Sallust

(Redirected from Gaius Sallustius Crispus) Roman historian and politician (86–35 BC)

This article is about the historian. For other uses, see Sallust (disambiguation).

Gaius Sallustius Crispus
Imaginary portrait of Sallust
Born	86 BC Amiternum
Died	c. 35 BC
Nationality	Roman
Occupation(s)	Politician and soldier
Office	Plebeian tribune (52 BC) Praetor (46 BC)
Relatives	Gaius Sallustius Passienus Crispus (great-nephew and adopted son)

Military career
Allegiance	Caesarian
Rank	Legate Praetor Proconsul
Wars	Caesar's civil war (49–44 BC)

Gaius Sallustius Crispus, usually anglicised as Sallust (/ˈsæləst/, SAL-əst; c. 86–35 BC), was a historian and politician of the Roman Republic from a plebeian family. Probably born at Amiternum in the country of the Sabines, Sallust became a partisan of Julius Caesar (100 to 44 BC), circa 50s BC. He is the earliest known Latin-language Roman historian with surviving works to his name, of which Conspiracy of Catiline on the eponymous conspiracy, The Jugurthine War on the eponymous war, and the Histories (of which only fragments survive) remain extant. As a writer, Sallust was primarily influenced by the works of the 5th-century BC Greek historian Thucydides. During his political career he amassed great and ill-gotten wealth from his governorship of Africa.

Life and career

Sallust was probably born in Amiternum in Central Italy, though Eduard Schwartz takes the view that Sallust's birthplace was Rome. His birth date is calculated from the report of Jerome's Chronicon. But Ronald Syme suggests that Jerome's date has to be adjusted because of his carelessness, and suggests 87 BC as a more correct date. However, Sallust's birth is widely dated at 86 BC, and the Kleine Pauly Encyclopedia takes 1 October 86 BC as the birthdate. Michael Grant cautiously offers 80s BC.

There is no information about Sallust's parents or family, except for Tacitus' mention of his sister. The Sallustii were a provincial noble family of Sabine origin. They belonged to the equestrian order and had full Roman citizenship. During the Social War Sallust's parents hid in Rome, because Amiternum was under threat of siege by rebelling Italic tribes. Because of this Sallust could have been raised in Rome. He received a very good education.

Early career

After an ill-spent youth, Sallust entered public life and may have won election as quaestor in 55 BC. However, the evidence is unclear; some scholars suggest he never held the post. The "earliest certain information" on his career is his term as plebeian tribune in 52 BC, the year in which the followers of Milo killed Clodius. During his year, Sallust supported the prosecution of Milo. He also organised "ferocious street demonstrations" to exert public pressure on Cicero, intimidating him into "giving a substandard performance" when defending Milo at his trial, seeing Milo leave the city into exile. In this year, he, with the other ten tribunes, all supported a law to permit Caesar to stand for a second consulship in absentia.

Syme suggests that Sallust, because of his position in Milo's trial, did not originally support Caesar. According to one inscription, some Sallustius (with unclear praenomen) was a proquaestor in Syria in 50 BC under Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus. Mommsen identified this Sallustius with Sallust the historian, but Broughton argued that Sallust the historian would not have been an assistant to Caesar's adversary or, as an ex-plebeian tribune, have taken the lowly title legatus pro quaestore.

Sallust's political affiliation is unclear in this early period, but after he was expelled from the senate in 50 BC by Appius Claudius Pulcher (then serving as censor), he joined Caesar. He was removed on grounds of immorality, but this was likely a pretext for his opposition to Milo during his tribunate.

Caesar's civil war

Further information: Caesar's civil war

During the civil war from 49 to 45 BC, Sallust was a Caesarian partisan, but his role was not significant; his name is not mentioned in the dictator's Commentarii de Bello Civili. Plutarch reported that Sallust dined with Caesar, Hirtius, Oppius, Balbus and Sulpicius Rufus on the night after Caesar's crossing the Rubicon into Italy in early January. In 49 BC, Sallust was moved to Illyricum and probably commanded at least one legion there after the failure of Publius Cornelius Dolabella and Gaius Antonius. This campaign was unsuccessful. In 48 BC, he was probably made quaestor by Caesar, automatically restoring his seat in the senate. In late summer 47 BC, a group of soldiers rebelled near Rome, demanding their discharge and payment for service. Sallust, as praetor designatus and serving as one of Caesar's legates, with several other senators, was sent to persuade the soldiers to abstain, but the rebels killed two senators, and Sallust narrowly escaped death.

