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(Redirected from Glenn Seaborg) American chemist (1912–1999)

Glenn T. Seaborg
Seaborg in 1964
Born	Glen Theodore Seaborg (1912-04-19)April 19, 1912 Ishpeming, Michigan, US
Died	February 25, 1999(1999-02-25) (aged 86) Lafayette, California, US
Education	University of California, Los Angeles (BA) University of California, Berkeley (PhD)
Known for	Contributions to the synthesis, discovery and investigation of ten transuranium elements
Spouse	Helen L. Seaborg (m. 1942)
Children	7, including David
Awards	ACS Award in Pure Chemistry (1947) Member of the National Academy of Sciences (1948) Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1951) Centenary Prize (1956) Perkin Medal (1957) Enrico Fermi Award (1959) Franklin Medal (1963) Willard Gibbs Award (1966) Priestley Medal (1979) Foreign Member of the Royal Society (1985) Vannevar Bush Award (1988) National Medal of Science (1991)
Scientific career
Fields	Nuclear chemistry
Institutions	University of California, Berkeley University of Chicago Manhattan Project US Atomic Energy Commission
Thesis	The interaction of fast neutrons with lead (1937)
Doctoral advisors	George Ernest Gibson Gilbert Newton Lewis
Doctoral students	Ralph Arthur James Joseph William Kennedy Elizabeth Rauscher Arthur Wahl
Other notable students	Margaret Melhase, Geoffrey Wilkinson



Chairman of the United States Atomic Energy Commission
In office March 1, 1961 – August 16, 1971
Preceded by	John McCone
Succeeded by	James R. Schlesinger
2nd Chancellor of the University of California, Berkeley
In office 1958–1961
Preceded by	Clark Kerr
Succeeded by	Edward W. Strong



Signature

Glenn Theodore Seaborg (/ˈsiːbɔːrɡ/ SEE-borg; April 19, 1912 – February 25, 1999) was an American chemist whose involvement in the synthesis, discovery and investigation of ten transuranium elements earned him a share of the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. His work in this area also led to his development of the actinide concept and the arrangement of the actinide series in the periodic table of the elements.

Seaborg spent most of his career as an educator and research scientist at the University of California, Berkeley, serving as a professor, and, between 1958 and 1961, as the university's second chancellor. He advised ten US presidents—from Harry S. Truman to Bill Clinton—on nuclear policy and was Chairman of the United States Atomic Energy Commission from 1961 to 1971, where he pushed for commercial nuclear energy and the peaceful applications of nuclear science. Throughout his career, Seaborg worked for arms control. He was a signatory to the Franck Report and contributed to the Limited Test Ban Treaty, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. He was a well-known advocate of science education and federal funding for pure research. Toward the end of the Eisenhower administration, he was the principal author of the Seaborg Report on academic science, and, as a member of President Ronald Reagan's National Commission on Excellence in Education, he was a key contributor to its 1983 report "A Nation at Risk".

Seaborg was the principal or co-discoverer of ten elements: plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium and element 106, which, while he was still living, was named seaborgium in his honor. He said about this naming, "This is the greatest honor ever bestowed upon me—even better, I think, than winning the Nobel Prize. Future students of chemistry, in learning about the periodic table, may have reason to ask why the element was named for me, and thereby learn more about my work." He also discovered more than 100 isotopes of transuranium elements and is credited with important contributions to the chemistry of plutonium, originally as part of the Manhattan Project where he developed the extraction process used to isolate the plutonium fuel for the implosion-type atomic bomb. Early in his career, he was a pioneer in nuclear medicine and discovered isotopes of elements with important applications in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases, including iodine-131, which is used in the treatment of thyroid disease. In addition to his theoretical work in the development of the actinide concept, which placed the actinide series beneath the lanthanide series on the periodic table, he postulated the existence of super-heavy elements in the transactinide and superactinide series.

After sharing the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Edwin McMillan, he received approximately 50 honorary doctorates and numerous other awards and honors. The list of things named after Seaborg ranges from the chemical element seaborgium to the asteroid 4856 Seaborg. He was a prolific author, penning numerous books and 500 journal articles, often in collaboration with others. He was once listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as the person with the longest entry in Who's Who in America.

