A forearc is a region in a subduction zone between an oceanic trench and the associated volcanic arc. Forearc regions are present along convergent margins and eponymously form 'in front of' the volcanic arcs that are characteristic of convergent plate margins. A back-arc region is the companion region behind the volcanic arc.
Many forearcs have an accretionary wedge which may form a topographic ridge known as an outer arc ridge that parallels the volcanic arc. A forearc basin between the accretionary wedge and the volcanic arc can accumulate thick deposits of sediment, sometimes referred to as an outer arc trough. Due to collisional stresses as one tectonic plate subducts under another, forearc regions are sources for powerful earthquakes.
Formation
During subduction, an oceanic plate is thrust below another tectonic plate, which can be oceanic or continental. Water and other volatiles in the subducting plate cause flux melting in the upper mantle, creating magma that rises and penetrates the overriding plate, forming a volcanic arc. The weight of the subducting slab flexes the overriding plate and creates an oceanic trench. This area between the trench and the arc is called the forearc region, with the area behind the arc and away from the trench known as the back-arc region.
The mantle region between the overriding plate and the subducting slab experiences corner flow near the back-arc driven by the down dip motion of the subducting slab. At the same time, the temperature of the mantle wedge closer to the trench is dominated by the denser and colder subducting slab, resulting in a cold, stagnant portion of the mantle wedge.
Initial theories proposed that the oceanic trenches and magmatic arcs were the primary suppliers of the accretionary sedimentation wedges in the forearc regions. More recent discovery suggests that some of the accreted material in the forearc region is from a mantle source along with trench turbidites derived from continental material. This theory holds due to evidence of pelagic sediments and continental crust being subducted in processes known as sediment subduction and subduction erosion respectively.
Over geological time there is constant recycling of the forearc deposits due to erosion, deformation and sedimentary subduction. The constant circulation of material in the forearc region (accretionary prism, forearc basin and trench) generates a mixture of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary sequences. In general, there is an increase in metamorphic grade from trench to arc where highest grade (blueschist to eclogite) is structurally uplifted (in the prisms) compared to the younger deposits (basins). Forearc regions are also where ophiolites are emplaced should obduction occur, but such deposits are not continuous and can often be removed by erosion.
As tectonic plates converge, the closing of an ocean will result in the convergence of two landmasses, each of which is either an island arc or continental margin. When these two bodies collide, the result is orogenesis, at which time the underthrusting oceanic crust slows down. In early stages of arc-continent collision, there is uplift and erosion of the accretionary prism and forearc basin. In the later stages of collision, the forearc region may be sutured, rotated and shortened which can form syn-collisional folds and thrust belts.
Structure
At the surface, the forearc region can include a forearc basin(s), outer-arc high, accretionary prism and the trench itself. The forearc subduction interface can include a seismogenic zone, where megathrust earthquakes can occur, a decoupled zone, and a viscously coupled zone.
The accretionary prism is located at the slope of the trench break where there is significantly decreased slope angle. Between the break and the magmatic arc, a sedimentary basin filled with erosive material from the volcanic arc and substrate can accumulate into a forearc basin which overlays the oldest thrust slices in the wedge of the forearc region.
In general, the forearc topography (specifically in the trench region) is trying to achieve an equilibrium between buoyancy and tectonic forces caused by subduction. Upward motion of the forearc is related to buoyancy forces and the downward motion is associated with the tectonic forcing which causes the oceanic lithosphere to descend. The relationship between surface slope and subduction thrust also plays a huge role in the variation of forearc structure and deformation. A subduction wedge can be classified as either stable with little deformation or unstable with pervasive internal deformation (see section on Models). Some common deformation in forearc sediments are synsedimentary deformation and olistostromes, such as that seen in the Magnitogorsk forearc region.
Models
There are two models which characterize a forearc basin formation and deformation and are dependent on sediment deposition and subsidence (see figure). The first model represents a forearc basin formed with little to no sediment supply. Conversely, the second model represents a basin with a healthy sediment supply. Basin depth depends on the supply of oceanic plate sediments, continentally derived clastic material and orthogonal convergence rates. The accretionary flux (sediment supply in and out) also determines the rate at which the sedimentation wedges grow within the forearc.