In 46 BC, he served as a praetor and accompanied Caesar in his African campaign, which ended in another defeat of the remaining Pompeians at Thapsus. Sallust did not participate in military operations directly, but he commanded several ships and organized supply through the Kerkennah Islands. As a reward for his services, Sallust was appointed proconsular governor of Africa Nova, either from 46–45 or for early 44 BC. It is not clear why: Sallust was not a skilled general; the province was militarily significant. Moreover, his successors as governor were experienced military men. However, Sallust successfully managed the organization of supply and transportation, and these qualities could have determined Caesar's choice. As governor he was so corrupt and avaricious that – on his return in late 45 or early 44 BC – only Caesar's dictatorial influence enabled him to escape conviction on charges of corruption and extortion. On his return to Rome he purchased and began laying out in great splendour the famous gardens on the Quirinal known as the Gardens of Sallust (Latin: Horti Sallustiani), which were later inherited by the emperors.

Retirement

Due to those charges and without prospects for advancement, he devoted himself to writing history, presenting his historical writings as an extension of public life to record achievements for future generations. His political life influenced his histories, which produced in him a "deep bitterness toward the elite", with "few heroes in his surviving writings". He also further developed his gardens, upon which he spent much of his accumulated wealth. According to Jerome, Sallust later became the second husband of Cicero's ex-wife Terentia. However, prominent scholars of Roman prosopography such as Ronald Syme believe this is a legend. According to Procopius, when Alaric's invading army entered Rome they burned Sallust's house.

Works

Sallust's monographs of the Catiline conspiracy (De coniuratione Catilinae or Bellum Catilinae) and the Jugurthine War (Bellum Jugurthinum) have come down to us complete, together with fragments of his larger and most important work (Historiae), a history of Rome from 78 to 67 BC.

His brief monographs – his work on Catiline, for example, is shorter than the shortest of Livy's volumes – were the first books of their form attested at Rome.

Catiline's War

Main article: Bellum Catilinae

The monograph was probably written c. 42 BC. Some historians, however, give it an earlier date of composition, perhaps as early at 50 BC as an unpublished pamphlet which was reworked and published after the civil wars. It shows no traces of personal recollections on the conspiracy, perhaps indicating the Sallust was out of the city on military service at the time. It may have been written as "a plea for common sense" during the proscriptions of the Second Triumvirate, with its depiction of Caesar opposing the death penalty contrasting with the then-current slaughter.

It is Sallust's first published work, detailing the attempt by Lucius Sergius Catilina to overthrow the Roman Republic in 63 BC. Sallust presents Catiline as a deliberate foe of law, order and morality, and does not give a comprehensive explanation of his views and intentions (Catiline had supported the party of Sulla, whom Sallust had opposed). Theodor Mommsen suggested that Sallust particularly wished to clear his patron (Caesar) of all complicity in the conspiracy.

In writing about the conspiracy of Catiline, Sallust's tone, style, and descriptions of aristocratic behaviour illustrate "the political and moral decline of Rome, begun after the fall of Carthage, quickening after Sulla's dictatorship, and spreading from the dissolute nobility to infect all Roman politics". While he inveighs against Catiline's depraved character and vicious actions, he does not fail to state that the man had many noble traits. In particular, Sallust shows Catiline as deeply courageous in his final battle. He presents a narrative condemning the conspirators without doubt, likely relying on Cicero's De consulatu suo (lit. 'On his consulship') for details of the conspiracy; his narrative focused, however, on Caesar and Cato the Younger, who are held up as "two examples of virtus ('excellence')" with long speeches describing a debate on the punishment of the conspirators in the last section.