Early life

Glenn Theodore Seaborg was born in Ishpeming, Michigan, on April 19, 1912, the son of Herman Theodore (Ted) and Selma Olivia Erickson Seaborg. He had one sister, Jeanette, who was two years younger. His family spoke Swedish at home. When Glenn Seaborg was a boy, the family moved to Los Angeles County, California, settling in a subdivision called Home Gardens, later annexed to the City of South Gate, California. About this time he changed the spelling of his first name from Glen to Glenn.

Seaborg kept a daily journal from 1927 until he suffered a stroke in 1998. As a youth, Seaborg was both a devoted sports fan and an avid movie buff. His mother encouraged him to become a bookkeeper as she felt his literary interests were impractical. He did not take an interest in science until his junior year when he was inspired by Dwight Logan Reid, a chemistry and physics teacher at David Starr Jordan High School in Watts.

Seaborg graduated from Jordan in 1929 at the top of his class and received a Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree in chemistry at the University of California, Los Angeles, in 1933. He worked his way through school as a stevedore and a laboratory assistant at Firestone. Seaborg received his PhD in chemistry at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1937 with a doctoral thesis on the "Interaction of Fast Neutrons with Lead", in which he coined the term "nuclear spallation".

Seaborg was a member of the professional chemistry fraternity Alpha Chi Sigma. As a graduate student in the 1930s Seaborg performed wet chemistry research for his advisor Gilbert Newton Lewis, and published three papers with him on the theory of acids and bases. Seaborg studied the text Applied Radiochemistry by Otto Hahn, of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry in Berlin, and it had a major impact on his developing interests as a research scientist. For several years, Seaborg conducted important research in artificial radioactivity using the Lawrence cyclotron at UC Berkeley. He was excited to learn from others that nuclear fission was possible—but also chagrined, as his own research might have led him to the same discovery.

Seaborg also became an adept interlocutor of Berkeley physicist Robert Oppenheimer. Oppenheimer had a daunting reputation and often answered a junior colleague's question before it had even been stated. Often the question answered was more profound than the one asked, but of little practical help. Seaborg learned to state his questions to Oppenheimer quickly and succinctly.

Pioneering work in nuclear chemistry

Seaborg remained at the University of California, Berkeley, for post-doctoral research. He followed Frederick Soddy's work investigating isotopes and contributed to the discovery of more than 100 isotopes of elements. Using one of Lawrence's advanced cyclotrons, John Livingood, Fred Fairbrother, and Seaborg created a new isotope of iron, iron-59 in 1937. Iron-59 was useful in the studies of the hemoglobin in human blood. In 1938, Livingood and Seaborg collaborated (as they did for five years) to create an important isotope of iodine, iodine-131, which is still used to treat thyroid disease. (Many years later, it was credited with prolonging the life of Seaborg's mother.) As a result of these and other contributions, Seaborg is regarded as a pioneer in nuclear medicine and is one of its most prolific discoverers of isotopes.

In 1939 he became an instructor in chemistry at Berkeley, was promoted to assistant professor in 1941 and professor in 1945. University of California, Berkeley, physicist Edwin McMillan led a team that discovered element 93, which he named neptunium in 1940. In November, he was persuaded to leave Berkeley temporarily to assist with urgent research in radar technology. Since Seaborg and his colleagues had perfected McMillan's oxidation-reduction technique for isolating neptunium, he asked McMillan for permission to continue the research and search for element 94. McMillan agreed to the collaboration. Seaborg first reported alpha decay proportionate to only a fraction of the element 93 under observation. The first hypothesis for this alpha particle accumulation was contamination by uranium, which produces alpha-decay particles; analysis of alpha-decay particles ruled this out. Seaborg then postulated that a distinct alpha-producing element was being formed from element 93.

In February 1941, Seaborg and his collaborators produced plutonium-239 through the bombardment of uranium. In their experiments bombarding uranium with deuterons, they observed the creation of neptunium, element 93. But it then underwent beta-decay, forming a new element, plutonium, with 94 protons. Plutonium is fairly stable, but undergoes alpha-decay, which explained the presence of alpha particles coming from neptunium. Thus, on March 28, 1941, Seaborg, physicist Emilio Segrè and Berkeley chemist Joseph W. Kennedy were able to show that plutonium (then known only as element 94) was fissile, an important distinction that was crucial to the decisions made in directing Manhattan Project research. In 1966, Room 307 of Gilman Hall on the campus at the Berkeley, where Seaborg did his work, was declared a US National Historic Landmark.

