Misplaced Pages

Economy of England

The City of London, the financial capital of England, and the United Kingdom as a whole
Currency	Pound sterling (£)
Fiscal year	1 April to 31 March
Statistics
Population	57,106,398 (2022)
GDP	£2.162 trillion (2022)
GDP per capita	£37,852 (2022)
Labour force	28,081,000 / 74.9% in employment (Jan–Mar 2024)
Labour force by occupation	List 27.0% Professional 15.1% Associate professional 11.2% Managers, directors and senior officials 9.5% Administrative and secretarial 9.1% Elementary occupations 8.6% Skilled trades 7.8% Caring, leisure and other service 6.1% Sales and customer service 5.3% Process plant and machine operatives (Jan–Dec 2023)
Unemployment	1,298,000 / 4.4% (Jan–Mar 2024)
Average gross salary	£683.40 per week (2023)
External
Exports	£539.2 billion (2021)
Export goods	List £92.8bn Machinery and transport £40.2bn Chemicals £31.8bn Miscellaneous manufactures £28.6bn Manufactured goods £14.2bn Mineral fuels £8.6bn Food and live animals £7.4bn Crude materials £2.3bn Beverages and tobacco £0.4bn Animal and vegetable oils £0.0bn Other commodities £226.4bn Total (2021)
Main export partners	List £110.5bn European Union £42.2bn Asia & Oceania £39.1bn North America £11.9bn Middle East and North Africa (excl. EU) £10.3bn Western Europe (excl. EU) £5.0bn Eastern Europe (excl. EU) £3.9bn Sub-Saharan Africa £3.2bn Latin America and Caribbean £0.2bn Undefined country group £226.4bn Total (2021)
Imports	£535.9 billion (2021)
Import goods	List £124.5bn Machinery and transport £56.9bn Miscellaneous manufactures £51.0bn Manufactured goods £42.6bn Chemicals £35.6bn Mineral fuels £29.9bn Food and live animals £12.0bn Crude materials £5.5bn Beverages and tobacco £1.3bn Animal and vegetable oils £0.1bn Other commodities £359.4bn Total (2021)
Main import partners	List £178.6bn European Union £86.9bn Asia & Oceania £34.0bn Western Europe (excl. EU) £30.3bn North America £10.0bn Middle East and North Africa (excl. EU) £8.0bn Eastern Europe (excl. EU) £7.1bn Sub-Saharan Africa £4.4bn Latin America and Caribbean — Undefined country group £359.4bn Total (2021)

The economy of England is the largest economy of the four countries of the United Kingdom. England's economy is one of the largest and most dynamic in the world, with an average GDP per capita of £37,852 in 2022.

His Majesty's Treasury, led by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, is responsible for developing and executing the government's public finance policy and economic policy. Government involvement is also primarily exercised by the Department for Business and Trade and Department for Science, Innovation and Technology. Regarded as a highly developed social market economy, it has adopted many free market principles, yet maintains an advanced social welfare infrastructure.

England is a highly industrialised country. It is a leader in the high-tech, chemical and pharmaceutical sectors and in key technical industries, particularly aerospace, the arms industry, and the manufacturing side of the software industry. It is also an important producer of textiles and chemical products. Although automobiles, locomotives, and aircraft are among England's other important industrial products, a significant proportion of the country's income comes from the City of London and its financial hubs, banking, insurance, investment management and other related financial services. The UK technology sector is valued at US$1 trillion, third behind the United States and China, mostly based in England.

The service sector of the economy is largest in England and one the largest in Europe. Construction industry, technology, and business services continue to produce economic growth, provided mainly by the growing services, administrative and financial sectors. Creative industries (arts, film production, product, fashion, design, music, IT, etc.) remain important to the national economy, with England having the second largest creative industry sector in Europe.

In the 18th century, England was the first nation to industrialise. In common with most other advanced industrialised economies, England has seen a decline in the importance of both manufacturing industries and primary-based extractive industries. Since the 1990s, the financial services sector has played an increasingly significant role in the English economy and the City of London is one of the world's largest financial centres. Banks, insurance companies, commodity and futures exchanges are heavily concentrated in the city.

The London Stock Exchange, the United Kingdom's main stock exchange and the largest in Europe, is England's financial centre, with 100 of Europe's 500 largest corporations being based there. The official currency in England is the pound sterling, whose ISO 4217 code is GBP. The "pound sterling" is the oldest currency in continuous use. Taxation in England is quite competitive when compared to much of the rest of Europe – as of 2014 the basic rate of personal tax is 20% on taxable income up to £31,865 above the personal tax-free allowance (normally £10,000), and 40% on any additional earnings above that amount.

England is a nation within the United Kingdom, which is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, the G7, the G8, the G20, the CPTPP, the International Monetary Fund, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Bank, the World Trade Organization, Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and the United Nations.

GDP

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) figures are estimated (using a variety of means) for independent nations, and used to measure and compare aggregate (total) wealth between countries. Since England is not an independent state, but constitutes one of the four major nations of the UK (along with Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland), there are fewer internationally comparable figures available.

History

In medieval times (c. 11th–15th centuries), the wool trade was the major industry of England, and the country exported wool to Europe. Many market towns and ports grew up on the industry and flourished. Following the Black Death and the agricultural depression of the late 15th century, the population began to increase; but it was less than 2 million in 1600. The growing population stimulated economic growth, accelerated the commercialisation of agriculture, increased the production and export of wool, encouraged trade and promoted the growth of London.

The high wages and abundance of available land seen in the late 15th and early 16th centuries were replaced with low wages and a land shortage. Various inflationary pressures, perhaps due to an influx of New World gold and a rising population, set the stage for social upheaval, with the gap between the rich and poor widening. This was a period of significant change for the majority of the rural population, with manorial lords beginning the process of enclosure of village lands that previously had been open to everyone.

John Leland left rich descriptions of the local economies he witnessed during his travels from 1531 to 1560. He described markets, ports, industries, buildings and transport links. He showed that some small towns were expanding, through new commercial and industrial opportunities, especially cloth manufacture. He suggested that investment by entrepreneurs and benefactors had enabled some small towns to prosper. Taxation was a negative influence on economic growth, since it was imposed not on consumption, but on capital investments. Exports increased significantly and privately owned companies traded with the colonies in the West Indies, North America and India.

The Company of Merchant Adventurers of London brought together London's leading overseas merchants in a regulated company in the early 15th century, in the nature of a guild. This enabled them to import a large range of foreign goods. Elizabethan England avoided major defeats and built up a powerful navy. On balance, it can be said that Elizabeth I provided the country with a long period of general if not total peace and generally increased prosperity due in large part to stealing from Spanish treasure ships, raiding settlements with weak defences, and selling African slaves. Having inherited a virtually bankrupt state from previous reigns, her policies restored fiscal responsibility. Her fiscal restraint cleared the regime of debt by 1574, and ten years later the Crown enjoyed a surplus of £300,000.

Under Elizabeth I crafts and manufacturing activities received a boost. Glass, ceramic, silk industry and exports of wool manufactures could be promoted. Economically, Sir Thomas Gresham's founding of the Royal Exchange (1565), the first stock exchange in England and one of the earliest in Europe, proved to be a development of the first importance, for the economic development of England and soon for the world as a whole. With taxes lower than other European countries of the period, the economy expanded; with more wealth to go around at the end of Elizabeth's reign than at the beginning. This general peace and prosperity allowed the attractive developments of the "Golden Age".

17th century

In 1600, the queen chartered the East India Company (later the British East India Company) in an attempt to break the Spanish and Portuguese duopoly of Far Eastern trade. It established trading posts, which in later centuries evolved into British India, on the coasts of what are now India and Bangladesh. Larger scale colonisation in North America began shortly after Elizabeth's death. Originally chartered as the "Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East-Indies", the East India Company rose to account for half of the world's trade during the mid-1700s and early 1800s, particularly in basic commodities including cotton, silk, indigo dye, sugar, salt, spices, saltpetre, tea, and opium. The Bank of England was established in 1694 by Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax to act as the English Government's banker. It was primarily founded to fund the war effort against France. The king and queen at the time, William and Mary, were two of the original stockholders. The original Royal Charter of 1694, granted by King William and Queen Mary, explained that the Bank was founded to ‘promote the public Good and Benefit of our People’.

According to Derek Hirst, the 1640s and 1650s saw a revived economy with growth in manufacturing, the elaboration of financial and credit instruments, and the commercialisation of communication. The gentry found time for leisure activities, such as horse racing and bowling. In the high culture important innovations included the development of a mass market for music, increased scientific research, and an expansion of publishing. All the trends were discussed in depth at the newly established coffee houses.

England became one of the most prosperous economic regions in Europe between 1600 and 1700. Industrialisation in England from the mid-18th century resulted in economic developments described by many historians as the Industrial Revolution.

As a result, Great Britain was one of the premier economies in Europe throughout the 19th century, the most prominent industrial power in the world economy, and a major political power. Its industrialists were major innovators in machinery such as steam engines (for pumps, factories, railway locomotives and steamships), textile equipment, and tool-making. England pioneered the railway system, and built many systems and manufactured most of the equipment other nations used. Its businessmen were leaders in international commerce and banking, trade and shipping. Its markets included both areas that were independent and those that were part of the expanding British Empire. After 1840, an economic policy of mercantilism was abandoned and replaced by free trade, with few tariffs, quotas or restrictions. The powerful Royal Navy protected British commercial interests, shipping and international trade, while the British legal system enabled the resolution of disputes relatively inexpensively, and the City of London functioned as the economic capital and focus of the world economy.

