Misplaced Pages

Locust

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
(Redirected from Edible locusts) Grasshopper that has a swarming phase This article is about the insects in the family Acrididae. For other uses, see Locust (disambiguation).

Locusts, such as this migratory locust (Locusta migratoria), are grasshoppers in a migratory phase of their life.
Millions of swarming Australian plague locusts on the move

Locusts (derived from the Latin locusta, locust or lobster) are various species of short-horned grasshoppers in the family Acrididae that have a swarming phase. These insects are usually solitary, but under certain circumstances they become more abundant and change their behaviour and habits, becoming gregarious. No taxonomic distinction is made between locust and grasshopper species; the basis for the definition is whether a species forms swarms under intermittently suitable conditions; this has evolved independently in multiple lineages, comprising at least 18 genera in 5 different subfamilies.

Normally, these grasshoppers are innocuous, their numbers are low, and they do not pose a major economic threat to agriculture. However, under suitable conditions of drought followed by rapid vegetation growth, serotonin in their brains triggers dramatic changes: they start to breed abundantly, becoming gregarious and nomadic (loosely described as migratory) when their populations become dense enough. They form bands of wingless nymphs that later become swarms of winged adults. Both the bands and the swarms move around, rapidly strip fields, and damage crops. The adults are powerful fliers; they can travel great distances, consuming most of the green vegetation wherever the swarm settles.

Locusts have formed plagues since prehistory. The ancient Egyptians carved them on their tombs and the insects are mentioned in the Iliad, the Mahabharata, the Bible and Quran. Swarms have devastated crops and have caused famines and human migrations. More recently, changes in agricultural practices and better surveillance of locust breeding grounds have allowed control measures at an early stage. Traditional locust control uses insecticides from the ground or air, but newer biological control methods are proving effective. Swarming behaviour decreased in the 20th century, but despite modern surveillance and control methods, swarms can still form; when suitable weather conditions occur and vigilance lapses, plagues can occur.

Locusts are large insects and convenient for research and classroom study of zoology. They are edible by humans. They have been eaten throughout history and are considered a delicacy in many countries.

Swarming grasshoppers

Main articles: Grasshopper, Swarm behaviour, and Predator satiation
External videos
video icon "Locusts and Grasshoppers - Things to Know", Knowable Magazine, 2020.

Locusts are the swarming phase of certain species of short-horned grasshoppers in the family Acrididae. These insects are usually solitary, but under certain circumstances become more abundant and change their behaviour and habits, becoming gregarious.

Desert locusts in copulation

No taxonomic distinction is made between locust and grasshopper species; the basis for the definition is whether a species forms swarms under intermittently suitable conditions. In English, the term "locust" is used for grasshopper species that change morphologically and behaviourally on crowding, forming swarms that develop from bands of immature stages called hoppers. The change is described as density-dependent phenotypic plasticity.

These changes are examples of phase polyphenism; they were first analysed and described by Boris Uvarov, who was instrumental in setting up the Anti-Locust Research Centre. He made his discoveries during his studies of the migratory locust in the Caucasus, whose solitary and gregarious phases had previously been thought to be separate species (Locusta migratoria and L. danica L.). He designated the two phases as solitaria and gregaria. These are called statary and migratory morphs, though strictly speaking, their swarms are nomadic rather than migratory. Charles Valentine Riley and Norman Criddle were involved in achieving the understanding and control of locusts.

Swarming behaviour is a response to overcrowding. Increased tactile stimulation of the hind legs causes an increase in levels of serotonin. This causes the locust to change colour, eat much more, and breed much more easily. The transformation of the locust to the swarming form is induced by several contacts per minute over a four-hour period. A large swarm can consist of billions of locusts spread out over an area of thousands of square kilometres, with a population of up to 80 million per square kilometre (200 million per square mile). When desert locusts meet, their nervous systems release serotonin, which causes them to become mutually attracted, a prerequisite for swarming.

The formation of initial bands of gregarious hoppers is called an "outbreak"; when these join into larger groups, the event is known as an "upsurge". Continuing agglomerations of upsurges on a regional level originating from a number of entirely separate breeding locations are known as "plagues". During outbreaks and the early stages of upsurges, only part of the locust population becomes gregarious, with scattered bands of hoppers spread out over a large area. As time goes by, the insects become more cohesive and the bands become concentrated in a smaller area. In the desert locust plague in Africa, the Middle East, and Asia that lasted from 1966 to 1969, the number of locusts increased from two to 30 billion over two generations, but the area covered decreased from over 100,000 square kilometres (39,000 sq mi) to 5,000 square kilometres (1,900 sq mi).