In addition to plutonium, he is credited as a lead discoverer of americium, curium, and berkelium, and as a co-discoverer of californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium and seaborgium, the first element named after a living person. He shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1951 with Edwin McMillan for "their discoveries in the chemistry of the first transuranium elements."

Scientific contributions during the Manhattan Project

On April 19, 1942, Seaborg reached Chicago and joined the chemistry group at the Metallurgical Laboratory of the Manhattan Project at the University of Chicago, where Enrico Fermi and his group would later convert uranium-238 to plutonium-239 in a controlled nuclear chain reaction. Seaborg's role was to figure out how to extract the tiny bit of plutonium from the mass of uranium. Plutonium-239 was isolated in visible amounts using a transmutation reaction on August 20, 1942, and weighed on September 10, 1942, in Seaborg's Chicago laboratory. He was responsible for the multi-stage chemical process that separated, concentrated and isolated plutonium. This process was further developed at the Clinton Engineering Works in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and then entered full-scale production at the Hanford Engineer Works, in Richland, Washington.

Seaborg's theoretical development of the actinide concept resulted in a redrawing of the periodic table into its current configuration with the actinide series appearing below the lanthanide series. Seaborg developed the chemical elements americium and curium while in Chicago. He managed to secure patents for both elements. His patent on curium never proved commercially viable because of the element's short half-life, but americium is commonly used in household smoke detectors and thus provided a good source of royalty income to Seaborg in later years. Prior to the test of the first nuclear weapon, Seaborg joined with several other leading scientists in a written statement known as the Franck Report (secret at the time but since published) unsuccessfully calling on President Truman to conduct a public demonstration of the atomic bomb witnessed by the Japanese.

Professor and Chancellor at the University of California, Berkeley

After the conclusion of World War II and the Manhattan Project, Seaborg was eager to return to academic life and university research free from the restrictions of wartime secrecy. In 1946, he added to his responsibilities as a professor by heading the nuclear chemistry research at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory operated by the University of California on behalf of the United States Atomic Energy Commission (AEC). Seaborg was named one of the "Ten Outstanding Young Men in America" by the US Junior Chamber of Commerce in 1947 (along with Richard Nixon and others). Seaborg was elected a Member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1948. From 1954 to 1961 he served as associate director of the radiation laboratory. He was appointed by President Truman to serve as a member of the General Advisory Committee of the AEC, an assignment he retained until 1960.

Seaborg served as chancellor at the University of California, Berkeley, from 1958 to 1961. His term coincided with a relaxation of McCarthy-era restrictions on students' freedom of expression that had begun under his predecessor, Clark Kerr. In October 1958, Seaborg announced that the university had relaxed its prior prohibitions on political activity on a trial basis, and the ban on communists speaking on campus was lifted. This paved the way for the Free Speech Movement of 1964–65.

Seaborg was an enthusiastic supporter of Cal's sports teams. San Francisco columnist Herb Caen was fond of pointing out that Seaborg's surname is an anagram of "Go Bears", a popular cheer at UC Berkeley. Seaborg was proud of the fact that the Cal Bears won their first and only National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) basketball championship in 1959, while he was chancellor. The football team also won the conference title and played in the Rose Bowl that year. He served on the Faculty Athletic Committee for several years and was the co-author of a book, Roses from the Ashes: Breakup and Rebirth in Pacific Coast Intercollegiate Athletics (2000), concerning the Pacific Coast Conference recruiting scandal, and the founding of what is now the Pac-12, in which he played a role in restoring confidence in the integrity of collegiate sports.

Seaborg served on the President's Science Advisory Committee (PSAC) during the Eisenhower administration. PSAC produced a report on "Scientific Progress, the Universities, and the Federal Government", also known as the "Seaborg Report", in November 1960, that urged greater federal funding of science. In 1959, he helped found the Berkeley Space Sciences Laboratory with Clark Kerr.