Sectors

Food and drink

The food and drinks industry is an important sector in England, worth £10.2 bn as of 2021, although this is down 9% from 2020 and 15% from 2019. Fruit and vegetable sales have been hit hardest, with sales down by 36%.

The top food and drinks export categories are:

• Agriculture and Fisheries
• Alcoholic beverages (such as gin, wine, and whisky) (£2.3 bn)
• Miscellaneous (£1.7 bn)
• Hot beverages (such as coffee and tea) and spices (£1.2 bn)
• Sugar and honey (£245.4 m)

The top export destination for food and drinks exports from England is Ireland with 15% of all exports at a value of £1.5bn in 2021; this is down by 25% from 2020. There were also increases in exports to France and the USA with exports up by 12% and 10% respectively, with Germany and the Netherlands also among the top five export markets for the English food and drink sector.

Agriculture and fishing

Agriculture is intensive, highly mechanised and efficient by European standards, producing 60% of food needs with only 2% of the labour force. Two-thirds of production is devoted to livestock, the other to arable crops. The main crops that are grown are wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, sugar beets. England retains a significant and large fishing industry. Its fleets bring home fish of every kind, ranging from sole to herring. It is also rich in natural resources including coal, petroleum, natural gas, tin, limestone, iron ore, salt, clay, chalk, gypsum, lead, and silica.

The United Kingdom fishing industry contributed £446 million in 2019 in terms of Gross Value Added (GVA); this represents 0.02% of the UK's total GVA. In 2021, 53% of fishers were based in England and Wales, 40% in Scotland and 8% in Northern Ireland. The largest English region was the South West, contributing 10% of overall output in the sector.

The fishing industry in England catches a variety of different fish and seafood including North Sea Cod, North Sea Whiting, North Sea Haddock, Southern Sea Crab, West of Scotland Nephrops and Eastern English Channel Scallops.

The Environment Agency is a non-departmental public body, established in 1995 and sponsored by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs with responsibilities relating to the protection and enhancement of the environment in England. The Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs is the minister responsible for environmental protection, agriculture, fisheries and rural communities in England.

Alcoholic beverages

In 2019 England sold 550,000 bottles of English wine to 50 countries worldwide, this is up from 256,000 in 2018.

In 2022 the total value of English wine exports was £9.6 million ($11.8 million) with 800,000 bottles sold.

Major English wine brands include: Ridgeview Bloomsbury, Bolney Wine Estate, Lyme Bay, Aldwick Court Farm, Hattingley Valley, Lyme Block, Chapel Down, Brightwell Vineyard, and Stopham Estate.

As of March 2021 there are more distilleries in England (311) than in Scotland (214); this is due to an increase in English gin sales which increased the number of English distilleries to over 300 for the first time.

As of 2023 there are currently 38,000 casks of English whisky maturing, with an estimated 50,000 casks expected to be laid down by 2024. The estimated value of the maturing whisky stock is £1bn.

Major English whisky brands include: English Whisky Co, Cotswolds, The Lakes, Bimber, The Oxford Artisan, and Dartmoor.

Industry

The leading industrial sectors in England are services, manufacturing, construction, agriculture, and tourism. The service industry in England comprises several key industries, including finance and business services, retail, food and beverage, and entertainment. The Industrial Revolution started in England with an initial concentration on the textile industry, followed by other heavy industries such as shipbuilding, coal mining and steelmaking. English merchants, shippers and bankers developed overwhelming advantage over those of other nations allowing the country to dominate international trade in the 19th century. Shipbuilding continues, between September 2021 and the end of 2022, the government announced £4.34 billion in shipbuilding contracts to UK companies. The UK also produces luxury boats from Princess, Sunseeker and Fairline. Manufacturing remains a significant part of the economy but accounted for only 16.7 per cent of national output in 2003.

The automotive industry employs around 800,000 people, with a turnover in 2015 of £70 billion, generating £34.6 billion of exports (11.8 per cent of the UK's total export goods). In 2015, the UK produced around 1.6 million passenger vehicles and 94,500 commercial vehicles. England is a major centre for engine manufacturing: in 2015 around 2.4 million engines were produced. including luxury cars such as Rolls-Royce, Bentley and Range Rover. It is also the world's fourth-largest exporter of engines, as of 2021.

The motorsport industry employs around 41,000 people, comprises around 4,500 companies and has an annual turnover of around £6 billion. 7 of the 10 Formula One teams are based in England, with their technology being used in supercars and hypercars from McLaren, Aston Martin and Lotus.

Research and development spending is also high in the UK. In 2019, total expenditure on R&D was £38.5 billion. R&D investment has risen steadily over the past few decades, from £20.4 billion in 1986 to the current total of £38.5 billion, an increase of 96%. England's research and development funding and incentives and business infrastructure help support an environment of technology innovation.

The United Kingdom was ranked in the top 5 countries in the Global Innovation Index 2023. London has been named as the fastest growing technology hub in Europe, with England having over 100 unique tech companies with a value of $1 billion or more. A boom in investment in technology has led to tech and IT-related vacancies now making up 13% of all UK job vacancies. In Eastern England, overall hiring has increased by nearly 14% in the tech sector, and 12% in North West England and South West England. The UK technology sector is valued at US$1 trillion, third behind the United States and China, mostly based in England.

A growing number of technology companies are based in London, notably in East London Tech City also known as Silicon Roundabout. Investment in London's technology sector was $2.28 billion in 2015, 69 per cent higher than the $1.3 billion raised in 2014. Since 2010, London-based technology companies have collectively raised $5.2 billion of venture capital funding. A report by EY highlighted the importance of London to the UK's FinTech industry in terms of availability of expertise and demand for services.

The Haldane principle, that decisions about what to spend research funds on should be made by researchers rather than politicians, is influential in research policy. UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) is a non-departmental public body that directs research and innovation funding. There are several university departments with a focus on science policy, such as the Science Policy Research Unit. There are nine bodies in UKRI, comprising the seven research councils and two additional bodies, Innovate UK and Research England. Research England is responsible for the Research Excellence Framework. The research councils include:

• Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC)
• Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC)
• Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC)
• Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC)
• Medical Research Council (MRC)
• Natural Environment Research Council (NERC)
• Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC)

The Department for Business and Trade and Secretary of State for Business and Trade has responsibility for business. The Department for Science, Innovation and Technology, Secretary of State for Science, Innovation and Technology, and Minister of State for Science, Research and Innovation has responsibility for science and innovation development in England.

Construction

The construction industry of England employed around 2 million people and contributed gross value of £123.2 billion to the economy in 2019.

One of the largest construction projects in England in recent years was Crossrail, costing an estimated £19 billion. Opened in 2022 by Queen Elizabeth II and named the Elizabeth line, it is a new railway line running east to west through London and into the surrounding area, with a branch to Heathrow Airport. It was the largest construction project in Europe. The main feature of the project is construction of 42 km (26 mi) of new tunnels connecting stations in central London. Ongoing construction projects include the High Speed 2 line between London and the West Midlands. Crossrail 2 is a proposed rail route in the South East of England.

Finance

The UK financial services industry added gross value of £116,363 million to the UK economy in 2011. England's exports of financial and business services make a significant positive contribution towards the country's balance of payments.

England's capital houses the City of London, a major financial district, and one of the world's leading financial centres. The City of London is a major business and financial centre, and the Bank of England is headquartered in the City of London. Throughout the 19th century, the City of London was the world's primary business centre, and it continues to be a major meeting point for finance.

The London Stock Exchange, the United Kingdom's main stock exchange and the largest in Europe, is England's financial centre, with 100 of Europe's 500 largest corporations being based there. As of March 2021, the total market value of all companies trading on the London Stock Exchange was £3.8 trillion. It was founded in 1801, making it one of the oldest exchanges in the world. It is part of London Stock Exchange Group (LSEG).

There are over 500 banks with offices in London, and it is the leading international centre for banking and insurance, Eurobonds, foreign exchange trading and energy futures. London's financial services industry is primarily based in the City of London and Canary Wharf. The City houses the London Metal Exchange, Lloyd's of London, and the Bank of England.

Canary Wharf began development in the 1980s and is now home to major financial institutions such as Barclays Bank, Citigroup and HSBC, as well as the Financial Services Authority. Developed on the site of the former West India Docks, Canary Wharf contains large offices and banks. It comprises many open areas, including Cabot Square and Westferry Circus. After the London Docklands closed in 1980, the government adopted policies to stimulate redevelopment of the area, including the creation of the London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) in 1981 and the granting of Urban Enterprise Zone in 1982. London is also a major centre for other business and professional services, and four of the six largest law firms in the world are headquartered there.

Financial services in the United Kingdom contributed a gross value of £86 billion to the UK economy in 2004. It creates significant benefits for the England, UK, European and global economies. The industry employed around 1.2 million people in the third quarter of 2012. The estimated amount of total taxes paid by the Financial Services Sector in the year to 31 March 2012 is £63bn, 11.6% of the total UK government tax receipts.

Service industries, particularly banking, insurance, investment management, business services and other related financial services account by far for the largest proportion of GDP. Leeds is England's second largest financial centre, with over 30 national and international banks based in the city. Over 124,000 people are employed in banking and financial services in Leeds, and over in the wider Leeds City Region. Manchester is the largest financial and professional services sector outside London and is the mid tier private equity capital of Europe.