Solitary and gregarious phases

Solitaria (grasshopper) and gregaria (swarming) phases of the desert locust

One of the greatest differences between the solitary and gregarious phases is behavioural. The gregaria nymphs are attracted to each other, this being seen as early as the second instar. They soon form bands of many thousands of individuals. These groups behave like cohesive units and move across the landscape, mostly downhill, but making their way around barriers and merging with other bands. The attraction between the insects involves visual and olfactory cues. The bands seem to navigate using the sun. They pause to feed at intervals before continuing on, and may cover tens of kilometres over a few weeks.

Locusts in the gregarious phase differ in morphology and development. In the desert locust and the migratory locust, for example, the gregaria nymphs become darker with strongly contrasting yellow and black markings, they grow larger, and have a longer nymphal period; the adults are larger with different body proportions, less sexual dimorphism, and higher metabolic rates; they mature more rapidly and start reproducing earlier, but have lower levels of fecundity.

The mutual attraction between individual insects continues into adulthood, and they continue to act as a cohesive group. Individuals that get detached from a swarm fly back into the mass. Others that get left behind after feeding take off to rejoin the swarm when it passes overhead. When individuals at the front of the swarm settle to feed, others fly past overhead and settle in their turn, the whole swarm acting like a rolling unit with an ever-changing leading edge. The locusts spend much time on the ground feeding and resting, moving on when the vegetation is exhausted. They may then fly a considerable distance before settling in a location where transitory rainfall has caused a green flush of new growth.

Distribution and diversity

Main article: List of locust species Desert locust ovipositing during a locust outbreakClusters of desert locust eggs laid in sand

Several species of grasshoppers swarm as locusts in different parts of the world, on all continents except Antarctica: For example, the Australian plague locust (Chortoicetes terminifera) swarms across Australia.

The desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria) is probably the best known species owing to its wide distribution (North Africa, Middle East, and Indian subcontinent) and its ability to migrate over long distances. A major infestation covered much of western Africa from 2003 to 2005, after unusually heavy rain set up favourable ecological conditions for swarming. The first outbreaks occurred in Mauritania, Mali, Niger, and Sudan in 2003. The rain allowed swarms to develop and move north to Morocco and Algeria, threatening croplands. Swarms crossed Africa, appearing in Egypt, Jordan and Israel, the first time in those countries for 50 years. The cost of handling the infestation was put at US$122 million, and the damage to crops at up to $2.5 billion.

The migratory locust (Locusta migratoria), sometimes classified into up to 10 subspecies, swarms in Africa, Asia, Australia, and New Zealand, but has become rare in Europe. In 2013, the Madagascan form of the migratory locust formed many swarms of over a billion insects, reaching "plague" status and covering about half the country by March 2013. Species such as the Senegalese grasshopper (Oedaleus senegalensis) and the African rice grasshopper (Hieroglyphus daganensis), both from the Sahel, often display locust-like behaviour and change morphologically on crowding.

North America is the only sub-continent besides Antarctica without a native locust species. The Rocky Mountain locust was formerly one of the most significant insect pests there, but it became extinct in 1902. In the 1930s, during the Dust Bowl, a second species of North American locust, the High Plains locust (Dissosteira longipennis), reached plague proportions in the American Midwest. Today, the High Plains locust is a rare species, leaving North America with no regularly swarming locusts.

Evolution

The fossilized wing of an indeterminate locust has been found in Early Oligocene-aged sediments of the Pabdeh Formation in Iran, which were deposited in a deep marine environment. The locust was likely migrating across the early Paratethys Sea, between the emergent Arabian Peninsula and central Iran, which were still separated by large areas of deep ocean at this time. This suggests that trans-oceanic locust migrations have been occurring for at least 30 million years, likely facilitated by the spread of grasslands at the time.

Interaction with humans and animals

Ancient times

Locust detail from a hunt mural in the grave-chamber of Horemhab, Ancient Egypt, circa 1422–1411 BC

Study of literature shows how pervasive plagues of locusts were over the course of history. The insects arrived unexpectedly, often after a change of wind direction or weather, and the consequences were devastating. The Ancient Egyptians carved locusts on tombs in the period 2470 to 2220 BC. A devastating plague in Egypt is mentioned in the Book of Exodus in the Bible. Locust plague is mentioned in the Indian Mahabharata. The Iliad mentions locusts taking to the wing to escape fire. Plagues of locusts are mentioned in the Quran. In the ninth century BC, the Chinese authorities appointed anti-locust officers. In the New Testament, John the Baptist was said to survive in the wilderness on locusts and wild honey; and human-headed locusts appear in the Book of Revelation.