The Jugurthine War

Main article: Bellum Jugurthinum

Sallust's Jugurthine War (Latin: Bellum Jugurthinum) is a monograph on the war against Jugurtha in Numidia from 112 to 106 BC. It was written c. 41–40 BC and again emphasised moral decline. Sallust likely relied on a general annalistic history of the time, as well as the autobiographies of Marcus Aemilius Scaurus, Publius Rutilius Rufus, and Sulla.

Its true value lies in the introduction of Marius and Sulla to the Roman political scene and the beginning of their rivalry. Sallust's time as governor of Africa Nova ought to have let the author develop a solid geographical and ethnographical background to the war; however, this is not evident in the monograph, despite a diversion on the subject, because Sallust's priority in the Jugurthine War, as with War of Catiline, is to use history as a vehicle for his judgement on the slow destruction of Roman morality and politics.

Other works

Style and themes

The core theme of his work was decline, though his treatment of Roman politics was "often crude", with a historical philosophy influenced by Thucydides. In this, he felt a "pervasive pessimism" with decline that was "both dreadful and inevitable", a consequence of political and moral corruption itself caused by Rome's immense power: he traced the civil war to the influx of wealth from conquest and the absence of serious foreign threats to hone and exercise Roman virtue at arms. For Sallust, the defining moments of the late republic were the destruction of Rome's old foe, Carthage, in 146 BC and the influx of wealth from the east after Sulla's First Mithridatic War. At the same time, however, he conveyed a "starry-eyed and romantic picture" of the republic before 146 BC, with this period described in terms of "implausibly untrammelled virtue" that romanticised the distant past.

The style of works written by Sallust was well known in Rome. It differs from the writings of his contemporaries — Caesar and especially Cicero. It is characterized by brevity and by the use of rare words and turns of phrase. As a result, his works are very far from the conversational Latin of his time.

He employed archaic words: according to Suetonius, Lucius Ateius Praetextatus (Philologus) helped Sallust to collect them. Ronald Syme suggests that Sallust's choice of style and even particular words was influenced by his antipathy to Cicero, his rival, but also one of the trendsetters in Latin literature in the first century BC. More recent scholars agree, describing Sallust's style as "anti-Ciceronian", eschewing the harmonious structure of Cicero's sentences for short and abrupt descriptions. "The Conspiracy of Catiline" reflects many features of style that were developed in his later works.

Sallust avoids common words from public speeches of contemporary Roman political orators, such as honestas, humanitas, consensus. In several cases he uses rare forms of well-known words: for example, lubido instead of libido, maxumum instead of maximum, the conjunction quo in place of more common ut. He also uses the less common endings -ere instead of common -erunt in the third person plural in the perfect indicative, and -is instead of -es in the accusative plural for third declension (masculine or feminine) adjectives and nouns. Some words used by Sallust (for example, antecapere, portatio, incruentus, incelebratus, incuriosus), are not known in other writings before him. They are believed to be either neologisms or intentional revivals of archaic words. Sallust also often uses antithesis, alliterations and chiasmus.

This style itself called for "a 'return to values'" which was "made to recall the austere life of the idealised ancient Roman", with archaisms and abrupt writing contrasted against Cicero's "adornment" as present decadence was contrasted with ancient virtues.

Reception

As a historian

On the whole, antiquity looked favourably on Sallust as a historian. Tacitus speaks highly of him. Quintilian called him the "Roman Thucydides". Martial joins the praise: "Sallust, according to the judgment of the learned, will rank as the prince of Roman historiographers".

In late antiquity, he was highly praised by Jerome as "very reliable"; his monographs also entered the corpus of standard education in Latin, with Virgil, Cicero, and Terence (covering history, the epic, oratory, and comedy, respectively).

In the thirteenth century Sallust's passage on the expansion of the Roman Republic (Cat. 7) was cited and interpreted by theologian Thomas Aquinas and scholar Brunetto Latini. During the Late Middle Ages and Renaissance, Sallust's works began to influence political thought in Italy. Among many scholars and historians interested in Sallust, the most notable are Leonardo Bruni, Coluccio Salutati and Niccolò Machiavelli. Among his admirers in England in the early modern period were Thomas More, Alexander Barclay and Thomas Elyot. Justus Lipsius marked Sallust as the second most notable Roman historian after Tacitus.