Manufacturing

In the 1970s, manufacturing accounted for over 20 percent of the economy. Total employment in manufacturing fell from 7.1 million in 1979 to 4.5 million in 1992 and only 2.7 million in 2016, when it accounted for 10% of the economy. Manufacturing has increased in 36 of the last 50 years and was twice in 2007 what is in 1958.

In 2011 the UK manufacturing sector generated approximately £140,539 million in gross value added and employed around 2.6 million people. Of the approximately £16 billion invested in R&D by UK businesses in 2008, approximately £12 billion was by manufacturing businesses, mostly located in England. In 2008, the UK was the sixth-largest manufacturer in the world measured by value of output.

The aerospace industry of the UK is the second- or third-largest aerospace industry in the world, depending upon the method of measurement. The industry employs around 113,000 people directly and around 276,000 indirectly and has an annual turnover of around £20 billion. English companies with a major presence in the industry include BAE Systems and Rolls-Royce (the world's second-largest aircraft engine maker). European aerospace companies active in England and the UK include Airbus, whose commercial aircraft, space, helicopter and defence divisions employ over 13,500 people.

The pharmaceutical industry employs around 67,000 people in the UK and in 2007 contributed £8.4 billion to the UK's GDP and invested a total of £3.9 billion in research and development. In 2007 exports of pharmaceutical products from the UK totalled £14.6 billion, creating a trade surplus in pharmaceutical products of £4.3 billion. England is home to GlaxoSmithKline and AstraZeneca, respectively the world's third- and seventh-largest pharmaceutical companies. England remains a key player in the aerospace, defence, pharmaceutical and chemical industries, and English companies worldwide continue to have a role in the sector through foreign investment.

Renewable energy

Successive UK governments have outlined numerous commitments to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. England is one of the best sites in Europe for wind energy, and wind power production is its fastest growing supply. The total of all renewable electricity sources provided 38.9 per cent of the electricity generated in the UK in the third quarter of 2019, producing 28.8 TWh of electricity. England is home to Hornsea 2, the largest offshore wind farm in the world, situated in waters roughly 89 kilometres off the coast of Yorkshire.

The Climate Change Act 2008 was passed in Parliament with an overwhelming majority across political parties. It sets out emission reduction targets that the UK must comply with legally. It represents the first global legally binding climate change mitigation target set by a country. In June 2017 renewables plus nuclear generated more UK power than gas and coal together for the first time and new offshore wind power became cheaper than new nuclear power for the first time.

Government energy policy aims to play a key role in limiting greenhouse gas emissions, whilst meeting energy demand. Shifting availabilities of resources and development of technologies also change the country's energy mix through changes in costs. United Kingdom is ranked 2 out of 180 countries in the Environmental Performance Index. A law has been passed that greenhouse gas emissions will be net zero by 2050 in England. The Energy and Climate Intelligence Unit (ECIU) has said it would be affordable. The target for 2030 is a 68% reduction compared with 1990 levels. As part of an economic stimulus to attempt to get out of the COVID-19 recession a green industrial policy was announced. One of the methods of reducing emissions is the UK Emissions Trading Scheme. Businesses and employees are given tax breaks for electric cars and a much larger proportion of business vehicle purchases are electric than those of consumers.

Retail

By the 17th century, permanent shops with more regular trading hours were beginning to supplant markets and fairs as the main retail outlet. Provincial shopkeepers were active in almost every English market town. As the number of shops grew, they underwent a transformation. The trappings of a modern shop, which had been entirely absent from the sixteenth- and early seventeenth-century store, gradually made way for store interiors and shopfronts that are more familiar to modern shoppers.

Prior to the eighteenth century, the typical retail store had no counter, display cases, chairs, mirrors, changing rooms, etc. However, the opportunity for the customer to browse merchandise, touch and feel products began to be available, with retail innovations from the late 17th and early 18th centuries.

Following the Great Fire of London (1666), the city of London was completely rebuilt. Shops were permitted in the principal street or 'high street', but not in the by-lanes or back streets. This may have been based on the need for high visibility in order to regulate retail trade, as well as to avoid congestion in the narrow lanes and back streets. Accordingly, from the 17th century, the term "High Street" gradually assumed a narrower meaning and came to describe thoroughfares with significant retail in large villages and towns. In the late 17th and 18th centuries, the number of High Streets increased markedly. The 19th century was a "golden era" for high street shops. The rise of the middle class in Victorian England contributed to a more favourable attitude to shopping and consumption. Shopping centres became places to see and be seen, for recreational shopping, and for promenading.

The retail sector in England includes the motor trade, auto repairs, personal and household goods industries. The sector added gross value of £151,785 million to the UK economy in 2011. As of 2016, high-street retail spending accounted for about 33% of consumer spending and 20% of GDP. Because 75% of goods bought in the United Kingdom are made overseas, the sector only accounts for 5.7% of gross value added to the British economy. Online sales account for 22% of retail spending in the UK, third highest in the world after China and South Korea, and double that of the United States.

The grocery market in England is dominated by four companies: Tesco (27% market share), Sainsbury's (15.4%), Asda (14.9%) and Morrisons (10%), these supermarkets are known as the "Big Four". However, supermarkets such as Aldi have grown in popularity. London is a major retail centre and in 2010 had the highest non-food retail sales of any city in the world, with a total spend of around £64.2 billion. Outside of London, Manchester and Birmingham are also major retail destinations, the UK is also home to many large out of town shopping centres like Meadowhall, away from the main high streets in town and city centres. Whilst the big international names dominate most towns and cities have streets or areas with many often quirky independent businesses. Tesco is the fourth-largest retailer in Europe measured by turnover.

Tourism

Tourism accounted for £96 billion of GDP (8.6% of the economy) in 2009. It employs over 2 million people – around 4% of the working population. England has a rich history in areas such as architecture, tradition, art and sport and is home to over 1,600 museums, most free of charge to visit.

English Heritage is a governmental body with a broad remit of managing the historic sites, artefacts and environments of England. It is currently sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Historic England (officially the Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission for England) is an executive non-departmental public body. It is tasked with protecting the historic environment of England by preserving and listing historic buildings, scheduling ancient monuments, registering historic parks and gardens and by advising central and local government.

The National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty is a charity which also maintains multiple sites. Of the 25 United Kingdom UNESCO World Heritage Sites, 17 are in England. Some of the best known of these include Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites, Tower of London, Jurassic Coast, Palace of Westminster, Roman Baths, City of Bath, Saltaire, Ironbridge Gorge, Studley Royal Park and more recently the English Lake District. The northernmost point of the Roman Empire, Hadrian's Wall, is the largest Roman artefact anywhere: it runs for a total of 73 miles in northern England.

The Department for Culture, Media and Sport has responsibility for tourism, arts and culture, cultural property, heritage and historic environments, libraries, and museums and galleries in England. The largest centre for tourism is London, which attracted close to 20 million tourists in 2016 alone. The British Museum (featuring over 8 million objects in its vast collection) has served as a major tourist attraction with over 5,906,716 visitors in 2017 alone. It is largely considered a global centre of finance, art, and culture.

Transport and logistics

The Department for Transport is the government body responsible for overseeing transport in England. The department is run by the Secretary of State for Transport. The transport and storage industry added a gross value of £59,179 million to the UK economy in 2011 and the telecommunication industry added a gross value of £25,098 million in the same year.

England has a dense and modern transportation infrastructure. There are many motorways in England, and many other trunk roads, such as the A1 Great North Road, which runs through eastern England from London to Newcastle (much of this section is motorway) and onward to the Scottish border. The longest motorway in England is the M6, from Rugby through the North West up to the Anglo-Scottish border, a distance of 232 miles (373 km). Other major routes include: the M1 from London to Leeds, the M25 which encircles London, the M60 which encircles Manchester, the M4 from London to South Wales, the M62 from Liverpool via Manchester to East Yorkshire, and the M5 from Birmingham to Bristol and the South West.

Figures from the Department for Transport show in 2018 people made 4.8 billion local bus passenger journeys in England, 58% of all public transport journeys. There were 1.8 billion rail passenger journeys in England. Light rail and tram travel also continued to grow, to the highest level (0.3 million journeys) since comparable records began in 1983. Rail travel tends to be used for longer journeys. Over half (57%) of all trips by rail are for either commuting or business purposes. On average, people made 48 trips by bus and travelled 441 kilometres compared to 22 trips and 992 kilometres by rail in 2018. In 2018/19, there was £18.1bn of public expenditure on railways, an increase of 12% (£1.9bn).

Bus transport across the country is widespread; major companies include Arriva, FirstGroup, Go-Ahead Group, Mobico Group, Rotala and Stagecoach Group. The red double-decker buses in London have become a symbol of England. Rail transport in England is the oldest in the world: passenger railways originated in England in 1825. Much of Britain's 10,000 miles (16,000 km) of rail network lies in England, covering the country fairly extensively. These lines are mostly standard gauge (single, double or quadruple track) though there are also a few narrow gauge lines. There is rail transport access to France and Belgium through an undersea rail link, the Channel Tunnel, which was completed in 1994.