Aristotle studied locusts and their breeding habits and Livy recorded a devastating plague in Capua in 203 BC. He mentioned human epidemics following locust plagues which he associated with the stench from the putrifying corpses; the linking of human disease outbreaks to locust plagues was widespread. A pestilence in the northwestern provinces of China in 311 AD that killed 98% of the population locally was blamed on locusts, and may have been caused by an increase in numbers of rats (and their fleas) that devoured the locust carcasses.

Recent times

Locusts which swarmed over England in 1748: Drawing by De la Cour; engraved by R. White, in Thomas Pennant's A Tour in Wales, 1781

During the last two millennia, desert locust plagues have appeared sporadically in Africa, the Middle East, and Europe. Other species of locusts caused havoc in North and South America, Asia, and Australasia; in China, 173 outbreaks over 1924 years. The Bombay locust (Nomadacris succincta) was a major pest in India and southeastern Asia in the 18th and 19th centuries, but has seldom swarmed since the last plague in 1908.

In the spring of 1747 locusts arrived outside Damascus eating the majority of the crops and vegetation of the surrounding countryside. One local barber, Ahmad al-Budayri, recalled the locusts "came like a black cloud. They covered everything: the trees and the crops. May God Almighty save us!"

The extinction of the Rocky Mountain locust has been a source of puzzlement. It had swarmed throughout the west of the United States and parts of Canada in the 19th century. Albert's swarm of 1875 was estimated to contain 12.5 trillion insects covering an area of 198,000 square miles (510,000 km) (larger than the state of California) and to weigh 27.5 million tons. The last specimen was seen alive in Canada in 1902. Recent research suggests the breeding grounds of this insect in the valleys of the Rocky Mountains came under sustained agricultural development during the large influx of gold miners, destroying the underground eggs of the locust.

The 1915 infestation across Palestine and Syria was one of the main contributors to famine in Lebanon which lasted from 1915 to 1918 during which around 200,000 people died. Plagues became less common in the 20th century, but they continue to occur when the conditions are met.

Monitoring

Eugenio Morales Agacino on expedition monitoring locusts in the desert of Spanish Sahara, 1942

Early intervention to prevent large locust swarms is more successful than later action once swarms have built up. The means to control locust populations is now available, but organisational, financial, and political problems may be difficult to overcome. Monitoring is the key to early detection and eradication. Ideally, a sufficient proportion of nomadic bands can be killed with insecticide before their swarming phase. This may be possible in richer countries like Morocco and Saudi Arabia, but neighbouring poorer countries such as Mauritania and Yemen lack the resources and may breed locust swarms that threaten the whole region.

Several organisations around the world monitor the threat from locusts. They provide forecasts detailing regions likely to suffer from locust plagues in the near future. In Australia, this service is provided by the Australian Plague Locust Commission. It has been very successful in dealing with developing outbreaks, but has the great advantage of having a defined area to monitor and defend without locust invasions from elsewhere. In Central and Southern Africa, the service is provided by the International Locust Control Organization for Central and Southern Africa. In West and Northwest Africa, the service is co-ordinated by the Food and Agriculture Organization's Commission for Controlling the Desert Locust in the Western Region, and executed by locust control agencies belonging to each country concerned. The FAO monitors the situation in the Caucasus and Central Asia, where over 25 million hectares of cultivated land are under threat. In February 2020, in an effort to end massive locust outbreaks, India decided to use drones and special equipment to monitor locusts and spray insecticides.

Control

Historically, people could do little to protect their crops from locusts, although eating the insects may have been some compensation. By the early 20th century, efforts were made to disrupt the development of the insects by cultivating the soil where eggs were laid, collecting hoppers with catching machines, killing them with flamethrowers, trapping them in ditches, and crushing them with rollers and other mechanical methods. By the 1950s, the organochloride dieldrin was found to be an extremely effective insecticide, but it was later banned in most countries because of its persistence in the environment and its accumulation in the food chain.

In years when locust control is needed, the hoppers are targeted early by applying water-based contact pesticides from tractor-based sprayers. This is effective but slow and labour-intensive; a preferable method is spraying concentrated insecticide from aircraft over the insects or vegetation. The use of ultralow-volume spraying of contact pesticides from aircraft in overlapping swathes is effective against nomadic bands and can be used to treat large areas of land swiftly. Other modern technologies for planning locust control include GPS, GIS tools, and satellite imagery with rapid computer data management and analysis.