Historians since the 19th century also have negatively noted Sallust's bias and partisanship in his histories, not to mention some errors in geography and dating. Also importantly, much of Sallust's anti-corruption moralising is "blunted by his sanctimonious tone and by ancient accusations of corruption, which have made him out to be a remarkable hypocrite".

Modern views on the period which Sallust documented reject moral failure as a cause of the republic's collapse and believe that "social conflicts are insufficient to account for the political implosion". The core narrative of moral decline prevalent in Sallust's works, is now criticised as crowding out his own examination of the structural and socio-economic factors that brought about the crisis of the republic while also manipulating historical facts to make them fit his moralistic thesis; he, however, is credited as "a clear-sighted and impartial interpreter of his own age".

His focus on moralising also misrepresents and over-simplifies the state of Roman politics. For example, Mackay 2009, pp. 84, 89:

Sallust paints a picture that is unsatisfactory in a number of ways. He has great interest in moralising, and for this reason, he tends to paint an exaggerated picture of the senate's faults... he analyses events in terms of a simplistic opposition between the self-interest of Roman politicians and the "public good" that shows little understanding of how the Roman political system actually functioned... The reality was more complicated than Sallust's simplistic moralising would suggest.

Stylistically

Quotations and commentaries "attest to the high status of Sallust's work in the first and second centuries CE". Among those who borrowed information from his works were Silius Italicus, Lucan, Plutarch, and Ammianus Marcellinus. Fronto used ancient words collected by Sallust to provide "archaic coloring" for his works. In the second century AD, Zenobius translated his works into Ancient Greek.

Other opinions were also present. For example, Gaius Asinius Pollio criticized Sallust's addiction to archaic words and his unusual grammatical features. Aulus Gellius saved Pollio's unfavorable statement about Sallust's style via quote. According to him, Sallust once used the word transgressus meaning generally "passage " for a platoon which crossed the sea (the usual word for this type of crossing was transfretatio). Though Quintilian has a generally favorable opinion of Sallust, he disparages several features of his style:

For though a diffuse irrelevance is tedious, the omission of what is necessary is positively dangerous. We must therefore avoid even the famous terseness of Sallust (though in his case of course it is a merit), and shun all abruptness of speech, since a style which presents no difficulty to a leisurely reader, flies past a hearer and will not stay to be looked at again.

His works were also extensively quoted in Augustine of Hippo's City of God; the works themselves also show up in manuscripts all over the post-Roman period and circulated in Carolingian libraries. In the Middle Ages, Sallust's works were often used in schools to teach Latin. His brief style influenced, among others, Widukind of Corvey and Wipo of Burgundy.

Petrarch also praised Sallust highly, though he primarily appreciated his style and moralization. During the French Wars of Religion, De coniuratione Catilinae became widely known as a tutorial on disclosing conspiracies.

Friedrich Nietzsche credits Sallust in Twilight of the Idols (1889) for his epigrammatic style: "My sense of style, for the epigram as a style, was awakened almost instantly when I came into contact with Sallust" and praises him for being "condensed, severe, with as much substance as possible in the background, and with cold but roguish hostility towards all 'beautiful words' and 'beautiful feelings'".

Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen's first play Catiline (c. 1849) was based on Sallust's story.

Manuscripts

Several manuscripts of his works survived due to his popularity in antiquity and the Middle Ages.

Manuscripts of his writings are usually divided into two groups: mutili (mutilated) and integri (whole; undamaged). The classification is based on the existence of the lacuna (gap) between 103.2 and 112.3 of the Jugurthine War. The lacuna exists in the mutili scrolls, while integri manuscripts have the text there. The most ancient scrolls which survive are the Codex Parisinus 16024 and Codex Parisinus 16025, known as "P" and "A" respectively. They were created in the ninth century, and both belong to the mutili group. Both these scrolls include only Catiline and Jugurtha, while some other mutili manuscripts also include Invective and Cicero's response. The oldest integri scrolls were created in the eleventh century AD. The probability that all these scrolls came from one or more ancient manuscripts is debated.