During the age of steam locomotion, the economy in England strove to develop reliable technology for powering high-speed rail services between major cities. High-speed rail in England is provided on five upgraded railway lines running at top speeds of 125 mph (200 km/h) and one purpose-built high-speed line reaching 186 mph (300 km/h). Trains currently travel at 125 mph (200 km/h) on the East Coast Main Line, Great Western Main Line, Midland Main Line, parts of the Cross Country Route, and the West Coast Main Line. High Speed 1 (HS1) line connects London to the Channel Tunnel, with international Eurostar services running from St Pancras International to cities in France, Belgium, and the Netherlands at 186 mph (300 km/h). HS1 line was finished on time and under budget. The line is also used by high-speed commuter services from Kent to the capital. The CTRL project saw new bridges and tunnels built, with a combined length nearly as long as the Channel Tunnel itself, and significant archaeological research undertaken. In 2002, the CTRL project was awarded the Major Project Award at the British Construction Industry Awards. Since 2019 construction has been ongoing on a major new purpose-built high-speed rail line, High Speed 2 (HS2) which will link London with Birmingham at 224 mph (360 km/h) and reduce journey times to Scotland.

Government-backed plans to provide east–west high-speed services between cities in the North of England are also in development, as part of the Northern Powerhouse Rail project to boost the economic activity of the North. In June 2014, the Chancellor of the Exchequer proposed a high speed rail link High Speed 3 (HS3) between Liverpool and Newcastle, Sheffield and Hull. The line would utilise the existing route between Liverpool and Newcastle and Hull, and a new route from to Sheffield will follow the same route to Manchester Victoria, and then a new line from Victoria to Sheffield, with additional tunnels and other infrastructure. In July 2019 the Prime Minister announced a high-speed Leeds to Manchester route.

Great British Railways is a planned state-owned public body that will oversee rail transport in Great Britain. The Office of Rail and Road is responsible for the economic regulation of England's railways. England has extensive domestic and international aviation links. The largest airport is Heathrow, which is the world's busiest airport measured by number of international passengers. Other large airports include Gatwick, Manchester, Stansted, Luton and Birmingham.

Education

In 2007/08 higher education institutions in the UK had a total income of £23 billion and employed a total of 169,995 staff. In 2007/08 there were 2,306,000 higher education students in the UK with 1,922,180 studying in England.

English higher education has a strong international reputation, with over half of international students citing this as one of the main factors in deciding to study in the UK (compared to 22 percent of international students studying in Canada, 21 percent in Australia and 15 percent in the US). In specific subject rankings, English universities have performed well with a quarter of all top rankings taken by English universities in world rankings. The University of Oxford is rated top in most subjects among English universities, with the Royal College of Art first in the world for art and design, the Institute of Education, part of University College London, for education, University of Sussex for development studies and Loughborough University for sports-related subjects.

England's universities include some of the highest-ranked universities in the world; University of Cambridge, University of Oxford, Imperial College London, University College London and King's College London are all ranked in the global top 30 in the QS World University Rankings. The London School of Economics has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research. The London Business School is considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2010 its MBA programme was ranked best in the world by the Financial Times.

The University of Westminster achieved internationally excellent status for most of their work, ranking second for communications, cultural and media studies research, sixth for art and design research, in addition to the university performing strongly in architecture and the built environment, and geography and environmental studies. University of Manchester, University of Bristol, University of Liverpool and University of Birmingham are other English universities in global rankings.

The Department for Education is the government department responsible for issues affecting people in England up to the age of 19, including education. State-run and state-funded schools are attended by approximately 93% of English schoolchildren. Education is the responsibility of the Secretary of State for Education. Children who are between the ages of 3 and 5 attend nursery or an Early Years Foundation Stage reception unit within a primary school. Children between the ages of 5 and 11 attend primary school, and secondary school is attended by those aged between 11 and 16. State-funded schools are obliged by law to teach the National Curriculum.

The Programme for International Student Assessment coordinated by the OECD currently ranks the overall knowledge and skills of British 15-year-olds as 13th in the world in reading literacy, mathematics, and science with the average British student scoring 503.7, compared with the OECD average of 493. Out of the United Kingdom nations, England performed the strongest.

Further education colleges and sixth form colleges often form part of a secondary school site. Further education covers a wide curriculum of apprenticeships like BTEC Awards and NVQs. T Levels are apprenticeship based qualifications in England developed in collaboration with employers and businesses so that the content meets the needs of industry and prepares students for the labour market. Pupils gain a broad knowledge; with skills and behaviours necessary for employment in an occupation or industry related to their field of study, an opportunity to develop specialist technical skills relevant to at least one occupation, and the relevant English, Maths, Science and Digital skills. The pathways include:

• Agriculture, Environmental and Animal Care
• Business and Administrative
• Catering and Hospitality
• Childcare and Education
• Construction
• Creative and Design
• Digital
• Engineering and Manufacturing
• Hair and Beauty
• Health and Science
• Legal, Finance and Accounting
• Protective Services
• Sales, Marketing and Procurement
• Social Care
• Transport and Logistics

Healthcare

The National Health Service (NHS), is the publicly funded healthcare system responsible for providing the majority of healthcare in the country. The NHS began on 5 July 1948, putting into effect the provisions of the National Health Service Act 1946. It was based on the findings of the Beveridge Report, prepared by economist and social reformer William Beveridge. The NHS is largely funded from general taxation including National Insurance payments, and it provides most of its services free at the point of use. The government department responsible for the NHS is the Department of Health and Social Care, headed by the Secretary of State for Health and Social Care.

The average life expectancy of people in England is 77.5 years for males and 81.7 years for females, the highest of the four countries of the United Kingdom. The South of England has a higher life expectancy than the North, however, regional differences do seem to be slowly narrowing: between 1991–1993 and 2012–2014, life expectancy in the North East increased by 6.0 years and in the North West by 5.8 years, the fastest increase in any region outside London, and the gap between life expectancy in the North East and South East is now 2.5 years, down from 2.9 in 1993. The NHS in England is by far the largest of the four parts and had a turnover of £92.5 billion in 2008.

Creative industries

The creative industries accounted for 5.9% of the UK's GVA in 2023, having grown by 43.6% over a decade. Key areas include London and the North West of England, which are the two largest creative industry clusters in Europe. According to the British Fashion Council, the fashion industry's contribution to the economy in 2014 is £26 billion, up from £21 billion in 2009. London is one of the world's leading fashion capitals.

England is also home to the world's largest advertising company, WPP.

The Department for Culture, Media and Sport, headed by the headed by the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport is the department with responsibility for culture and sport in England, and building of the digital economy and creative industries. It also has responsibility for the tourism and leisure. The Department for Culture, Media and Sport definition recognises ten creative sectors, namely:

• Advertising and marketing
• Architecture
• Crafts
• Design: product, graphic and fashion design
• Film, TV productions, TV, video, radio and photography
• IT, software and computer services
• Publishing
• Copyright, patent, trademarks
• Museums, galleries and libraries
• Music, performing and visual arts

London dominates the media sector in England: national newspapers and television and radio are largely based there, although Manchester is also a significant national media centre. The University of Salford also has a media campus and research center based at MediaCity. The UK publishing sector, including books, directories and databases, journals, magazines and business media, newspapers and news agencies, has a combined turnover of around £20 billion and employs around 167,000 people.

The Creative Industries Federation is a national organisation for England's creative industries, cultural education and arts. It advocates for the sector, aiming to ensure that the creative industries are central to political, economic and social decision making. Through this advocacy and by leveraging the combined influence of its 1,000+ members across all creative sectors, the Federation further seeks to secure the investment required to retain the creative industries' position as the fastest growing sector of the national economy, currently worth £111.7bn.

Currency and taxation

England uses the pound sterling which is the world's oldest currency that is still in use and that has been in continuous use. It is currently the fourth most-traded currency in the foreign exchange market and is the world's fourth-largest reserve currency (after the United States dollar, euro, and yen). London is the world capital for foreign exchange trading, with a global market share of 38.1% in 2022 of the daily $7.5 trillion global turnover. Since 1997 the Bank of England's Monetary Policy Committee, headed by the Governor of the Bank of England, has been responsible for setting interest rates at the level necessary to achieve the overall inflation target for the economy that is set by the Chancellor each year.

Taxation in England involves payments to at least three different levels of government: central government (His Majesty's Revenue and Customs) and local government. Central government revenues come primarily from income tax, National Insurance contributions, value added tax, corporation tax and fuel duty. Local government revenues come primarily from grants from central government funds, business rates in England, Council Tax and increasingly from fees and charges such as those for on-street parking. In the fiscal year 2014–15, total government revenue was forecast to be £648 billion, or 37.7 per cent of GDP, with net taxes and National Insurance contributions standing at £606 billion. Business rates were introduced in England in 1990 and are a modernised version of a system of rating that dates back to the Poor Relief Act 1601.

The Budget of His Majesty's Government is an annual budget set by HM Treasury for the following financial year, with the revenues to be gathered by HM Revenue and Customs and the expenditures of the public sector, in compliance with government policy. The budget is one of two statements given by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, with the Spring Statement being given the following year. Budgets are usually set once every year and are announced in the House of Commons by the Chancellor of the Exchequer. Since autumn 2017 the budget typically takes place in the Autumn in order to give notice of tax changes well before the start of each fiscal year.