A biological pesticide to control locusts was tested across Africa by a multinational team in 1997. Dried fungal spores of a Metarhizium acridum sprayed in breeding areas pierce the locust exoskeleton on germination and invade the body cavity, causing death. The fungus is passed from insect to insect and persists in the area, making repeated treatments unnecessary. This approach to locust control was used in Tanzania in 2009 to treat around 10,000 hectares in the Iku-Katavi National Park infested with adult locusts. The outbreak was contained without harm to the local elephants, hippopotamuses, and giraffes.

  • Preparing to flame locusts in Palestine, 1915 Preparing to flame locusts in Palestine, 1915
  • Cessna of the International Red Locust Control Organization spraying red locusts in Iku Katavi National Park, Tanzania, 2009 Cessna of the International Red Locust Control Organization spraying red locusts in Iku Katavi National Park, Tanzania, 2009
  • Locusts killed by the naturally occurring fungus Metarhizium, an environmentally friendly means of biological control Locusts killed by the naturally occurring fungus Metarhizium, an environmentally friendly means of biological control

As experimental models

The locust is large and easy to breed and rear, and is used as an experimental model in research studies. It has been used in evolutionary biology research and to test the generalizability of conclusions reached about test organisms such as the fruit fly (Drosophila) and the housefly (Musca). It is a suitable school laboratory animal because of its robustness and ease of breeding and handling.

At Tel Aviv University, scientists have been using the antennae's acute sensitivity of Sense of smell to detect different odors in various technologies.

As food

See also: Kosher locust
Skewered locusts in Beijing, China

Locusts have been used as food throughout history. They are considered meat. Several cultures throughout the world consume insects, and locusts are considered a delicacy in many African, Middle Eastern, and Asian countries.

They can be cooked in many ways, but are often fried, smoked, or dried. The Bible records that John the Baptist ate locusts and wild honey (Greek: ἀκρίδες καὶ μέλι ἄγριον, romanized: akrídes kaì méli ágrion) while living in the wilderness. Attempts have been made to explain the text to mean ascetic vegetarian food such as carob beans, but the plain meaning of the Greek akrides is locust.

The Torah prohibits the use of most insects as food, but it permits consuming certain types of locust; specifically, those that are red, yellow, or spotted grey. Islamic jurisprudence deems eating locusts to be halal. The Prophet Muhammad was reported to have eaten locusts during a military raid with his companions.

Locusts are eaten in the Arabian Peninsula, including Saudi Arabia. In 2014, consumption of locusts spiked around Ramadan especially in the Al-Qassim Region, since many Saudis believe they are healthy to eat, but the Saudi Ministry of Health warned that pesticides made them unsafe. Yemenis also consume locusts, and expressed discontent over governmental plans to use pesticides against them. ʻAbd al-Salâm Shabînî described a locust recipe from Morocco. 19th century European travellers observed Arabs in Arabia, Egypt, and Morocco selling, cooking, and eating locusts. They reported that in Egypt and Palestine locusts were consumed, and that in Palestine, around the River Jordan, in Egypt, in Arabia, and in Morocco that Arabs ate locusts, while Syrian peasants did not eat locusts.

In the Haouran region, Fellahs who were in poverty and suffered from famine ate locusts after removing the guts and head, while locusts were swallowed whole by Bedouins. Syrians, Copts, Greeks, Armenians, and other Christians and Arabs themselves reported that in Arabia locusts were eaten frequently and one Arab described to a European traveler the different types of locusts which were favored as food by Arabs. Persians use the Anti-Arab racial slur Arabe malakh-khor (Persian: عرب ملخ خور, literally "locust eater Arab") against Arabs.

Locusts yield about five times more edible protein per unit of fodder than cattle, and produce lower levels of greenhouse gases in the process. The feed conversion rate of orthopterans is 1.7 kg/kg, while for beef it is typically about 10 kg/kg. The protein content in fresh weight is between 13 and 28 g / 100 g for adult locust, 14–18 g / 100 g for larvae, as compared to 19–26 g / 100 g for beef. The calculated protein efficiency ratio is low, with 1.69 for locust protein compared to 2.5 for standard casein. A serving of 100 g of desert locust provides 11.5 g of fat, 53.5% of which is unsaturated, and 286 mg of cholesterol. Among the fatty acids, palmitoleic, oleic, and linolenic acids were found to be the most abundant. Varying amounts of potassium, sodium, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, iron, and zinc were present.