There is also a unique scroll Codex Vaticanus 3864, known as "V". It includes only speeches and letters from Catiline, Jugurtha and Histories. The creator of this manuscript changed the original word order and replaced archaisms with more familiar words. The "V" scroll also includes two anonymous letters to Caesar probably from Sallust, but their authenticity is debated.

Several fragments of Sallust's works survived in papyri of the second to fourth centuries AD. Many ancient authors cited Sallust, and sometimes their citations of Histories are the only source for reconstruction of this work. But the significance of these citations for the reconstruction is uncertain; because occasionally the authors cited Sallust from memory, some distortions were possible.

Translations

Sallust (1931) . Sallust. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by Rolfe, John C (Revised ed.). London: William Heinemann. ISBN 0-674-99128-1. OCLC 40186151.
Sallust (2008). Catiline's War, The Jugurthine War, Histories. Translated by Woodman, A J. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-140-44948-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ignored ISBN errors (link)
Sallust (2010). Catiline's conspiracy, the Jugurthine War, Histories. Oxford World's Classics. Translated by Batstone, William Wendell. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-161252-7. OCLC 759007075.
Sallust (2013) . The War with Catiline. The War with Jugurtha. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by Rolfe, J C; Ramsey, John T (Edited and revised ed.). Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-99684-7. OCLC 856191298.
Sallust (2022). How to Stop a Conspiracy: An Ancient Guide to Saving a Republic. Ancient Wisdom for Modern Readers. Translated by Osgood, Josiah. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-21236-4.