Regions and cities

Manchester is considered to be a 'beta global city', rated as the second most globally influential city in England after London. The region is now an economic knowledge-led centre, with research and enterprise clustered around the University of Manchester, where research ranked as the third most powerful in the UK behind Cambridge and Oxford. Typical industry areas include digital and creative, financial, legal and business services, biotechnology, advanced manufacturing, environmental technologies, tourism, global sports brands, media and real estate. The city is also a key location for many foreign owned companies and headquarters, and almost half of the Northwest's top 500 businesses. Along with London, Manchester featured in the top 30 cities in the world for investment, and of the top 30, Manchester was 12th for the highest proportion of urban economy derived from financial and business services. Manchester City Council also plays a uniquely active role in business, where it owns key infrastructures such as bus services.

The economy in Liverpool is dominated by service sector industries, both public and private. In 2007, over 60% of all employment in the city was in the public administration, education, health, banking, finance and insurance sectors. Public administration, education and health are combined, the single largest employment sector within Liverpool's economy, accounting for approximately 40% of all jobs in the city. The level of employment in these sectors remains higher than the average for the other core cities of England. The banking, finance and insurance sectors are one of the fastest growing areas of Liverpool's economy with a 5.3% increase in jobs in these areas 2006/07. Major private sector service industry concerns have also invested in Liverpool especially the financial services sector with Barclays, JPMorgan, Alliance & Leicester, Royal Bank of Scotland Group and the Bank of Ireland either opening or expanding their sites, a number of major call centres have opened in recent years too and the professional advice sector.

Birmingham is an important manufacturing and engineering centre, employing over 100,000 people in the industry and contributing billions of pounds to England's economy. Research at the University of Birmingham, both theoretical and practical has contributed to the success of the city and the West Midlands region and had worldwide impact for more than a century. The university ranks as high as 10th in the UK according to the QS World University Rankings. Scientific research including research into nano technology at the University of Birmingham, is expanding in the city and will possibly play a part in the city's economic future. In 2011, Birmingham's financial and insurance services industry was worth £2.46 billion, the 4th largest in the United Kingdom. Birmingham has the two largest sets of barrister's chambers in the country; a local law society; 50 major property firms and one of Europe's largest insurance markets.

Leeds is the most diverse economy of all of England's main employment centres and has seen the fastest rate of private-sector jobs growth of any UK city and has the highest ratio of public to private sector jobs of all the core cities of England. Leeds has the third-largest jobs total by local authority area with 480,000 in employment and self-employment at the beginning of 2015. Leeds is the largest legal and financial centre in England outside of London. Its financial and insurance services industry was worth £2.1 billion, with more than 30 national and international banks located in the city. Leeds has nearly 1,800 companies engaged in a diverse range of manufacturing activities, including specialised engineering, print, food and drink manufacture, chemicals and medical technology. Both the University of Leeds and Leeds Metropolitan University have established business schools, their presence being supported by businesses in the city.

The economy in Bristol has long connections with the sea and its ports. In the 20th century aeronautics played an important role in the economy, and the city still plays a role in the manufacture of aircraft. Bristol was the first UK city to be named European Green Capital. Its modern economy is built on the creative media, technology, electronics and aerospace industries. Bristol is also a tourist destination, and has significant media, information technology and financial services sectors. Reports released in 2018 showed that the city is growing exponentially with a projected 2.3 percent annual growth rate.

In 2008, Sheffield ranked among the top 10 cities in the UK as a business location, and aims to regenerate itself as a modern technology and sports based city. Sheffield was the first National City of Sport, with a range of high quality facilities. Sheffield has an international reputation for metallurgy and steel-making. It was this industry that established it as one of England's main industrial cities during the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. High technology businesses such Fluent, Inc. have chosen Sheffield as the centre for their international operations and so has Jennic, specialists in semiconductor design for the home automation, commercial building automation, and industrial process monitoring and control markets. The University of Sheffield supports the growth of technology transfer in the Sheffield City Region through the innovation centers which houses enterprises as well as startup companys working in similar areas alongside the University of Sheffield. Organised by the Sheffield Chamber of Commerce and Industry, the Sheffield Business Awards is an awards ceremony held on an annual basis to help highlight and promote business and industry in Sheffield and boost the economy of the region.

Newcastle played a major role during the 19th-century Industrial Revolution, and was a leading centre for coal mining, shipbuilding, engineering, munitions and manufacturing. Heavy industries in Newcastle declined in the second half of the 20th century; with office, service and retail employment now becoming the city's staples. Newcastle is the commercial, educational and the cultural hub of North East England. Newcastle's economy contributes around £13 billion to the UK GVA. This figure is mostly produced by corporate activity in Newcastle's Central Business District, located in the centre of the city (bounded by the Haymarket, Central Station and the Quayside areas). The city's thriving nightlife is estimated to be worth £340 million per year, and consequently is seen as a major contributor to Newcastle's economy. The UK's first biotechnology village, the Centre for Life, is located by Central Station. The village is the first step in the City Council's plans to transform Newcastle into a science city.

Regional variation

The strength of the English economy varies between regions. The following table shows the total GVA (gross value added) and GVA per capita of each of the nine English regions.

See also

• Economy of Europe
• Economy of Northern Ireland
• Economy of Scotland
• Economy of Wales
• Economy of the United Kingdom
• List of country subdivisions by GDP over USD 100 billions

Notes

1. 6 April – 5 April for personal tax
2. In employment and aged 16 or over (quantity) or aged 16–64 (percent)
3. Percent is a proportion of all persons in employment aged 16 and over
4. Unemployed aged 16 and over. Percent is a proportion of economically active.
5. Median gross weekly pay for full time employees resident in England
6. ^ Goods and services
7. ^ Excluding services
8. Agriculture includes: cereal and cereal prep (£1.4 bn), Meat and meat prep (£1.1 bn), Dairy products (£778.7 m), Vegetables in and fruit (£632.9 m) and Animal and vegetables oils/fats (£412.1 m)