See also

Notes

  1. The American locust (Schistocerca americana) does not swarm.

References

  1. Harper, Douglas. "locust". Online Etymology Dictionary.
  2. Simpson, Stephen J.; Sword, Gregory A. (2008). "Locusts". Current Biology. 18 (9): R364–R366. Bibcode:2008CBio...18.R364S. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2008.02.029. PMID 18460311.Open access icon
  3. "Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) about locusts". Locust watch. FAO. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
  4. "Grasshoppers". Animal Corner. Archived from the original on 8 April 2015. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
  5. Pener, Meir Paul; Simpson, Stephen J. (14 October 2009). Locust Phase Polyphenism: An Update. Advances in Insect Physiology. Vol. 36 (1st ed.). Academic Press (published 23 September 2009). p. 9. ISBN 9780123814289.>
  6. Baron, Stanley (1972). "The Desert Locust". New Scientist: 156.
  7. ^ Dingle, Hugh (1996). Migration: The Biology of Life on the Move. Oxford University Press. pp. 273–274. ISBN 978-0-19-535827-8.
  8. Wikisource:The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Riley, Charles Valentine
  9. Holliday, N. J. (1 February 2006). "Norman Criddle: Pioneer Entomologist of the Prairies". Manitoba History. Manitoba Historical Society. Retrieved 16 April 2015.
  10. Morgan, James (29 January 2009). "Locust swarms 'high' on serotonin". BBC News. Archived from the original on 10 October 2013. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
  11. Rogers, S. M.; Matheson, T.; Despland, E.; Dodgson, T.; Burrows, M.; Simpson, S. J. (2003). "Mechanosensory-induced behavioral gregarization in the desert locust Schistocerca gregaria". Journal of Experimental Biology. 206 (22): 3991–4002. doi:10.1242/jeb.00648. PMID 14555739. S2CID 10665260.Open access icon
  12. ^ Showler, Allan T. (2008). "Desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria Forskål (Orthoptera: Acrididae) plagues". In John L. Capinera (ed.). Encyclopedia of Entomology. Springer. pp. 1181–1186. ISBN 978-1-4020-6242-1.
  13. Stevenson, P. A. (2009). "The key to Pandora's box". Science. 323 (5914): 594–595. doi:10.1126/science.1169280. PMID 19179520. S2CID 39306643.
  14. Callaway, Ewen (29 January 2009). "Blocking 'happiness' chemical may prevent locust plagues". New Scientist. Retrieved 31 January 2009.
  15. Antsey, Michael; Rogers, Stephen; Swidbert, R.O.; Burrows, Malcolm; Simpson, S.J. (30 January 2009). "Serotonin mediates behavioral gregarization underlying swarm formation in desert locusts". Science. 323 (5914): 627–630. Bibcode:2009Sci...323..627A. doi:10.1126/science.1165939. PMID 19179529. S2CID 5448884.
  16. Showler, Allan T. (4 March 2013). "The Desert Locust in Africa and Western Asia: Complexities of War, Politics, Perilous Terrain, and Development". Radcliffe's IPM World Textbook. University of Minnesota. Archived from the original on 8 April 2015. Retrieved 3 April 2015.
  17. ^ Krall, S.; Peveling, R.; Diallo, B.D. (1997). New Strategies in Locust Control. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 453–454. ISBN 978-3-7643-5442-8.
  18. Guo, Xiaojiao; Yu, Qiaoqiao; Chen, Dafeng; Wei, Jianing; Yang, Pengcheng; Yu, Jia; Wang, Xianhui; Kang, Le (2020). "4-Vinylanisole is an aggregation pheromone in locusts". Nature. 584 (7822): 584–588. Bibcode:2020Natur.584..584G. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2610-4. PMID 32788724. S2CID 221106319.
  19. ^ Harmon, Katherine (30 January 2009). "When Grasshoppers Go Biblical: Serotonin Causes Locusts to Swarm". Scientific American. Retrieved 7 April 2015.
  20. Wagner, Alexandra M. (Winter 2008). "Grasshoppered: America's response to the 1874 Rocky Mountain locust invasion" (PDF). Nebraska History. 89 (4): 154–167. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 2 March 2020.
  21. Yoon, Carol Kaesuk (23 April 2002). "Looking Back at the Days of the Locust". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
  22. Thomas, M. C. The American grasshopper, Schistocerca americana americana (Drury) (Orthoptera: Acrididae). Entomology Circular No. 342. Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. May 1991.
  23. "FAO issues Desert Locust alert: Mauritania, Niger, Sudan and other neighbouring countries at risk". Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization. 20 October 2003. Archived from the original on 31 March 2017. Retrieved 3 July 2015.