From left to right: Chairman Seaborg, President Kennedy, Secretary McNamara on March 23, 1962. By this point, McNamara and Seaborg had been discussing the AEC's studies on the ecological effects of nuclear war and "clean" weapon alternatives. (Courtesy: National Security Archive, Original: National Archives)

Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission

After appointment by President John F. Kennedy and confirmation by the United States Senate, Seaborg was chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) from 1961 to 1971. His pending appointment by President-elect Kennedy was nearly derailed in late 1960 when members of the Kennedy transition team learned that Seaborg had been listed in a U.S. News & World Report article as a member of "Nixon's Idea Men". Seaborg said that as a lifetime Democrat he was baffled when the article appeared associating him with outgoing Vice President Richard Nixon, a Republican whom Seaborg considered a casual acquaintance.

During the early 1960s, Seaborg became concerned with the ecological and biological effects of nuclear weapons, especially those that would impact human life significantly. In response, he commissioned the Technical Analysis Branch of the AEC to study these matters further. Seaborg's provision for these innovative studies led the US Government to more seriously pursue the development and possible use of "clean" nuclear weapons.

While chairman of the AEC, Seaborg participated on the negotiating team for the Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT), in which the US, UK, and USSR agreed to ban all above-ground test detonations of nuclear weapons. Seaborg considered his contributions to the achievement of the LTBT as one of his greatest accomplishments. Despite strict rules from the Soviets about photography at the signing ceremony, Seaborg used a tiny camera to take a close-up photograph of Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev as he signed the treaty.

Seaborg enjoyed a close relationship with President Lyndon Johnson and influenced the administration to pursue the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Seaborg was called to the White House in the first week of the Nixon Administration in January 1969 to advise President Richard Nixon on his first diplomatic crisis involving the Soviets and nuclear testing. He clashed with Nixon presidential adviser John Ehrlichman over the treatment of a Jewish scientist, Zalman Shapiro, whom the Nixon administration suspected of leaking nuclear secrets to Israel.

Seaborg published several books and journal articles during his tenure at the AEC. He predicted the existence of elements beyond those on the periodic table, the transactinide series and the superactinide series of undiscovered synthetic elements. While most of these theoretical future elements have extremely short half-lives and thus no expected practical applications, he also hypothesized the existence of stable super-heavy isotopes of certain elements in an island of stability. Seaborg served as chairman of the AEC until 1971.

Return to California

Following his service as Chairman of the AEC, Seaborg returned to UC Berkeley where he was awarded the position of University Professor. At the time, there had been fewer University Professors at UC Berkeley than Nobel Prize winners. He also served as Chairman of the Lawrence Hall of Science where he became the principal investigator for Great Explorations in Math and Science (GEMS) working with director Jacqueline Barber. Seaborg served as chancellor at the University of California, Berkeley, from 1958 to 1961, and served as president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1972 and as president of the American Chemical Society in 1976.

In 1980, he transmuted several thousand atoms of bismuth-209 into gold (
Au) at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. His experimental technique, using the lab's Bevalac particle accelerator, was able to remove protons and neutrons from the bismuth atoms by bombarding it with carbon and neon nuclei traveling near the speed of light. Seaborg's technique would have been far too expensive to enable routine manufacturing of gold, but his work was close to the mythical Philosopher's Stone. As gold has four fewer protons and (taking the only naturally occurring bulk isotopes of either) eight fewer neutrons than bismuth, a total of twelve nucleons have to be removed from the bismuth nucleus to produce gold using Seaborg's method.

In 1981, Seaborg became a founding member of the World Cultural Council.

In 1983, President Ronald Reagan appointed Seaborg to serve on the National Commission on Excellence in Education. The commission produced a report "A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform", which focused national attention on education as a national issue germane to the federal government. In 2008, Margaret Spellings wrote that

A Nation at Risk delivered a wake up call for our education system. It described stark realities like a significant number of functionally illiterate high schoolers, plummeting student performance, and international competitors breathing down our necks. It was a warning, a reproach, and a call to arms.

Seaborg lived most of his later life in Lafayette, California, where he devoted himself to editing and publishing the journals that documented both his early life and later career. He rallied a group of scientists who criticized the science curriculum in the state of California, which he viewed as far too socially oriented and not nearly focused enough on hard science. California Governor Pete Wilson appointed Seaborg to head a committee that proposed changes to California's science curriculum despite outcries from labor organizations and others.

Personal life

In 1942, Seaborg married Helen Griggs, the secretary of physicist Ernest Lawrence. Under wartime pressure, Seaborg had moved to Chicago while engaged to Griggs. When Seaborg returned to accompany Griggs for the journey back to Chicago, friends expected them to marry in Chicago. But, eager to be married, Seaborg and Griggs impulsively got off the train in the town of Caliente, Nevada, for what they thought would be a quick wedding. When they asked for City Hall, they found Caliente had none—they would have to travel 25 miles (40 km) north to Pioche, the county seat. With no car, this was no easy feat, but one of Caliente's newest deputy sheriffs turned out to be a recent graduate of the Cal Berkeley chemistry department and was more than happy to do a favor for Seaborg. The deputy sheriff arranged for the wedding couple to ride up and back to Pioche in a mail truck. The witnesses at the Seaborg wedding were a clerk and a janitor. Glenn Seaborg and Helen Griggs Seaborg had seven children, of whom the first, Peter Glenn Seaborg, died in 1997 (his twin Paulette having died in infancy). The others were Lynne Seaborg Cobb, David Seaborg, Steve Seaborg, Eric Seaborg, and Dianne Seaborg.

Seaborg was an avid hiker. Upon becoming Chairman of the AEC in 1961, he commenced taking daily hikes through a trail that he blazed at the headquarters site in Germantown, Maryland. He frequently invited colleagues and visitors to accompany him, and the trail became known as the "Glenn Seaborg Trail." He and his wife Helen are credited with blazing a 12-mile (19 km) trail in the East Bay area near their home in Lafayette, California. This trail has since become a part of the American Hiking Association's cross-country network of trails. Seaborg and his wife walked the trail network from Contra Costa County all the way to the California–Nevada border.

There is a beauty in discovery. There is mathematics in music, a kinship of science and poetry in the description of nature, and exquisite form in a molecule. Attempts to place different disciplines in different camps are revealed as artificial in the face of the unity of knowledge. All literate men are sustained by the philosopher, the historian, the political analyst, the economist, the scientist, the poet, the artisan and the musician.

—Glenn Seaborg

Seaborg was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1972 and a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) of London in 1985. He was honored as Swedish-American of the Year in 1962 by the Vasa Order of America. In 1991, the organization named "Local Lodge Glenn T. Seaborg No. 719" in his honor during the Seaborg Honors ceremony at which he appeared. This lodge maintains a scholarship fund in his name, as does the unrelated Swedish-American Club of Los Angeles.

Seaborg kept a close bond to his Swedish origin. He visited Sweden every so often, and his family were members of the Swedish Pemer Genealogical Society, a family association open for every descendant of the Pemer family, a Swedish family with German origin, from which Seaborg was descended on his mother's side. (In recent years, after both men's passings, it has been discovered that physicist colleague Edward J. Lofgren was also descended from the Pemer family.) Seaborg even responded to the Swedish king's Nobel prize toast in his mother's native region's dialect, which he described as "It was as if a Swede had ''y'alled" in English with a Southern Accent."".

Death

On August 24, 1998, while in Boston to attend a meeting by the American Chemical Society, Seaborg suffered a stroke, which led to his death six months later on February 25, 1999, at his home in Lafayette.

Honors and awards

Further information: List of accolades received by Glenn T. Seaborg and List of things named after Glenn T. Seaborg

During his lifetime, Seaborg is said to have been the author or co-author of numerous books and 500 scientific journal articles, many of them brief reports on fast-breaking discoveries in nuclear science while other subjects, most notably the actinide concept, represented major theoretical contributions in the history of science. He held more than 40 patents—among them the only patents ever issued for chemical elements, americium and curium, and received more than 50 doctorates and honorary degrees in his lifetime. At one time, he was listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as having the longest entry in Marquis Who's Who in America. In February 2005, he was posthumously inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame. In April 2011 the executive council of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI) selected Seaborg for inclusion in CSI's Pantheon of Skeptics. The Pantheon of Skeptics was created by CSI to remember the legacy of deceased fellows of CSI and their contributions to the cause of scientific skepticism. His papers are in the Library of Congress.