References

1. "Mid-Year Population Estimates, UK, June 2022". Office for National Statistics. 26 March 2024. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
2. ^ "Regional gross domestic product: all ITL regions". Office for National Statistics. 24 April 2024. Retrieved 15 May 2024.
3. ^ "Labour Market Profile - England". Nomis. Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 22 May 2024.
4. ^ Tuck, Helen (28 June 2023). "International trade in UK nations, regions and cities: 2021". Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 24 December 2023.
5. ^ "UK Regional Trade in Goods Statistics". UK Trade Info. HM Revenue and Customs. 14 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2023.
6. "The Welfare State – Never Ending Reform". BBC News. Archived from the original on 14 August 2009. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
7. "CIA – The World Factbook". Cia.gov. Archived from the original on 9 January 2021. Retrieved 27 April 2013.
8. Hopkin, George (14 September 2022). "UK's trillion dollar demand for global technology talent". technologymagazine.com. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
9. "London Has Officially Become the Technology Capital of Europe". BrainStation®. 21 July 2021. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
10. "Overview of the creative arts sector in the UK | Prospects.ac.uk". www.prospects.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 7 October 2021. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
11. "Creative economy employment in the EU and UK: A comparative analysis". nesta. Retrieved 12 December 2023.
12. Perry, Marvin; Jacob, Margaret C.; Chase, Myrna; Jacob, James R. (2009). Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, ando Society (9th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 503. ISBN 978-0-547-14701-7. Archived from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
13. "Financial Centre". London.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 13 July 2011. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
14. Brignall, Miles (19 March 2014). "Personal allowance: Osborne's budget has been far from generous". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 6 July 2014. Retrieved 22 June 2014.
15. Fenton, Trevor (25 April 2023). "Regional economic activity by gross domestic product, UK: 1998 to 2021". Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
16. David M. Palliser, The Age of Elizabeth: England under the later Tudors, 1547–1603 p. 300.
17. Ian Dawson, The Tudor century (1993) p. 214
18. John S. Lee, "The functions and fortunes of English small towns at the close of the middle ages: evidence from John Leland's Itinerary." Urban History 37#1 (2010): 3–25.
19. Richard W. Hoyle, "Taxation and the mid-Tudor crisis." Economic History Review 51#4 (1998): 649–975. in JSTOR Archived 30 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine
20. Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. pp. 15–16. ISBN 978-1-107-50718-0.
21. grisham.weebly.com Archived 20 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine; accessed 31 July 2016
22. Robert Brenner, Merchants and revolution: commercial change, political conflict, and London's overseas traders, 1550–1653 (Verso, 2003).
23. E. Lipson, The Economic History of England 2 (1956): 196–268.
24. Melissa D. Aaron, Global Economics (2005), p. 25. In the later decades of the reign, the costs of warfare — defeating the English Armada of 1589 and funding the campaigns in the Netherlands — obliterated the surplus; England had a debt of £350,000 at Elizabeth's death in 1603.
25. Ann Jennalie Cook (1981) The Privileged Playgoers of Shakespeare's London, 1576–1642,, Princeton University Press, pp. 49–96 ISBN 0691064547.
26. Christopher Hibbert (1991) The Virgin Queen: Elizabeth I, Genius of the Golden Age, Da Capo Press, ISBN 0201608170.
27. Wernham, R.B (1994). The Return of the Armadas: The Last Years of the Elizabethan Wars Against Spain 1595–1603. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 333–334. ISBN 978-0-19-820443-5.
28. Scott, William. "East India Company, 1817–1827". archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk. Senate House Library Archives, University of London. Archived from the original on 21 September 2019. Retrieved 20 September 2019.
29. Parliament of England (31 December 1600). Charter Granted by Queen Elizabeth to the East India Company  – via Wikisource. Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East-Indies
30. ^ Farrington, Anthony (2002). Trading Places: The East India Company and Asia 1600–1834. British Library. ISBN 978-0-7123-4756-3. Archived from the original on 27 July 2020. Retrieved 21 September 2019.
31. ^ "History". www.bankofengland.co.uk. Retrieved 7 May 2023.
32. "BBC – History – The Workshop of the World". www.bbc.co.uk. Archived from the original on 17 May 2013. Retrieved 8 October 2021.
33. Hirst, Derek (1996). "Locating the 1650s in England's Seventeenth Century". History. 81 (263): 359–383. doi:10.1111/1468-229X.00016. ISSN 0018-2648. JSTOR 24423269.
34. "The Enlightenment (1650–1800): The English Enlightenment". SparkNotes. Retrieved 18 December 2023.
35. Allen, R. C. (2011). "Why the industrial revolution was British: commerce, induced invention, and the scientific revolution". The Economic History Review. 64 (2): 357–384. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.2010.00532.x. ISSN 0013-0117. JSTOR 41262428.
36. Mingay, G. E. (1986), "Workshop of the World", The Transformation of Britain, Routledge, pp. 81–105, doi:10.4324/9781003129417-4, ISBN 978-1-003-12941-7, retrieved 17 December 2023
37. Cain, P. J.; Hopkins, A. G. (1980). "The Political Economy of British Expansion Overseas, 1750-1914". The Economic History Review. 33 (4): 463–490. doi:10.2307/2594798. ISSN 0013-0117. JSTOR 2594798.
38. "Global warming boosts wine production in the English countryside". Le Monde.fr. 24 September 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2023.
39. "2021 Summary of Food and Drinks Exports" (PDF). Food and Drink Federation.
40. "2021 Summary of Food and Drinks Exports" (PDF). Food and Drink Federation.
41. Green, Martin (20 June 2022). "Sales of English wine soared in 2021". Decanter. Retrieved 18 December 2023.
42. "World Guide – England – Economy Overview". World Guide. Intute. Archived from the original on 2 August 2009. Retrieved 9 September 2009.
43. "Economy of the United Kingdom" (PDF). PTeducation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 November 2009. Retrieved 8 October 2009.
44. "Coal | Mines and quarries | MineralsUK". MineralsUK. Archived from the original on 20 July 2016. Retrieved 7 July 2016.
45. DEFRA, p. 148.
46. "UK Fisheries Statistics" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 June 2015. Retrieved 3 February 2021.
47. "UK Fisheries Audit" (PDF). Oceana. 2021.
48. "Environment Agency". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 2 April 2021. Retrieved 3 April 2021.
49. "Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs – GOV.UK". www.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 3 April 2021.
50. "Grape Britain: Exports of English wine have doubled – but will it last post-Brexit?". Coates and Seely. 10 September 2020. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
51. Rozario, Kevin. "English Wine Gets A Boost From Chapel Down's Accelerating Sales". Forbes. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
52. "9 world-beating English Wines to try... | Great British Food Awards". Great British Food. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
53. Arnaud, Stan (14 June 2021). "England now home to almost 100 more distilleries than Scotland as gin boom continues". Press and Journal. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
54. Carruthers, Nicola (25 April 2023). "English Whisky Guild hires CEO". The Spirits Business.
55. "Introduction to English Whisky". The Dram Team. 22 July 2020. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
56. Industries in the UK (Report). 10 July 2021. Archived from the original on 7 October 2021. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
57. "European Countries – United Kingdom". Europa (web portal). Retrieved 15 December 2010.
58. Harrington, James W.; Warf, Barney (1995). Industrial location: Principles, practices, and policy. London: Routledge. p. 121. ISBN 978-0-415-10479-1.; Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2008). Western Civilization: Alternative Volume: Since 1300. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. ISBN 978-0-495-55528-5.
59. Porter, Andrew (1998). The Nineteenth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume III. Oxford University Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-19-924678-6. Retrieved 22 July 2009.; Marshall, PJ (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 156–157. ISBN 978-0-521-00254-7. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
60. "UK Government shipbuilding contracts – where are they going?". 20 December 2022. Retrieved 11 March 2023. (last checked 2023-03-11)
61. Hewitt, Patricia (15 July 2004). "TUC Manufacturing Conference". Department of Trade and Industry. Archived from the original on 3 June 2007. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
62. "Jaguar Land Rover 2012 Overview" (PDF). Jaguar Land Rover. 14 June 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 February 2013.
63. "Combustion Engines (HS: Compression-ignition) Product Trade, Exporters and Importers". The Observatory of Economic Complexity. Retrieved 18 December 2023.
64. ^ "Motor Industry Facts 2016" (PDF). Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders. 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 October 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
65. Research and development spending (Report). 10 July 2021. Archived from the original on 7 October 2021. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
66. "Welcome to Cambridge, the emerging science capital of Europe". Maddyness UK. 19 December 2023. Retrieved 19 December 2023.
67. "London Has Officially Become the Technology Capital of Europe". BrainStation®. 21 July 2021. Archived from the original on 7 October 2021. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
68. "London is the "Unicorn Capital of Europe"". London and Partners News. Retrieved 19 December 2023.
69. UK Tech News (6 July 2023). "UK home to most future unicorns in Europe, report finds".
70. "UK tech boom sees one in eight job opportunities in digital sector – Business Leader News". Business Leader. 27 September 2021. Archived from the original on 7 October 2021. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
71. "Open and Secure: Charting a path for UK tech in a world of resurgent strategic competition". www.techuk.org. Retrieved 17 December 2023.
72. "The UK Tech Sector Ready to Power Up Southeast Asia". Techsauce (in Thai). Retrieved 17 December 2023.
73. ^ "UK tech firms smash venture capital funding record". London & Partners. 6 January 2016. Retrieved 2 February 2016.
74. "An evaluation of the international FinTech sector" (PDF). EY. 24 February 2016. Retrieved 25 February 2016.
75. "The Times: Britain leads way in tech investment". The Times. 19 December 2023. ISSN 0140-0460. Retrieved 19 December 2023.
76. "Our Councils – UK Research and Innovation". www.ukri.org. Archived from the original on 26 October 2020. Retrieved 29 August 2020.
77. Pells, Rachael (14 October 2017). "England's KEF: will it be a 'patent-counting' extra reporting burden?". Times Higher Education (THE). Archived from the original on 11 April 2018. Retrieved 10 April 2018.
78. "UK National Accounts, The Blue Book: 2019". ONS. Archived from the original on 26 April 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2021.
79. "Crossrail Regional Map". Crossrail Ltd. Archived from the original on 24 October 2010. Retrieved 8 September 2013.
80. ^ "Crossrail's giant tunnelling machines unveiled". BBC News. 2 January 2012. Archived from the original on 10 April 2016. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
81. "Crossrail Sources Europe's Largest Construction Project". JAGGAER. Retrieved 18 December 2023.
82. "Release: United Kingdom National Accounts, The Blue Book, 2013 Edition". Office for National Statistics. 31 July 2013. Archived from the original on 15 September 2013. Retrieved 13 August 2013.
83. "Global Financial Centres 7" (PDF). Z/Yen. 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 November 2015. Retrieved 21 April 2010.
84. Dunton, Larkin (1896). The World and Its People. Silver, Burdett. p. 24.