References

Citations

Woodman 2008, p. xxvii. "When Sallust died, probably in 35..."
Woodman 2008, p. xxvii, referencing his estate, "developed with ill-gotten gains from his year's governorship in Africa".
Syme 1964, p. 7.
^ Mellor 2002, p. 30
^ Grant 1995, p. 13.
Syme 1964, p. 15.
^ Syme 1964, p. 13.
(in Russian) Альбрехт, М. (2002) История римской литературы , Т. 1. Греко-латинский кабинет. С. 480
(in Russian) Горенштейн, В. О. (1981) Гай Саллюстий Крисп. Сочинения. Наука. С. 148
^ Schmidt, P. L. "Sallustius (4)", Der Kleine Pauly. Bd. IV. Sp. 1513
^ Syme 1964, p. 14.
Tacitus, Annales III.30.3
Syme 1964, p. 9.
Syme 1964, p. 12.
Broughton 1952, p. 217. "The date of his quaestorship is probably 55, since he was born in 86 and held the tribunate... in 52".
Syme 1964, p. 28
Earl 1966, p. 306.
Millar, Fergus (1998). The crowd in Rome in the late Republic. University of Michigan Press. pp. 181–83. ISBN 0-472-10892-1. OCLC 264095990.
^ Mellor 2002, p. 31.
Broughton 1952, p. 236.
Syme 1964, p. 29.
Broughton 1952, p. 242.
Broughton 1952, p. 247.
Earl 1966, p. 311.
^ Pelling 2012, p. 1310.
Broughton 1952, p. 248.
^ Syme 1964, p. 36.
Dando-Collins, Stephan (2002). The Epic Saga of Julius Caesar's Tenth Legion and Rome. Wiley. p. 67. ISBN 0-471-09570-2.
Broughton 1952, p. 274. Broughton notes disagreement about the dates. The pseudo-Cicero Invective dates his senatorial return to 50 via a quaestorship; Broughton places it in 48 BC.
Broughton 1952, p. 291.
Broughton 1952, p. 613.
Broughton 1952, pp. 298, 613.
Syme 1964, p. 37.
Broughton 1952, p. 329.
^ Mellor 2002, p. 32.
Mellor 2002, p. 35.
Hieronymus, Adversus Jovinianum 2.1.48. "Illa … nupsit Sallustio".
Syme, Ronald (1978). "Sallust's Wife". The Classical Quarterly. 28 (2): 292–295. doi:10.1017/S0009838800034820. ISSN 0009-8388. JSTOR 638680. S2CID 170773851.
Procopius (1916). "Vandalic War". History of the Wars. Loeb Classical Library. Vol. 2. Translated by Dewing, HB. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 3.2.24. ISBN 978-0-674-99090-6. OCLC 747116798.
Levene 2007, p. 277.
^ Levene 2007, p. 280.
MacKay 1962, p. 190.
Earl 1966, pp. 307–9.
Mellor 2002, p. 38.
MacKay 1962, p. 183.
Pelling 2012, pp. 1310–11.
^ Levene 2007, p. 281.
^ Pelling 2012, p. 1311.
Smith, William (1867), "Latro, M. Porcius", in Smith, William (ed.), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. 2, Stefano Ciufferpebble, p. 726, archived from the original on 15 March 2009, retrieved 8 September 2007
Hartswick, Kim J. (2004). The Gardens of Sallust: A Changing Landscape (1st ed.). Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-292-70547-6. OCLC 52108727.
Pelling 2012, p. 1311. Also citing Scanlon 1980.
^ O'Gorman 2007, p. 382.
O'Gorman 2007, p. 383.
Levene 2007, p. 283.
(in Russian) Альбрехт, М. (2002) История римской литературы, Т. 1. Греко-латинский кабинет. С. 494
Suetonius, On Famous Grammarians and Rhetoricians 10.
Syme 1964, p. 257.
O'Gorman 2007, pp. 380, 381–82.
Syme 1964, p. 266.
(in Russian) Альбрехт, М. (2002) История римской литературы, Т. 1. Греко-латинский кабинет. С. 493
McGushin, Patrick (1977). C Sallustius Crispus, Bellum Catilinae : a commentary. Brill. p. 19. ISBN 90-04-04835-9. OCLC 3414580.
(in Russian) Горенштейн, В. О. (1981) Гай Саллюстий Крисп. Сочинения. Москва: Наука. С. 161
Tacitus, Annals 3.30.
(Mart. XIV, 191) Martial. Epigrams, XIV, 191: Hic erit, ut perhibent doctorum corda virorum, // Primus Romana Crispus in historia.
Mellor 2002, pp. 46–47.
Osmond 1995, p. 104.
Osmond 1995, p. 107 et seq.
Osmond 1995, p. 120.
Osmond 1995, p. 101.
Mellor 2002, p. 47.
"Review of: The Breakdown of the Roman Republic: From Oligarchy to Empire". Bryn Mawr Classical Review. 2010. ISSN 1055-7660.
Brunt, PA (1963). "Review of "The Political Thought of Sallust" by DC Earl". The Classical Review. 13 (1): 74–75. doi:10.1017/S0009840X00216417. ISSN 0009-840X. S2CID 153649280. On moral decline crowding out socio-economic factors, see Earl, DC (1961). The political thought of Sallust. Cambridge University Press. pp. 57–59.
Mackay 2009, p. 84.
Mackay 2009, pp. 89–90.
^ O'Gorman 2007, p. 379.
^ (in Russian) Альбрехт, М. (2002) История римской литературы, Т. 1. Греко-латинский кабинет. С. 504
Rawson 1987, p. 164.
(in Russian) Тронский, И. М. (1946) История античной литературы Ленинград: Учпедгиз. С. 47
Suetonius, On Famous Grammarians and Rhetoricians 10
Gellius, Noctes Atticae 10.26
Quintilian, Institio Oratoria 4.2.44-45
^ (in Russian) Альбрехт, М. (2002) История римской литературы, Т. 1. Греко-латинский кабинет. С. 505
Osmond 1995, p. 106.
Osmond 1995, p. 121.
Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm (1911). Levy, Oscar (ed.). Twilight of the Idols. The Complete Works of Fredrich Nietzsche. Vol. 16. Translated by Ludovici, Anthony M. Edinburgh: TN Foulis. p. 112.
^ Ramsey 2007, p. 14.
Rolfe 1931, p. xviii.
Ramsey 2007, p. 26.
(in Russian) Альбрехт, М. (2002) История римской литературы, Т. 1. Греко-латинский кабинет. С. 502
Ramsey 2007, p. 15.