  24. "Desert Locusts Plague West Africa". Morning Edition. NPR. 15 November 2004.
  25. "Desert Locust Archives 2003". Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved 3 July 2015.
  26. "Desert Locust Archives 2004". Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved 3 July 2015.
  27. "The Desert Locust Outbreak in West Africa". OECD. 23 September 2004. Retrieved 3 July 2015.
  28. Chapuis, M-P.; Lecoq, M.; Michalakis, Y.; Loiseau, A.; Sword, G. A.; Piry, S.; Estoup, A. (1 August 2008). "Do outbreaks affect genetic population structure? A worldwide survey in a pest plagued by microsatellite null alleles". Molecular Ecology. 17 (16): 3640–3653. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2008.03869.x. PMID 18643881. S2CID 4185861.
  29. Botelho, Greg (28 March 2013). "Plague of locusts infests impoverished Madagascar". CNN. Retrieved 29 March 2013.
  30. ^ Uvarov, B.P. (1966). "Phase polymorphism". Grasshoppers and Locusts (Vol. 1). Cambridge University Press.
  31. Canada's History, October–November 2015, pages 43-44
  32. Wills, Matthew (14 June 2018). "The Long-Lost Locust". JSTOR Daily. Retrieved 5 October 2020. ...the High Plains locust (Dissosteira longipennis), which swept through the early 1930s...
  33. Wills, Matthew (14 June 2018). "The Long-Lost Locust". JSTOR Daily. Retrieved 5 October 2020. The High Plains locust still exists, but it's uncommon, just another innocent-looking grasshopper munching away on plants.
  34. Mirzaie Ataabadi, Majid; Bahrami, Ali; Yazdi, Mehdi; Nel, André (28 May 2019). "A locust witness of a trans-oceanic Oligocene migration between Arabia and Iran (Orthoptera: Acrididae)". Historical Biology. 31 (5): 574–580. doi:10.1080/08912963.2017.1378651. ISSN 0891-2963.
  35. Book of Exodus. 10: 13–15. And Moses stretched forth his rod over the land of Egypt, and the Lord brought an east wind upon the land all that day, and all that night; and when it was morning, the east wind brought the locusts. 14 And the locust went up over all the land of Egypt, and rested in all the coasts of Egypt: very grievous were they; before them there were no such locusts as they, neither after them shall be such. 15 For they covered the face of the whole earth, so that the land was darkened; and they did eat every herb of the land, and all the fruit of the trees which the hail had left: and there remained not any green thing in the trees, or in the herbs of the field, through all the land of Egypt.
  36. The Mahabharata. Penguin Books India. 2010. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-14-310016-4.
  37. Homer. "Iliad 21.1". Perseus Tufts. Retrieved 16 August 2017.
  38. ^ McNeill, William H. (2012). Plagues and Peoples. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-385-12122-4.
  39. "Bible Gateway passage: Revelation 9:7 - King James Version". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 26 December 2021.
  40. "Bombay locust – Nomadacris succincta". Locust Handbook. Humanity Development Library. Retrieved 3 April 2015.
  41. Grehan, James (2014). Twilight of the Saints:Everyday Religion in Ottoman Syria and Palestine. Oxford University Press. p. 1.
  42. "Melanoplus spretus, Rocky Mountain grasshopper". Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Retrieved 16 April 2009.
  43. Encarta Reference Library Premium 2005 DVD. Rocky Mountain Locust.
  44. Ryckman, Lisa Levitt (22 June 1999). "The great locust mystery". Rocky Mountain News. Archived from the original on 28 February 2007. Retrieved 20 May 2007.
  45. Lockwood, Jeffrey A. (2005). Locust: the Devastating Rise and Mysterious Disappearance of the Insect that Shaped the American Frontier. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-04167-1.
  46. Ghazal, Rym (14 April 2015). "Lebanon's dark days of hunger: The Great Famine of 1915–18". The National. Retrieved 24 January 2016.
  47. "Six unexpected WW1 battlegrounds". BBC News. 26 November 2014. Retrieved 24 January 2016.
  48. Stone, Madeleine (14 February 2020). "A plague of locusts has descended on East Africa. Climate change may be to blame". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 16 February 2020. Retrieved 9 March 2020.
  49. Ahmed, Kaamil (20 March 2020). "Locust crisis poses a danger to millions, forecasters warn". The Guardian. Retrieved 21 March 2020.
