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The Battle of the Alamo (February 23 – March 6, 1836) was a crucial conflict of the Texas Revolution. In 1835, colonists from the United States joined with Tejanos (Mexicans born in Texas) in putting up armed resistance to the centralization of the Mexican government. President Antonio López de Santa Anna and the government in Mexico City believed the United States had instigated the insurrection with a goal of annexing Texas.

In an effort to tamp down on the unrest, martial law was declared and military governor General Martín Perfecto de Cos established headquarters in San Antonio de Béxar, stationing his troops at the Alamo. When the Texian volunteer soldiers gained control of the fortress at the Siege of Béxar, compelling Cos to surrender on December 9, many saw his expulsion to the other side of the Rio Grande as the end of Mexican forces in Texas. Most Texian soldiers in Béxar left to join a planned invasion of Matamoros, Mexico.

Garrison commander James C. Neill went home on family matters February 11, 1836, leaving James Bowie and William B. Travis as co-commanders over the predominantly volunteer force. When the Mexican Army of Operations under the command of Santa Anna arrived in Béxar with 1,500 troops on February 23, the remaining Alamo garrison numbered 150. Over the course of the next several days, new volunteers arrived inside the fortress while others were sent out as couriers, to forage for food, or to buy supplies.

A fierce defense was launched from within the walls, even as Bowie and Travis made unsuccessful attempts to negotiate with the Mexican army. Travis repeatedly dispatched couriers with pleas for reinforcements. Although Santa Anna refused to consider a proposed conditional surrender, he extended an offer of amnesty for all Tejanos inside the fortress to walk away unharmed. Most Tejanos evacuated from the fortress about February 25, either as part of the amnesty, or as a part of Juan Seguín's company of courier scouts on their last run.

In response to pleas from Travis, James Fannin started from Goliad with 320 men, supplies and armaments, yet had to abort a day later due to a wagon breakdown. Final reinforcements were able to enter the Alamo during March 1–4, most of them from Gonzales which had become a recruitment camp. Others who had left intending to return were unable to re-enter. At 5:30 a.m. on March 6, the Mexican army began the final siege. An hour later, all combatants inside the Alamo were dead. The bodies, with the exception of Gregorio Esparza's, were cremated on pyres and abandoned. Esparza's brother Francisco was a soldier in the Mexican army and received permission from Santa Anna for a Christian burial.

Juan Seguín oversaw the 1837 recovery of the abandoned ashes and officiated at the February 25 funeral. The March 28 issue of the Telegraph and Texas Register only gave the burial location as where "the principal heap of ashes" had been found. In the following decades, the public wanted to know the location of the burial site, but Seguín gave conflicting statements, perceived as due to age-related memory problems. Remains thought to be those of the Alamo defenders were discovered at the Cathedral of San Fernando during the Texas 1936 centennial, and re-interred in a marble sarcophagus. Purported to hold the ashes of Travis, Bowie and Crockett, some have doubted it can be proven whose remains are entombed there.

Identifying the combatants

Below are 215 known combatants: 193 who died during the siege, 31 survivors, and one escapee who later died of his wounds.

Mexican Colonel Juan Almonte, Santa Anna's aide-de-camp, recorded the Texian fatality toll as 250 in his March 6 journal entry. He listed the survivors as five women, one Mexican soldier and one slave. Almonte did not record names, and his count was based solely on who was there during the final assault. Santa Anna reported to Mexico's Secretary of War Tornel that Texian fatalities exceeded 600. Historians Jack Jackson and John Wheat attributed that high figure to Santa Anna's playing to his political base.

Research into the battle, and exactly who was inside the fortress, began when the Alamo fell and has continued with no signs of abatement. The first published Texian list of casualties was in the March 24, 1836 issue of the Telegraph and Texas Register. The 115 names were supplied by John W. Smith and Gerald Navan, who historian Thomas Ricks Lindley believed likely drew from their own memories, as well as from interviews with those who might have left or tried to enter. In an 1860 statement for the Texas Almanac, former San Antonio alcalde (mayor) Francisco Antonio Ruiz set the number at 182.

When the Alamo Cenotaph was created by Pompeo Coppini in 1939, the 187 defender names on the monument came from the research of Amelia Williams, considered the leading Alamo authority of her day. Her work is still used by some as a benchmark, although skepticism has been voiced. Lindley's 2003 Alamo Traces: New Evidence and New Conclusions upended much of what was previously accepted as fact. He devoted a chapter to deconstructing Williams' research as "misrepresentation, alteration, and fabrication of data", criticizing the low value she placed on muster rolls as evidence that a man died at the Alamo, and her over-reliance on military land grants, even though the officials who approved the land grants considered the muster rolls to be sufficient proof. Many historians have been slow to embrace Lindley's findings, however. At this writing, most Alamo defender biographies on the Texas State Historical Association's website (tshaonline.org) and the official Alamo site (thealamo.org) draw from the work of historian Bill Groneman, who relied heavily on Williams, and show little, if any, influence from Lindley.

In the pursuit of uncovering every infinitesimal piece of evidence about what happened during the battle, more thorough research methods continue to evolve and Tejanos have begun to add their voices. Until recent decades, accounts of Tejano participation in the Texas revolution were notably absent, but historians such as Timothy M. Matovina and Jesús F. de la Teja have helped add that missing perspective to the battle's events.

Key to military rank abbreviations

Key to military rank abbreviations

Defenders

See also

• List of Texian survivors of the Battle of the Alamo

Citations

Notes

1. "The enemy in large force is in sight. We want men and provisions. Send them to us. We have 150 men and are determined to defend the Alamo to the last. Give us assistance. (signed) William Barret Travis, February 23, 1836" Letter to Gonzales alcalde Andrew Ponton. Groneman (2001), p. 1; The Alamo was under Sam Houston's authority as commander-in-chief of the paid army, which included Neill, Bowie, Travis and Crockett. Until March 4, Houston's authority did not extend to volunteers and local militias, which were the majority of the fighting force inside the Alamo. Hatch (1999), p. 188.
2. ^ Some Tejanos were part of the Bexar military garrison, but others were part of Seguin's volunteer scout company and were in the Alamo on or before Feb 23. Enrique Esparza, who was inside the fortress as the son of defender Gregorio Esparza, later recalled that Santa Anna offered a three-day amnesty to all Tejano defenders. According to Esparza, Tejanos discussed the matter with Bowie who advised them to take the amnesty. It is believed most of the Tejanos left when Seguin did, either as couriers or because of the amnesty. Poyo (1996), pp. 53, 58 "Efficient in the Cause" (Stephen L. Hardin); Lindley (2003), pp. 94, 134.
3. The most notable group from Gonzales in the final days was the Gonzales Mounted Ranger Company, nicknamed the Immortal 32 in later decades, although the exact head count of that company varies by source. Moore (2004), pp. 28–29, 39–43, 46, 51; Moore (2007), p. 100; Lindley (2003), p. 98.
4. Some lore give the birthplace of Sewell as Tennessee but have no definitive source; however, scholars and other sourcing, including the Alamo, say he was born in England. Todish (1998), p. 85; Moore (2007), p. 100.; "Marcus L.Sewell". Alamo Mission in San Antonio. Archived from the original on March 28, 2016. Retrieved March 30, 2016."Who Was Marcus Sewell?". Sons of DeWitt Colony Texas. TAMU. Archived from the original on November 1, 2015. Retrieved March 30, 2016.Groneman, Bill (June 15, 2010). "Marcus Sewell". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Archived from the original on April 18, 2016. Retrieved March 30, 2016.