The age of the oceanic crust along with the convergent velocity controls the coupling across the converging interface of the continental and oceanic crust. The strength of this coupling controls the deformation associated with the event and can be seen in the forearc region deformation signatures.
Seismicity
The intense interaction between the overriding and underthrusting plates in the forearc regions have shown to evolve strong coupling mechanisms which result in megathrust earthquakes such as the Tohoku-oki earthquake which occurred off the Pacific coast of Northeast Japan (Tian and Liu. 2013). These mega thrust earthquakes may be correlated with low values of heat flow generally associated with forearc regions. Geothermal data shows a heat flow of ~30–40 mW/m, which indicates cold, strong mantle.
Examples
One good example is the Mariana forearc, where scientists have done extensive research. In this setting there is an erosive margin and forearc slope which consists of 2 km high and 30 km diameter serpentine- mud volcanoes. The erosive properties of these volcanoes are consistent with the metamorphic grades (blueschists) expected for this region in the forearc. There is evidence from geothermal data and models which show the slab-mantle interface, levels of friction and the cool oceanic lithosphere at the trench. Other examples are:
- Central Andean Forearc
- Banda Forearc
- Savu-Wetar Forearc
- Luzon arc-forearc
- Tohoku Forearc
- Between Western Cordillera and Peru-Chile Trench
See also
References
- Einsele, Gerhard (2000) Sedimentary Basins : Evolution, Facies, and Sediment Budget 2nd ed., Ch. 12, Springer ISBN 3-540-66193-X
- USGS definition
- Forearc Basin Architecture, abstract
- ^ Fuller, C. W; Willet, S.D.; Brandon, M.T. (2006). "Formation of forearc basins and their influence on subduction zone earthquakes". Geology. 34 (2): 65–68. Bibcode:2006Geo....34...65F. doi:10.1130/g21828.1.
- ^ Kearey, Philip; Klepeis, A. Keith; Fredrick, Vine J. (2009). Global Tectonics (3rd ed.). Singapore by Moarkono: J. Wiley. pp. 1–400. ISBN 978-1-4051-0777-8.
- Long, Maureen D.; Wirth, Erin A. (February 2013). "Mantle flow in subduction systems: The mantle wedge flow field and implications for wedge processes". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 118 (2): 583–606. Bibcode:2013JGRB..118..583L. doi:10.1002/jgrb.50063.
- ^ Wada, Ikuko; Wang, Kelin; He, Jiangheng; Hyndman, Roy D. (2 April 2008). "Weakening of the subduction interface and its effects on surface heat flow, slab dehydration, and mantle wedge serpentinization". Journal of Geophysical Research. 113 (B4). Bibcode:2008JGRB..113.4402W. doi:10.1029/2007JB005190.
- Uchida, Naoki; Nakajima, Junichi; Wang, Kelin; Takagi, Ryota; Yoshida, Keisuke; Nakayama, Takashi; Hino, Ryota; Okada, Tomomi; Asano, Youichi (10 November 2020). "Stagnant forearc mantle wedge inferred from mapping of shear-wave anisotropy using S-net seafloor seismometers". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 5676. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.5676U. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19541-y. PMC 7655809. PMID 33173070.
- Casey, J.; Dewey, J. (2013). "Arc/Forearc Lengthening at Plate Triple junctions and the Formation of Ophiolitic Soles". Geological Research Abstracts. 13: 13430. Bibcode:2013EGUGA..1513430C.
- ^ Brown, D.; Spadea, P (2013). "Processes of forearc and accretionary complex formation during arc-continent collision in the southern Ural Mountains". Geology. 27 (7): 649–652. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1999)027<0649:pofaac>2.3.co;2.
- Peacock, Simon M. (1 August 2020). "Advances in the thermal and petrologic modeling of subduction zones". Geosphere. 16 (4): 936–952. Bibcode:2020Geosp..16.1647P. doi:10.1130/GES02213.1.
- Tian, L.; Liu, Lucy (2013). "Geophysical properties and seismotectonics of the Tohoku forearc region". Geological Survey of Japan. 64: 235–244. Bibcode:2013JAESc..64..235T. doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2012.12.023.