  50. "Role of the Australian Plague Locust Commission". Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. Commonwealth of Australia. 14 June 2011. Archived from the original on 15 July 2014. Retrieved 2 April 2015.
  51. ^ Krall, S.; Peveling, R.; Diallo, B.D. (1997). New Strategies in Locust Control. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 4–6. ISBN 978-3-7643-5442-8.
  52. ^ "Red Locust disaster in Eastern Africa prevented". Food and Agriculture Organization. 24 June 2009. Archived from the original on 22 March 2022. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
  53. "Countries take responsibility for regional desert locust control". FAO. 2015. Retrieved 2 April 2015.
  54. "Locusts in Caucasus and Central Asia". Locust Watch. Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved 2 April 2015.
  55. "India buys drones, specialist equipment to avert new locust attack". Reuters. 19 February 2020. Retrieved 20 February 2020.
  56. "Control". Locusts in Caucasus and Central Asia. Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved 2 April 2015.
  57. Ceccato, Pietro. "Operational Early Warning System Using Spot-Vegetation And Terra-Modis To Predict Desert Locust Outbreaks" (PDF). Food and Agriculture Organization. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 May 2014. Retrieved 5 March 2016.
  58. Latchininsky, Alexandre V.; Sivanpillai, Ramesh (2010). "Locust Habitat Monitoring And Risk Assessment Using Remote Sensing And GIS Technologies" (PDF). University of Wyoming. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 December 2015. Retrieved 5 March 2016.
  59. Lomer, C.J.; Bateman, R.P.; Johnson, D.L.; Langewald, J.; Thomas, M. (2001). "Biological Control of Locusts and Grasshoppers" (PDF). Annual Review of Entomology. 46: 667–702. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.46.1.667. PMID 11112183. S2CID 7267727. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 November 2020.
  60. Bateman, R. P.; Carey, M.; Moore, D.; Prior, C. (1993). "The enhanced infectivity of Metarhizium flavoviride in oil formulations to desert locusts at low humidities". Annals of Applied Biology. 122 (1): 145–152. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7348.1993.tb04022.x. ISSN 0003-4746.
  61. Thomas M.B., Gbongboui C., Lomer C.J. (1996). "Between-season survival of the grasshopper pathogen Metarhizium flavoviride in the Sahel". Biocontrol Science and Technology. 6 (4): 569–573. Bibcode:1996BioST...6..569T. doi:10.1080/09583159631208.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  62. "CSIRO ScienceImage 1367 Locusts attacked by the fungus Metarhizium". CSIRO. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
  63. Kellogg, Elizabeth A.; Shaffer, H. Bradley (1993). "Model Organisms in Evolutionary Studies". Systematic Biology. 42 (4): 409–414. doi:10.2307/2992481. JSTOR 2992481.
  64. Andersson, Olga; Hansen, Steen Honoré; Hellman, Karin; Olsen, Line Rørbæk; Andersson, Gunnar; Badolo, Lassina; Svenstrup, Niels; Nielsen, Peter Aadal (2013). "The Grasshopper: A Novel Model for Assessing Vertebrate Brain Uptake". Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 346 (2): 211–218. doi:10.1124/jpet.113.205476. ISSN 0022-3565. PMID 23671124.
  65. Scott, Jon (March 2005). "The locust jump: an integrated laboratory investigation" (PDF). Advances in Physiology Education. 29 (1): 21–26. doi:10.1152/advan.00037.2004. PMID 15718379. S2CID 27101536. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 February 2019. The relative size and robustness of the locust make it simple to handle and ideal for such investigations.
  66. "Israeli scientists develop sniffing robot with locust antennae". Reuters. Retrieved 19 February 2024.
  67. Fromme, Alison (2005). "Edible Insects". Smithsonian Zoogoer. 34 (4). Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on 11 November 2005. Retrieved 26 April 2015.
  68. Dubois, Sirah (24 October 2011). "The Nutritional Value of Locusts". Livestrong.com. Retrieved 12 April 2015.
  69. Gospel of Mark Mark 1:6; Gospel of Matthew 3:4
  70. Brock, Sebastian. "St. John the Baptist's diet – according to some early Eastern Christian sources". St John's College, Oxford. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 4 May 2015.