Footnotes

1. Todish et al. (1998), pp. 2, 4, 6.
2. Todish et al. (1998), pp. 137–138.
3. Davis (2004), p. 143; Todish et al. (1998), p. 121.
4. Poyo (1996), p. 54, "Efficient in the Cause" (Stephen L. Hardin).
5. Todish et al. (1998), pp. 29, 125.
6. Todish et al. (1998), p. 126; Moore (2004), p. 39.
7. Groneman (2001), p. 1; Lindley (2003), pp. 90, 93.
8. Lindley (2003), pp. 92–93; Groneman (2001), pp. 4–5; Jackson, Wheat (2005), p. 367.
9. Green, Michael R. (April 1988). "To the People of Texas & All Americans in the World". The Southwestern Historical Quarterly. 91 (4). Texas State Historical Association: 483–508. JSTOR 30240052.
10. Moore (2004), pp. 4, 22.
11. Lord (1961), p. 166.
12. Edmondson (2000), pp. 45–46, 374.
13. "Telegraph and Texas Register May 28, 1837". The Portal to Texas History. Texas State Historical Association. March 28, 1837. Archived from the original on June 14, 2015. Retrieved June 13, 2015.
14. ^ Sibley, Marilyn McAdams (October 1966). "The Burial Place of the Alamo Heroes". The Southwestern Historical Quarterly. 70 (2). Texas State Historical Association: 272–280. JSTOR 30236392.
15. Lindley (2003), p. 148; Jackson, Wheat (2005), pp. 374, 377.
16. Jackson, Wheat (2005), p. 389.
17. Chariton (1990), p. 180.
18. Lindley (2003), pp. 226–227.
19. Matovina (1995), pp. 43–44.
20. Williams, Amelia (January 1934). "Reviewed Work: A Critical Study of the Siege of the Alamo and of the Personnel of Its Defenders: IV. Historical Problems Relating to the Alamo". The Southwestern Historical Quarterly. 37 (3). Texas State Historical Association: 157–184. JSTOR 30235477.
21. Smoot, Jane (June 15, 2010). "Amelia Worthington Williams". Texas Handbook Online. Texas State Historical Association. Archived from the original on September 21, 2015. Retrieved September 3, 2015.
22. Roell, Craig H. (July 2004). "Reviewed Work: Alamo Traces: New Evidence and New Conclusions by Thomas Ricks Lindley". The Southwestern Historical Quarterly. 108 (1). Texas State Historical Association: 105–106. JSTOR 30239499.
23. Lindley (2003), pp. 37, 39–41, 67–68.
24. Lindley (2003), pp. 52, 57.
25. Flores, Richard R (February 1999). "Reviewed Work: The Alamo Remembered: Tejano Accounts and Perspectives by Timothy M. Matovina". American Ethnologist. 26 (1). American Anthropological Association: 265. doi:10.1525/ae.1999.26.1.265. JSTOR 647542.
26. de la Teja, Jesús F (Spring 1998). "Discovering the Tejano Community in "Early" Texas". Journal of the Early Republic. 18 (1). University of Pennsylvania Press on behalf of the Society for Historians of the Early American Republic: 73–98. doi:10.2307/3124734. JSTOR 3124734.
27. Lindley (2003), p. 144; Todish (1998), p. 76.
28. Groneman (1990), p. 1.
29. Groneman (1990), p. 2.
30. ^ Lindley (2003), pp. 54, 143.
31. Groneman (1990), pp. 6–7.
32. Photo of cemetery monument Archived December 10, 2015, at the Wayback Machine at Hillcrest Cemetery in northern Mississippi, accessed December 8, 2015.
33. Groneman (1990), p. 7.
34. Lindley (2003), p. 144; Groneman (1990), p. 8; Todish (1998), p. 76.
35. Groneman (1990), p. 8.
36. Groneman (1990), p. 9; Moore (2007), p. 100
37. Todish (1998), p. 76; Groneman (1990), pp. 9–10.
38. Groneman (1990), p. 10.
39. Groneman (1990), pp. 10–11.
40. ^ Groneman (1990), p. 11; Todish (1998), p. 76.
41. Brown, p. 149; Lindley (2003), p. 131.
42. Groneman (1990), p. 12.
43. Groneman (1990), pp. 13–14.
44. ^ Groneman (1990), p. 14.
45. Groneman (1990), pp. 15–16.
46. Groneman (1990), p. 16.
47. Hopewell (1994), pp. 2–3, 116.
48. Lindley (2003), pp. 62, 79.
49. Groneman (1990), pp. 20–21; Moore (2004), p. 457.
50. ^ Groneman (1990), p. 21.
51. Groneman (1990), p. 22; Moore (2007), p. 100.
52. ^ Groneman (1990), p. 22.
53. Lindley (2003), p. 143; Groneman (1990), p. 24.
54. Groneman (1990), p. 24.
55. Groneman (1990), pp. 24–25.
56. Lindley (2003), p. 144; Groneman (1990), p. 25; Moore (2007), p. 100.
57. Lindley (2003), p. 143; Groneman (1990), p. 25.
58. Groneman (1990), p. 26.
59. Groneman (1990), pp. 26–27; Lindley (2003), p. 202.
60. Groneman (1990), p. 29.
61. Groneman (1990), pp. 29–30.
62. Groneman (1990), p. 30; Moore (2007), p. 100.
63. Groneman (1990), pp. 30–31.
64. Lindley (2003), p. 144; Groneman (1990), p. 32; Moore (2007), p. 100.
65. Groneman (1990), p. 32; Moore (2007), p. 100.
66. Lindley (2003), p. 144; Groneman (1990), p. 32.
67. ^ Groneman (1990), p. 33; Moore (2007), p. 100.
68. Groneman (1990), p. 33.
69. Lindley (2003), p. 143; Groneman (1990), p. 34.
70. Todish (1998), p. 81; Hopewell (1994), p. 125; Nofi (1992), p. 131.
71. Groneman (1990), pp. 35–36; Todish (1998), p. 78; Moore (2007), p. 100.
72. Groneman (1990), p. 36.
73. Carrington (1993), pp. 74–75; Groneman (1990), pp. 36–37.
74. Groneman (1990), p. 39.
75. Groneman (1990), pp. 41–42.
76. Groneman (1990), p. 42; Moore (2007), p. 100.
77. ^ Lindley (2003), p. 144.
78. Lindley (2003), p. 143.
79. Lindley (2003), p. 144; Todish (1998), p. 79.
80. Groneman (1990), pp. 45–46.
81. Groneman (1990), p. 47; Edmondson (2000), p. 371.
82. ^ Groneman (1990), p. 48.
83. Groneman (1990), pp. 48–49.
84. ^ Groneman (1990), p. 49; Moore (2007), p. 100.
85. de la Teja (1991), pp. 18, 135, 182; Lindley (2003), pp. 94, 112; Moore (2004), p. 60.
86. Groneman (1990), p. 50; Moore (2007), p. 100; Groneman, Bill (June 12, 2010). "DOLPHIN WARD FLOYD". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Archived from the original on October 22, 2017. Retrieved October 22, 2017.
87. Groneman (1990), p. 50.
88. Groneman (1990), p. 51.
89. Groneman (1990), p. 51; Lindley (2003), p. 144; Moore (2007), p. 100.
90. ^ Groneman (1990), p. 52.
91. Groneman (1990), pp. 52–53.
92. Groneman (1990), p. 53; Moore (2007), p. 100.
93. Groneman (1990), p. 53; Lindley (2003), p. 144; Moore (2007), p. 100.
94. Groneman (1990), pp. 53–54; Lindley (2003), p. 144; Moore (2007), p. 100.
95. Groneman (1990), pp. 54–55.
96. Groneman (1990), p. 55.
97. Groneman (1990), pp. 55–56.
98. Groneman (1990), p. 56.
99. ^ Groneman (1990), p. 57.
100. ^ Lindley (2003), p. 53.
101. ^ Groneman (1990), p. 58.
102. ^ Groneman (1990), p. 59.
103. Groneman (1990), pp. 59–60.
104. Groneman (1990), p. 60.
105. Groneman (1990), pp. 61–62.
106. Groneman (1990), p. 62.
107. Groneman (1990), p. 62; Lindley (2003), p. 143.
108. Groneman (1990), p. 63; Lindley (2003), p. 144; Moore (2007), p. 100.
109. Groneman (1990), p. 63.
110. Groneman (1990), pp. 63–64.
111. Groneman (1990), p. 64.
112. Lindley (2003), p. 144; Todish (1998), p. 81.
113. Lindley (2003), pp. 88, 109, 321; Lord (1961), p. 96.
114. Groneman (1990), pp. 66–67.
115. ^ Groneman (1990), p. 67.
116. ^ Todish (1998), p. 82.
117. Todish (1998), p. 82; Moore (2007), p. 100.
118. Groneman (1990), p. 69.
119. Todish (1998), p. 82; Lindley (2003), p. 144; Moore (2007), p. 100.
120. Groneman, Bill; Hall, Russell S. (September 19, 2010). "William Philip King". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Archived from the original on December 19, 2013. Retrieved June 8, 2014.; Leffler, John (June 15, 2010). "King County, Texas". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Archived from the original on June 17, 2015. Retrieved June 8, 2015.; Moore (2007), p. 100.
121. ^ Groneman (1990), p. 71.
122. Groneman (1990), p. 71; Moore (2007), p. 100.
123. Groneman (1990), p. 72.
124. Lindley (2003), p. 90; Groneman (1990), pp. 72–73; Moore (2004), p. 60.
125. Groneman (1990), p. 74.
126. ^ Groneman (1990), p. 75.
127. Groneman (1990), p. 76; Green (1988), p. 500; Lindley (2003), p. 91; Moore (2007), p. 100.
128. Marks, Paula Mitchell (June 15, 2010). "Samuel Augustus Maverick". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Archived from the original on June 17, 2015. Retrieved June 8, 2015.
129. Lindley (2003), p. 144; Groneman (1990), p. 76.
130. Lindley (2003), p. 59.
131. Groneman (1990), p. 77; Moore (2007), p. 100.
132. ^ Groneman (1990), p. 77.
133. Todish (1998), p. 83.
134. Lord (1961), p. 217; Todish (1998), p. 83.
135. Groneman (1990), pp. 78–79.
136. Groneman (1990), p. 79; Todish (1998), p. 83; Moore (2007), p. 100.
137. Groneman (1990), pp. 79–80.
138. Groneman (1990), p. 80; Moore (2007), p. 100.
139. Lindley (2003), p. 143; Groneman (1990), p. 80.
140. Lindley (2003), p. 144; Groneman (1990), p. 81.
141. Groneman (1990), p. 81.
142. Groneman (1990), pp. 81–82.
143. Groneman (1990), p. 82
144. Lindley (2003), p. 54.
145. ^ Todish (1998), p. 84.
146. Lindley (2003), p. 144; Todish (1998), p. 84.
147. Todish (1998), p. 84; Moore (2007), p. 100.
148. ^ Groneman (1990), p. 84.
149. Groneman (1990), p. 85.
150. Groneman (1990), p. 86.
151. Groneman (1990), p. 87.
152. Todish (1998), p. 89.
153. Groneman (1990), p. 88.
154. Lindley (2003), p. 202; Groneman (1990), pp. 89–90; Moore (2004), pp. 52–54, 100.
155. ^ Todish (1998), p. 85.
156. Groneman (1990), pp. 91–92.
157. Groneman (1990), p. 92.
158. Lindley (2003), p. 143; Groneman (1990), p. 93.
159. Groneman (1990), p. 93.
160. Lindley (2003). p. 236; Todish (1998), p. 85.
161. Groneman (1990). pp. 94-95; Lindley (2003). p. 224-226
162. ^ Groneman (1990), pp. 95–96.
163. Groneman (1990), p. 96.
164. Groneman (1990), p. 97; Nofi (1992), pp. 85–86.
165. ^ Groneman (1990), p. 100.
166. Groneman (1990), p. 101.
167. Nofi (1992), p. 79; Myers (1948), p. 202; Groneman (1990), pp. 101–102; Todish (1998), p. 90.
168. Groneman (1990), p. 103.
169. ^ Todish (1998), p. 86.
170. Green (1988), pp. 503–504; Groneman (1990), p. 101.
171. Lindley (2003), p. 90; Groneman (1990), pp. 72–73, 105.
172. ^ Groneman (1990), p. 106.
173. Groneman (1990), p. 107.
174. "TSHA | Summers, William E." www.tshaonline.org. Archived from the original on June 20, 2021. Retrieved May 5, 2021.
175. McCaslin, Richard B. (June 15, 2010). "John Sutherland Jr". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Archived from the original on June 8, 2015. Retrieved June 9, 2015.
176. Lindley (2003), p. 144; Groneman (1990), p. 109.
177. Groneman (1990), p. 110.
178. Lindley (2003), p. 144; Groneman (1990), p. 110.
179. Lindley (2003), p. 144; Groneman (1990), p. 111.
180. Groneman (1990), p. 111.
181. Lindley (2003), p. 143; Groneman (1990), p. 111.
182. Lindley (2003), p. 63.
183. Groneman (1990), p. 112.
184. ^ Groneman (1990), p. 113.
185. Groneman (1990), pp. 64–65; Todish (1998), p. 89; Edmondson (2000), p. 369; Lindley (2003), p. 44.
186. Groneman (1990), p. 115.
187. Groneman (1990), p. 116; Moore (2007), p. 100.
188. Groneman (1990), p. 116.
189. ^ Todish (1998), p. 87.
190. Groneman (1990), p. 119.
191. Todish (1998), pp. 87–88.
192. Groneman (1990), p. 120; Moore (2007), p. 100.
193. ^ Todish (1998), p. 88.
194. Todish (1998), p. 88; Moore (2007), p. 100.