Sources

Broughton, Thomas Robert Shannon (1952). The magistrates of the Roman republic. Vol. 2. New York: American Philological Association.
Earl, DC (1966). "The Early Career of Sallust". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 15 (3): 302–311. ISSN 0018-2311. JSTOR 4434936.
Grant, Michael (1995). Greek and Roman historians: information and misinformation. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-11769-0. OCLC 30974327.
Levene, DS (2007). "Roman historiography in the late republic". In Marincola, John (ed.). A companion to Greek and Roman historiography. Vol. 1. Routledge. pp. 275–289. ISBN 978-1-4051-0216-2. LCCN 2006032839.
Mackay, Christopher S. (2009). The breakdown of the Roman republic: from oligarchy to empire. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-51819-2. OCLC 270232275.
MacKay, LA (1962). "Sallust's "Catiline": Date and Purpose". Phoenix. 16 (3): 181–194. doi:10.2307/1086814. ISSN 0031-8299. JSTOR 1086814.
Mellor, Ronald (2002). The Roman historians. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-203-29442-4. OCLC 50553430.
O'Gorman, Ellen (2007). "The politics of Sallustian style". In Marincola, John (ed.). A companion to Greek and Roman historiography. Vol. 2. Routledge. pp. 379–84. ISBN 978-1-4051-0216-2. LCCN 2006032839.
Osmond, Patricia J (1995). ""Princeps Historiae Romanae": Sallust in Renaissance Political Thought". Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. 40: 101–143. doi:10.2307/4238730. ISSN 0065-6801. JSTOR 4238730.
Pelling, Christopher (2012). "Sallust (Gaius Sallustius Crispus)". In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). The Oxford classical dictionary (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1310–11. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.5674. ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8. OCLC 959667246.
Ramsey, JT (2007). Introduction. Sallust's Bellum Catilinae. By Sallust. Translated by Ramsey, JT (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-1-4356-3337-7. OCLC 560589383.
Rawson, Elizabeth (1987). "Sallust on the Eighties?". The Classical Quarterly. 37 (1): 163–180. doi:10.1017/S0009838800031748. ISSN 0009-8388. JSTOR 639353. S2CID 170610173.
Rolfe, John C (1931) . Introduction. Sallust. By Sallust. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by Rolfe, John C (Revised ed.). Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-99128-1.
Syme, Ronald (1964). Sallust. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-02374-1.
Woodman, AJ (2008). Introduction. Catiline's War, The Jugurthine War, Histories. By Sallust. Translated by Woodman, AJ. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-140-44948-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ignored ISBN errors (link)

External links

Library resources about
Sallust

By Sallust

Latin with English translation

at LacusCurtius (J. C. Rolfe, 1921):
- Bellum Catilinae
- Bellum Jugurthinum
- Invectiva in Ciceronem (uncertain authorship, sometimes attributed to Sallust)
- Oratio ad Caesarem (uncertain authorship)
Works by Sallust at Project Gutenberg (Schmitz and Zumpt, 1848):
- Bellum Catilinae
- Bellum Jugurthinum
at the Perseus Project (Watson, 1899):
- Bellum Catilinae
- Bellum Jugurthinum
at Attalus.org:
- Fragmenta Historiarum (translation of selected fragments)
- Fragmenta Historiarum (Latin text of all surviving fragments)

Latin only

at Latin Library (unknown edition):
- Bellum Catilinae
- Bellum Jugurthinum
- Fragmenta Historiarum
- Epistolae ad Caesarem
- Invectiva in Ciceronem
C. Sallustius Crispus cum veterum historicorum fragmentis. Venetiis: Apud Iuntas, et Baba. 1645.

English only

Works by Sallust at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Sallust at the Internet Archive
Works by Sallust at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Works by Sallust at Open Library

Ancient Rome topics

History

Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic
Empire	History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Later Roman Empire History

Constitution

History
Kingdom
Republic
Empire
Late Empire
Senate
Legislative assemblies
- Curiate
- Centuriate
- Tribal
- Plebeian
Executive magistrates
SPQR

Law

Government

Magistrates

Ordinary	Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor
Extraordinary	Rex Interrex Dictator Magister equitum Decemviri Consular tribune Triumvir