  71. Kelhoffer, James A. (2004). "Did John the Baptist eat like a former Essene? Locust-eating in the ancient Near East and at Qumran". Dead Sea Discoveries. 11 (3): 293–314. doi:10.1163/1568517042643756. JSTOR 4193332. There is no reason, however, to question the plausibility of Mark 1:6c, that John regularly ate these foods while in the wilderness.
  72. "Are locusts really Kosher?! « Ask The Rabbi « Ohr Somayach". Ohr.edu. Retrieved 12 April 2015.
  73. ^ Hebblethwaite, Cordelia (21 March 2013). "Eating locusts: The crunchy, kosher snack taking Israel by swarm". BBC News: Magazine.
  74. "The Fiqh of Halal and Haram Animals". Shariahprogram.ca. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 12 April 2015.
  75. "Hunting, Slaughtering". Bukhari. Volume 7, Book 67. Archived from the original on 3 June 2016. Retrieved 8 November 2016. 403: Narrated Ibn Abi Aufa: We participated with the Prophet in six or seven Ghazawat, and we used to eat locusts with him.
  76. "من المدخرات الغذائية في الماضي "الجراد"". www.al-jazirah.com. Al-Jazirah Newspaper. 2 December 2001. Retrieved 8 November 2016.
  77. "سوق الجراد في بريدة يشهد تداولات كبيرة والزراعة تحذرمن التسمم". صحيفة عاجل الإلكترونية. 11 December 2012. Archived from the original on 11 June 2016. Retrieved 8 November 2016.
  78. "People told not to eat pesticide-laced locusts". Arab News. 4 April 2013. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
  79. أحلام الهمداني (5 March 2007). "اليمن تكافح الجراد بـ400 مليون واليمنيون مستاءون من (قطع الأرزاق)". www.nabanews.net. نبأ نيوز. Archived from the original on 1 June 2016. Retrieved 8 November 2016.
  80. El Hage Abd Salam Shabeeny (1820). An account of Timbuctoo and Housa: Territories in the interior of Africa. pp. 222–. ISBN 9781613106907.
  81. Robinson, Edward (1835). A Dictionary of the Holy Bible, for the Use of Schools and Young Persons. Crocker and Brewster. pp. 192ff.
  82. Augustin Calmet (1832). Dictionary of the Holy Bible by Charles Taylor. Holdsworth and Ball. pp. 604–605.
  83. Calmet, Augustin (1832). Dictionary of the Holy Bible. Crocker and Brewster. pp. 635ff. ISBN 9781404787964.
  84. Burder, Samuel (1822). Oriental Literature, Applied to the Illustration of the Sacred Scriptures – especially with reference to antiquties, traditions, and manners (etc.). Longman, Hurst. p. 213.
  85. Niebuhr, Carsten (1889). ... Description of Arabia made from Personal Observations and Information Collected on the Spot. pp. 57ff.
  86. Rahimieh, Nasrin (2015). Iranian Culture: Representation and identity. Routledge. pp. 133ff. ISBN 978-1-317-42935-7.
  87. "Persians v. Arabs: Same old sneers. Nationalist feeling on both sides of the Gulf is as prickly as ever". The Economist. 5 May 2012. "article on highbeam.com". Archived from the original on 27 November 2018.
  88. Majd, Hooman (23 September 2008). The Ayatollah Begs to Differ: The paradox of modern Iran. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 165ff. ISBN 978-0-385-52842-9.
  89. Global Steak – Demain nos enfants mangeront des criquets (2010 French documentary).
  90. Collavo, A.; Glew, R. H.; Huang, Y.S.; Chuang, L.T.; Bosse, R.; Paoletti, M.G. (2005). "House cricket small-scale farming". In Paoletti, M.G. (ed.). Ecological implications of mini-livestock: Potential of insects, rodents, frogs, and snails. New Hampshire: Science Publishers. pp. 519–544.
  91. Smil, V. (2002). "Worldwide transformation of diets, burdens of meat production and opportunities for novel food proteins". Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 30 (3): 305–311. doi:10.1016/s0141-0229(01)00504-x.
  92. "Composition database for Biodiversity" (Version 2, BioFoodComp2 ed.). FAO. 10 January 2013. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
  93. "Nutritional value of insects for human consumption" (PDF). FAO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 February 2019. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
  94. ^ Abul-Tarboush, Hamza M.; Al-Kahtani, Hassan A.; Aldryhim, Yousif N.; Asif, Mohammed (16 December 2010). "Desert locust (Schistocercsa gregaria): Proximate composition, physiochemcial characteristics of lipids, fatty acids, and cholesterol contents and nutritional value of protein". College of Foods and Agricultural Science. King Saud University. Archived from the original (Article) on 22 January 2015. Retrieved 21 January 2015.

External links

Categories: