project Construction Program On activity or department managed Line Marketing Operations/production Process Quality Sales Staff Accounting Office Records On aspect or relationship Customer relationship Engineering Logistics Perception Supply chain Talent On problem Conflict Crisis Stress On resource Environmental resource Field inventory Human resources Information Information technology Knowledge Land Materials Skills Technology Time
Positions	Interim Middle Senior
Methods, approaches	Adhocracy Collaborative method Distributed Earned value management Evidence-based management Full range leadership model Management by objectives Management style Macromanagement Micromanagement Scientific management Social entrepreneurship Sustainable management Team building Virtual management
Skills, activities	Decision-making Forecasting Leadership
Pioneers, scholars	Peter Drucker Eliyahu M. Goldratt Oliver E. Williamson
Education	Association of Technology, Management, and Applied Engineering Business school Certified Business Manager Chartered Management Institute Critical management studies
Degrees	Bachelor of Business Administration Master of Business Administration PhD in management Doctor of Business Administration
Other	Administration Collaboration Corporate governance Executive compensation Management consulting Management control Management cybernetics Management development Management fad Management system Managerial economics Managerial psychology Managerialism Organization development Organizational behavior management Pointy-haired Boss
Systems science portal

• Management
• Management occupations
• Majority–minority relations