85. "Market cap of firms on the LSE 2023 | Statista". statista.com. Archived from the original on 25 April 2021. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
86. "History of The Stock Market". BeBusinessed. Archived from the original on 25 August 2018. Retrieved 24 August 2018.
87. "Forbes List Directory". Forbes. Retrieved 18 December 2023.
88. "HSBC Group corporate website | HSBC Holdings plc". HSBC. Retrieved 18 December 2023.
89. "History". Canary Wharf Group. Archived from the original on 23 June 2006. Retrieved 11 November 2010.
90. "The Docklands Story - The evolution of the Royal Docks and Canary Wharf". London City Island. Retrieved 18 December 2023.
91. "UK law firms reap rich rewards while Americans strengthen London teams". Financial News. 23 July 2007. Archived from the original on 15 September 2011. Retrieved 11 August 2010.
92. "United Kingdom National Accounts The Blue Book 2006" (PDF). 21 July 2006. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 October 2012. Retrieved 20 March 2013.
93. "The Bank of England's approach to the authorisation and supervision of international banks, insurers and central counterparties". Bank of England. Archived from the original on 30 September 2020. Retrieved 2 March 2018. Having a large financial sector brings substantial benefits to the UK. A deep and liquid financial market lowers the cost of finance to households and businesses. The financial services sector accounts for 7% of output and is a source of over 1 million jobs, two thirds of which are outside London. It contributes around £70bn, or 11%, of annual tax revenues. The UK's financial sector also brings substantial benefits to EU households and firms, allowing them to access a broad range of services efficiently and reliably. UK-located banks underwrite around half of the debt and equity issued by EU companies. UK-located banks are counterparty to over half of the over-the-counter (OTC) interest rate derivatives traded by EU companies and banks. As many as 30 million EEA policyholders are insured through a UK-based insurer. Central counterparties (CCPs) located in the United Kingdom provide services to EU clients in a range of markets. UK-located asset managers account for 37% of all assets managed in Europe. Globally, the UK has the largest share of cross-border bank lending, foreign exchange trading and interest rate derivatives. It also has the second largest asset management industry and the fourth largest insurance industry in the world. This concentration of activity increases efficiencies in the provision of finance, which in turn support international trade and cross-border investment.
94. Brexit: the United-Kingdom and EU financial services (PDF) (Report). Economic Governance Support Unit of the European Parliament. 9 December 2016. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 October 2020. Retrieved 2 March 2018.
95. "The Total Tax Contribution of UK Financial Services" (PDF). December 2012. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 March 2018. Retrieved 19 April 2013.
96. Brien, Philip (10 July 2021). Service industries: Key Economic Indicators (Report). Archived from the original on 7 October 2021. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
97. Archived 21 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine
98. "Sector Overviews". Archived from the original on 13 October 2009. Retrieved 20 May 2009.
99. "Leeds Financial Facts and Figures". leedsfinancialservices.org.uk. Archived from the original on 30 January 2009. Retrieved 25 January 2009.
100. "Kualo Web Hosting – Resource Overload". Leedsfinancialservices.org.uk. Archived from the original on 8 June 2009. Retrieved 5 March 2014.
101. Begum, Shelina (2 December 2010). "A capital way to strengthen links". Manchester Evening News. Archived from the original on 12 November 2012. Retrieved 5 March 2014.
102. "UK manufacturers provide a strong foundation for growth in the UK" EEF (2017) Archived 23 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine
103. Hennik Research. Annual Manufacturing Report: 2017 (Dec. 2016) Archived 31 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine
104. above link
105. "Release: United Kingdom National Accounts, The Blue Book, 2013 Edition". Office for National Statistics. 31 July 2013. Archived from the original on 15 September 2013. Retrieved 13 August 2013.
106. ^ "Manufacturing in the UK: An economic analysis of the sector" (PDF). Department for Business, Innovation & Skills. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 February 2011. Retrieved 25 April 2011.
107. "The future of UK manufacturing: Reports of its death are greatly exaggerated" (PDF). PricewaterhouseCoopers. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 25 April 2011.
108. "Facts & Figures – 2009" (PDF). Aerospace & Defence Association of Europe. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 December 2010. Retrieved 13 May 2011.
109. "UK Aerospace Industry Survey – 2010". ADS Group. Archived from the original on 8 January 2014. Retrieved 13 May 2011.
110. "Aerospace". UK Trade & Investment. Archived from the original on 24 October 2010. Retrieved 20 October 2010.
111. "Rolls-Royce Wins $2 Billion Air China, Ethiopian Airlines Deals". Bloomberg L.P. 14 November 2009. Archived from the original on 3 November 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010.
112. "Airbus in the United Kingdom". Airbus. Archived from the original on 22 December 2017. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
113. Bawden, Tom; Rose, David (27 January 2009). "Gordon Brown plans tonic for pharmaceutical industry". The Times. London. Archived from the original on 1 September 2011. Retrieved 27 October 2010.
114. "The pharmaceutical industry and market in the UK". The Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry. Archived from the original on 14 December 2014. Retrieved 14 December 2014.
115. "Facts & Statistics from the pharmaceutical industry". The Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry. Archived from the original on 18 September 2010. Retrieved 27 October 2010.
116. "British regulator calls for drug pricing overhaul". The New York Times. 27 January 2009. Archived from the original on 7 April 2020. Retrieved 27 October 2010.
117. "Global 500 – Pharmaceuticals". Fortune. 20 July 2009. Archived from the original on 23 August 2010. Retrieved 27 October 2010.
118. "UK Renewable Energy Roadmap Crown copyright, July 2011" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
119. "Record year for wind energy – Government releases official figures". 29 March 2018. Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 18 April 2018.
120. ^ "UK Renewables Q3 2019" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 February 2020. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
121. "What is the 2008 Climate Change Act?". Grantham Research Institute on climate change and the environment. Archived from the original on 23 March 2021. Retrieved 1 April 2021.
122. "UK enjoyed 'greenest year for electricity ever' in 2017". BBC News. 28 December 2017. Archived from the original on 20 November 2019. Retrieved 6 July 2018.
123. Proctor, Darrell (24 November 2020). "UK Undergoing 'Remarkable Shift' in Power Generation". POWER Magazine. Archived from the original on 11 April 2021. Retrieved 11 April 2021.
124. "2020 EPI Results". Environmental Performance Index. 3 June 2020. Archived from the original on 1 January 2021. Retrieved 20 November 2020.
125. "Net zero: economy and jobs". Energy & Climate Intelligence Unit. Archived from the original on 16 December 2019. Retrieved 5 January 2020.
126. "UK net zero target". Institute for Government. 20 April 2020. Archived from the original on 26 May 2021. Retrieved 20 November 2020.
127. "UK sets ambitious new climate target ahead of UN Summit". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 19 May 2021. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
128. Harrabin, Roger (6 May 2020). "UK warned over coronavirus climate trap". BBC News. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 9 May 2020.
129. Ng, Gabriel (23 January 2021). "Introducing the UK Emissions Trading System". Cherwell. Archived from the original on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
130. "Updated: Electric car grant cut to £2,500 and eligibility changed". www.fleetnews.co.uk. Archived from the original on 7 October 2021. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
131. Cox, N. C. and Dannehl, K. (2007). Perceptions of Retailing in Early Modern England, Aldershot, Hampshire, Ashgate, p. 129.
132. Staveley-Wadham, Rose (22 December 2021). "Eighteenth Century Shopping". blog.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk. Retrieved 18 December 2023.
133. Cox, N. C. and Dannehl, K. (2007). Perceptions of Retailing in Early Modern England, Aldershot, Hampshire, Ashgate, pp. 153–54.
134. Cox, N., "'Beggary of the Nation': Moral, Economic and Political Attitudes to the Retail Sector in the Early Modern Period", in: John Benson and Laura Ugolini, A Nation of Shopkeepers: Five Centuries of British Retailing, London, I.B. Taurus, 2003, p. 38.
135. "When was the High Street at its best?". BBC News. 1 November 2010. Retrieved 18 December 2023.
136. Lysack, K. (2008). Come Buy, Come Buy: Shopping and the Culture of Consumption in Victorian Women’s Writing, Ohio University Press, p. 7.
137. "Release: United Kingdom National Accounts, The Blue Book, 2013 Edition". Office for National Statistics. 31 July 2013. Archived from the original on 15 September 2013. Retrieved 13 August 2013.
138. Heath, Allister (16 June 2016). "Why Britain's shopping spree will come at a cost". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 17 June 2016. Retrieved 18 June 2016.
139. Evans, Judith (22 June 2019). "Death of the high street weighs on landlords round the world". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 22 June 2019. Retrieved 22 June 2019.
140. Potter, Mark (17 February 2011). "London tops world cities spending league". Reuters. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 14 May 2011.
141. "Europe: turnover of the top 15 retailers 2019". Statista. Archived from the original on 3 April 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2020.
142. "A review of research and literature on museums and libraries" (PDF). Arts Council. September 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 September 2012. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
143. "UNESCO World Heritage Sites". Archived from the original on 3 November 2018. Retrieved 13 July 2020.
144. "Hadrian's Wall: A horde of ancient treasures make for a compelling new Cumbrian exhibition". The Independent. 8 November 2016.
145. "Secretary of State for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport – GOV.UK". Archived from the original on 3 November 2021. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
146. "British Museum Tourist Numbers in 2017". ALVA. Archived from the original on 13 April 2015. Retrieved 28 October 2018.
147. "The UK is the world's global financial centre". www.theglobalcity.uk. Archived from the original on 10 April 2021. Retrieved 10 April 2021.
148. "Release: United Kingdom National Accounts, The Blue Book, 2013 Edition". Office for National Statistics. 31 July 2013. Archived from the original on 15 September 2013. Retrieved 13 August 2013.
149. ^ UK Parliament 2007, p. 175
150. "Department for Transport: Transport Statistics Great Britain 2019" (PDF). Department for Transport. 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 March 2023. Retrieved 25 April 2023. Text was copied from this source, which is available under an Open Government Licence v3.0 Archived 28 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine. © Crown copyright.
151. "27 September 1825 – Opening of the Stockton and Darlington Railway". The Stockton and Darlington Railway. Archived from the original on 7 October 2013. Retrieved 5 October 2013.
152. "About Us – High Speed 1". Archived from the original on 11 June 2017. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
153. Matthews, Roger (2003). The archaeology of Mesopotamia: theories and approaches. London: Routledge. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-415-25317-8. The development of this new railway resulted in the largest archaeological project to date in the United Kingdom
154. Mylius, Andrew (2 November 2006). "CTRL team scoops BCI Major Project Award". New Civil Engineer. London. Archived from the original on 5 December 2009. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
155. Topham, Gwyn (19 January 2019). "All stations to regeneration? Work on HS2 begins in earnest". The Observer. Archived from the original on 8 April 2019. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
156. "A blueprint for the future". Archived from the original on 4 April 2019. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
157. "PM pledge for Leeds to Manchester high-speed line". BBC News. Archived from the original on 6 October 2021. Retrieved 6 October 2021.
158. "Home page". Office of Rail & Road. Archived from the original on 26 April 2023. Retrieved 5 October 2021.
159. "Delta Expects New Slots To Foster Growth At Heathrow Airport". Wall Street Journal. 23 February 2011. Archived from the original on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 23 March 2011.
160. Misachi, John (25 April 2017). "The Busiest Airports In The United Kingdom By Passenger Traffic". WorldAtlas. Archived from the original on 24 October 2021. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
161. ^ "Higher education in facts and figures – Summer 2009" (PDF). Universities UK. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 February 2010. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
162. Bothwell, Ellie (2 November 2015). "Reputation of UK higher education main factor attracting international STEM students". Times Higher Education. Archived from the original on 7 October 2021. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
163. "Sussex tops global university ranking". BBC News. 8 March 2017. Archived from the original on 7 October 2021. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
164. "Discover key facts about Royal Holloway". Royal Holloway, University of London. Archived from the original on 13 May 2020. Retrieved 23 December 2019.
165. "QS World University Rankings 2018 | Top Universities". QS Quacquarelli Symonds Limited. February 2017. Archived from the original on 21 September 2018. Retrieved 11 June 2017.
166. Hoyle, Ben (23 September 2007). "The Sunday Times Good University Guide 2007 – Profile for London School of Economics". The Times. London. Archived from the original on 2 December 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2008.
167. "FT Global MBA Rankings". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 29 August 2011. Retrieved 25 January 2010.
168. "RAE 2008: communication, culture and media studies results". The Guardian. London. 18 December 2008. Archived from the original on 10 May 2017. Retrieved 13 December 2016.
169. THE 2008 RAE subject ratings (PDF), THE, archived (PDF) from the original on 16 January 2013, retrieved 24 July 2012
170. "RAE 2008: art and design results". The Guardian. London. 18 December 2008. Archived from the original on 10 May 2017. Retrieved 13 December 2016.
171. "RAE 2008: architecture results". The Guardian. London. 18 December 2008. Archived from the original on 10 May 2017. Retrieved 13 December 2016.
172. "RAE 2008: geography and environmental studies results". The Guardian. London. 18 December 2008. Archived from the original on 10 May 2017. Retrieved 13 December 2016.
173. "Subject Rankings 2021". Top Universities. Archived from the original on 4 March 2020. Retrieved 1 October 2021.
174. Gearon 2002, p. 246.
175. "Schools, pupils and their characteristics, Academic year 2022/23". explore-education-statistics.service.gov.uk. Retrieved 18 December 2023.
176. "Secretary of State for Education – GOV.UK". www.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 23 January 2021. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
177. "National curriculum". GOV.UK. 2 December 2014. Archived from the original on 7 October 2021. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
178. "OECD: PISA 2018" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 December 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
179. "Pisa tests: UK rises in international school rankings". BBC News. 3 December 2019. Archived from the original on 7 October 2021. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
180. "Introduction of T Levels". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 7 October 2021. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
181. "T Levels | The Next Level Qualification". www.tlevels.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 8 October 2021. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
182. "BBC History on William Beveridge". BBC News. Archived from the original on 26 August 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
183. "NHS Expenditure in England" (PDF). House of Commons Library. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 April 2010. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
184. "NHS costs and exemptions". Department of Health. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
185. ^ Office for National Statistics. "Life expectancy". statistics.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 25 May 2009. Retrieved 20 July 2009.
186. HM Treasury (24 March 2008). "Budget 2008, Corrections to Table C11" (PDF). p. 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 February 2009. Retrieved 27 December 2008.
187. "From the Margins to the Mainstream – Government unveils new action plan for the creative industries". DCMS. 9 March 2007. Archived from the original on 4 December 2008. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
188. "National Statistics on the Creative Industries". Creative Industries Policy & Evidence Centre. 28 June 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2023.
189. "MediaCityUK – Talent Pool". MediaCityUK. Archived from the original on 25 September 2011. Retrieved 11 October 2011.
190. "LFW: Fashion industry worth 26 billion pound to UK economy". FashionUnited Group. 17 February 2014. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
191. "Top Fashion Cities Around the World". Hayden Hill. 23 April 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2023.
192. "London : The Iconic Fashion Capital". Fabriclore. Retrieved 18 December 2023.
193. Ziady, Hanna (29 May 2023). "The world's biggest ad agency is going all in on AI with Nvidia's help | CNN Business". CNN. Retrieved 17 December 2023.
194. "Department for Culture, Media & Sport – Creative Industries Economic Estimates January 2015" (PDF). gov.uk. 13 January 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 February 2015. Retrieved 16 May 2015.
195. UK Campus, Media City. "Courses and Training". Research Center. University of Salford. Archived from the original on 28 November 2021. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
196. "Europe's largest, digital, tech and creative hub: MediaCity" (PDF). MediaCityUK.
197. "Publishing". Department of Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original on 5 May 2011.
198. "Creative industries – CBI". www.cbi.org.uk. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
199. "Creative sectors worth £92bn to UK economy, Government research reveals". Design Week. 30 November 2017. Archived from the original on 24 May 2022. Retrieved 25 April 2023.
200. "UK's Creative Industries contributes almost £13 million to the UK economy every hour". GOV.UK. Retrieved 17 December 2023.
201. Rendall, Alasdair (12 November 2007). "Economic terms explained". BBC News. Archived from the original on 3 May 2008. Retrieved 14 February 2014.
202. "IMF Data – Currency Composition of Official Foreign Exchange Reserve – At a Glance". Data.imf.org. Retrieved 10 October 2021.
203. "BIS Triennial Survey of Foreign Exchange and Over-The-Counter Interest Rate Derivatives Markets in April 2022 – UK Data". Bank of England. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
204. Jones, Marc; John, Alun (27 October 2022). "Global FX trading hits record $7.5 trln a day – BIS survey". Reuters. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
205. "More About the Bank". Bank of England. n.d. Archived from the original on 12 March 2008.
206. Pope, Thomas; Waters, Tom (November 2016). A Survey of the UK Tax System (PDF). IFS Briefing Note BN09. London: Institute for Fiscal Studies. ISBN 978-1-909463-68-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 October 2005. Retrieved 23 April 2020.
207. "REV BN 40: Tax Treatment of Pre-Owned Assets". Archived from the original on 9 July 2013. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
208. "Budget 2018 date confirmed". HM Teasury. 26 September 2018. Archived from the original on 1 October 2020. Retrieved 17 October 2018.
209. "Autumn Statement 2016". November 2016. Section 1.4. Archived from the original on 11 May 2021. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
210. "Vastgoedadviseurs & professionals | JLL Nederland" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 February 2016. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
211. "Rankings and reputation | Master's at the University of Manchester". Archived from the original on 20 April 2014. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
212. Archived 2013-12-26 at the Wayback Machine, Manchester.gov.uk.
213. Emilia Istrate and Carey Anne Nadeau (2012). ‘Global MetroMonitor’. Brookings Institution. www.brookings.edu/research/interactives/global-metro-monitor-3.
214. "Vastgoedadviseurs & professionals | JLL Nederland" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 February 2016. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
215. "Greater Manchester bus network back under public control". BBC News. 25 March 2021. Archived from the original on 7 October 2021. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
216. "Liverpool Economic Briefing – March 2009" (PDF). Liverpool City Council. March 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 December 2010. Retrieved 24 February 2010.
217. ^ "Liverpool Economic Briefing – March 2009" (PDF). Liverpool City Council. March 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 December 2010. Retrieved 24 February 2010.
218. "Liverpool Economic Briefing – March 2009" (PDF). Liverpool City Council. March 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 December 2010. Retrieved 24 February 2010.
219. "QS World University Rankings 2013–2014". Top Universities. Archived from the original on 26 May 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
220. "Research at Birmingham". University of Birmingham. Archived from the original on 19 September 2009. Retrieved 8 January 2008.
221. "Table 3.4, ONS Regional GVA – December 2013". Archived from the original on 19 December 2013. Retrieved 19 December 2013.
222. "About". Birmingham Law Society. One Profession. One Region. One Voice. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
223. ^ "Leeds economy". Archived from the original on 18 January 2017.
224. "Table 3.4, ONS Regional GVA – December 2013". Archived from the original on 19 December 2013. Retrieved 19 December 2013.
225. "Manufacturing". Invest in Leeds City Region | Opportunity. Connection. Freedom. Archived from the original on 7 October 2021. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
226. "University of Leeds – Business School". Business.leeds.ac.uk. 23 November 2011. Archived from the original on 26 July 2009. Retrieved 2 December 2011.
227. "Bristol Economy Key Sectors". Bristol City Council. Archived from the original on 23 May 2006. Retrieved 12 November 2015.
228. University of Bristol. "Creative industries". www.bristol.ac.uk. Retrieved 18 December 2023.
229. "Cushman & Wakefield | Commercial Real Estate Brokers & Services". Archived from the original on 29 March 2012. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
230. "Culture and sport in Sheffield | Sheffield City Council". www.sheffield.gov.uk. Retrieved 19 December 2023.
231. "Regional GVA December 2007 (Page 7)" (PDF). Office for National Statistics. 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 January 2008. Retrieved 13 April 2009.
232. Whitfield, Graeme (26 August 2020). "Newcastle's nightlife in danger of "imminent collapse", club bosses warn". ChronicleLive. Archived from the original on 7 October 2021. Retrieved 9 March 2021.
233. "Newcastle Science City". Newcastle Science City.com. Archived from the original on 16 April 2007. Retrieved 8 April 2007.
234. Fenton, Trevor (25 April 2023). "Regional gross value added (balanced) per head and income components". Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 14 August 2023.

Works cited

• Gearon, Liam (2002). Education in the United Kingdom. David Fulton. ISBN 978-1-85346-715-8.
• UK Parliament (2007). Department for Transport annual report 2007. Stationery Office. ISBN 978-0-10-170952-1.
• DEFRA (2020). Agriculture in the United Kingdom 2019. HM Government. ISBN 978-1-8397-2093-2.

• Economy of England