References

• Brown, John Henry (November 12, 1988). Indian Wars and Pioneers of Texas. Germany: Jazzybee Verlag Jurgen Beck. ISBN 978-3-84967-445-8.
• Carrington, Evelyn M. (1993). Women in Early Texas. Denton, TX: Texas State Historical Association. OCLC 651721302. Archived from the original on June 12, 2015. Retrieved June 11, 2015.
• Chariton, Wallace O. (1990). Exploring the Alamo Legends. Dallas, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-255-9.
• Davis, William C (2004). Lone Star Rising: The Revolutionary Birth of the Texas Republic. New York, NY: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-684-86510-2.
• de la Teja, Jesús (1991). A Revolution Remembered: The Memoirs and Selected Correspondence of Juan N. Seguin. Austin, Texas: State House Press. ISBN 0-938349-68-6.
• Edmondson, J. R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, Texas: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 1-55622-678-0.
• Groneman, Bill (1990). Alamo Defenders: A Genealogy, the People and Their Words. Austin, Texas: Eakin Press. ISBN 978-0-89015-757-2.
• Groneman, Bill (2001). Eyewitness to the Alamo. Lanham, MD: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-846-9.
• Hatch, Thom (1999). Encyclopedia of the Alamo and the Texas Revolution. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-0-7864-0593-0.
• Hopewell, Clifford (1994). James Bowie Texas Fighting Man: A Biography. Austin, Texas: Eakin Press. ISBN 0-89015-881-9.
• Jackson, Jack; Wheat, John (2005). Almonte's Texas: Juan N. Almonte's 1834 Inspection, Secret Report & Role in the 1836 Campaign. Denton, Texas: Texas State Historical Association. ISBN 978-0-87611-207-6.
• Lindley, Thomas Ricks (2003). Alamo Traces: New Evidence and New Conclusions. Plano, Texas: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 1-55622-983-6.
• Lord, Walter (1961). A Time to Stand. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-7902-7.
• Matovina, Timothy M. (1995). The Alamo Remembered: Tejano Accounts and Perspectives. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-75186-6.
• Moore, Stephen L. (2004). Eighteen Minutes: The Battle of San Jacinto and the Texas Independence Campaign. Dallas, Texas: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-58907-009-7.
• Moore, Stephen L. (2007). Savage Frontier: Rangers, Riflemen, and Indian Wars in Texas, Volume I, 1835–1837. Denton, Texas: University of North Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-57441-235-2.
• Myers, John Myers (1948). The Alamo. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-5779-1.
• Nofi, Albert A. (1992). The Alamo and the Texas War of Independence, September 30, 1835 to April 21, 1836: Heroes, Myths, and History. Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: Combined Books, Inc. ISBN 0-938289-10-1.
• Poyo, Gerald Eugene (1996). Tejano Journey, 1770–1850. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-76570-2.
• Todish, Timothy J.; Todish, Terry; Spring, Ted (1998). Alamo Sourcebook, 1836: A Comprehensive Guide to the Battle of the Alamo and the Texas Revolution. Austin, Texas: Eakin Press. ISBN 978-1-57168-152-2.

External links

• Jackson, Ron, "In the Alamo's Shadow Archived June 2, 2015, at the Wayback Machine" Texas A&M University reprint of an article about Joe Travis, slave of William B. Travis (originally published in True West Magazine, February 1998)

• 1836 in the Republic of Texas
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• Battle of the Alamo
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