Seaborg was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1948, the American Philosophical Society in 1952, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1958. The American Chemical Society-Chicago Section honored him with the Willard Gibbs Award in 1966. The American Academy of Achievement presented Seaborg with the Golden Plate Award in 1972. The element seaborgium was named after Seaborg by Albert Ghiorso, E. Kenneth Hulet, and others, who also credited Seaborg as a co-discoverer. It was named while Seaborg was still alive, which proved controversial. He influenced the naming of so many elements that with the announcement of seaborgium, it was noted in Discover magazine's review of the year in science that he could receive a letter addressed in chemical elements: seaborgium, lawrencium (for the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory where he worked), berkelium, californium, americium. Seaborgium is the first element ever to have been officially named after a living person. The second element to be so named is oganesson, in 2016, after Yuri Oganessian.

Selected bibliography

Main article: Glenn T. Seaborg bibliography

Seaborg, G. T.; James, R.A.; Morgan, L.O. (January 1948). The New Element Americium (Atomic Number 95). US Atomic Energy Commission. doi:10.2172/4435330. OSTI 4435330. Archived from the original on October 20, 2019. Retrieved October 20, 2019.
Seaborg, G. T.; James, R.A.; Ghiorso, A. (January 1948). The New Element Curium (Atomic Number 96). US Atomic Energy Commission. OSTI 4421946.
Seaborg, G. T.; Thompson, S.G.; Ghiorso, A. (April 1950). The New Element Berkelium (Atomic Number 97). UC Berkeley, Radiation Laboratory. doi:10.2172/4421999. OSTI 4421999. Archived from the original on October 20, 2019. Retrieved October 20, 2019.
Seaborg, G. T.; Thompson, S.G.; Street, K. Jr.; Ghiroso, A. (June 1950). The New Element Californium (Atomic Number 98). UC Berkeley, Radiation Laboratory. doi:10.2172/932819. hdl:2027/mdp.39015086449165. OSTI 932819. Archived from the original on May 24, 2022. Retrieved December 7, 2019.
Seaborg, G. T. (December 1951). The Transuranium Elements – Present Status: Nobel Lecture. UC Berkeley, Radiation Laboratory. doi:10.2172/4406579. OSTI 4406579.
Seaborg, G. T.; Thompson, S.G.; Harvey, B.G.; Choppin, G.R. (July 1954). Chemical Properties of Elements 99 and 100 (Einsteinium and Fermium). UC Berkeley, Radiation Laboratory. doi:10.2172/4405197. OSTI 4405197. S2CID 54678232. Archived from the original on October 20, 2019. Retrieved October 20, 2019.
Seaborg, G. T. (September 1967). The First Weighing of Plutonium. US Atomic Energy Commission. OSTI 814965.
Seaborg, G. T. (July 1970). Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy: A Collection of Speeches. US Atomic Energy Commission. OSTI 4042849.
Seaborg, G. T. (ed ). (January 1980). Seaborg, G. T. (ed.). Symposium Commemorating the 25th Anniversary of the Discovery of Mendelevium. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. OSTI 6468225.
Seaborg, G. T. (August 1990). Transuranium Elements: a Half Century. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. OSTI 6604648.
Seaborg, G. T. (March 1995). "My career as a radioisotope hunter". Journal of the American Medical Association. 273 (12): 961–964. doi:10.1001/jama.273.12.961. PMID 7884957.

Citations

"SCI Perkin Medal". Science History Institute. May 31, 2016. Archived from the original on February 2, 2018. Retrieved March 24, 2018.
^ Hoffman, D. C. (2007). "Glenn Theodore Seaborg. 19 April 1912 – 25 February 1999". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 53: 327–338. doi:10.1098/rsbm.2007.0021. JSTOR 20461382.
^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1951". Nobel Foundation. Archived from the original on November 4, 2008. Retrieved August 26, 2012.
Office of the Chancellor. "Past Chancellors". University of California, Berkeley. Archived from the original on December 12, 2015. Retrieved December 24, 2015.
^ "UCLA Glenn T. Seaborg Symposium – Biography". www.seaborg.ucla.edu. Archived from the original on February 6, 2023. Retrieved April 25, 2022.
^ Hoffman (2007), p. 330.
Hoffman (2007), p. 336.
Seaborg & Seaborg (2001), pp. 13–14.
Seaborg & Seaborg (2001), pp. 15, 29.
Seaborg & Seaborg (2001), p. 40.
Seaborg, Glenn T. (1937). The interaction of fast neutrons with lead (Ph.D.). University of California, Berkeley. OCLC 21609796. Archived from the original on April 6, 2023. Retrieved May 21, 2022 – via ProQuest.
^ "Scientific and Luminary Biography – Glenn Seaborg". Argonne National Laboratory. Archived from the original on April 13, 2013. Retrieved June 16, 2013.
Lewis, G. N.; Seaborg, Glenn T. (July 1939). "Primary and secondary acids and bases". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 61 (7): 1886–1894. doi:10.1021/ja01876a068. ISSN 0002-7863.
Lewis, G. N.; Seaborg, Glenn T. (July 1939). "Trinitrotriphenylmethide ion as a secondary and primary base". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 61 (7): 1894–1900. doi:10.1021/ja01876a069. ISSN 0002-7863.
Lewis, G. N.; Seaborg, Glenn T. (August 1940). "The acidity of aromatic nitro compounds toward amines. The effect of double chelation". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 62 (8): 2122–2124. doi:10.1021/ja01865a057. ISSN 0002-7863.
Seaborg & Seaborg (2001), pp. 57–59.
Seaborg & Seaborg (2001), p. 26.
Heilbron, J. L.; Seidel, R. W. (1989). Lawrence and His Laboratory: A History of the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory – Volume I. University of California Press. pp. 355–356. ISBN 978-0520064263.
"National Award of Nuclear Science & History". National Museum of Nuclear Science & History. Archived from the original on August 17, 2012. Retrieved August 26, 2012.
"Seaborg Timeline: A Lifetime of Differences". Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. March 5, 1999. Archived from the original on December 22, 2017. Retrieved August 26, 2012.
Jackson, D. J.; Panofsky, W. K. H. (1996). Edwin Mattison McMillan (PDF). Biographical Memoirs. Vol. 69. National Academies Press. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 21, 2012. Retrieved August 26, 2012.
^ Farmer, Delphine (2001). "An Elementary Problem". Berkeley Science Review. 1 (1): 32–37. ISSN 1538-6449.
Seaborg & Seaborg (2001), pp. 77–79.
Seaborg, Glenn T. "Nuclear Milestones: 307 Gilman Hall". Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. Archived from the original on February 28, 2014. Retrieved June 16, 2013.
"Glenn Seaborg | Biographies". www.atomicarchive.com. Archived from the original on August 18, 2022. Retrieved April 25, 2022.
"Glenn Seaborg's Greatest Hits". Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Archived from the original on October 15, 2004. Retrieved August 26, 2012.
Rhodes (1986), pp. 320, 340–43, 348, 354, 369, 377, 395.
Hoffman (2007), pp. 333–334.
^ Seaborg & Seaborg (2001), pp. 174–179.
House, P. (April 1999). "Glenn T. Seaborg: Citizen-Scholar". The Seaborg Center Bulletin. Archived from the original on June 12, 2011. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
Seaborg, G. T.; Colvig, R. (1994). Chancellor at Berkeley. University of California. ISBN 978-0-87772-343-1.
^ Yarris, Lynn (March 5, 1999). "Glenn Seaborg: A Sporting Life". Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved June 17, 2013.
"Glenn T. Seaborg, Ph.D. Biography and Interview". American Academy of Achievement. Archived from the original on July 5, 2022. Retrieved April 10, 2020.
"National Service". Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved July 23, 2013.
"Space Sciences Laboratory". University of California, Berkeley. Archived from the original on October 21, 2016. Retrieved June 16, 2013.
Seaborg & Seaborg (2001), p. 181.
"Glenn Seaborg Diary Entry, 2 January 1962". National Security Archive. August 30, 2017. Archived from the original on August 13, 2020. Retrieved September 6, 2017.
""Clean" Nukes and the Ecology of Nuclear War". National Security Archive. August 30, 2017. Archived from the original on September 7, 2017. Retrieved September 6, 2017.
"Meet Glenn Seaborg". Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Archived from the original on October 14, 2004. Retrieved August 26, 2012.
Seaborg & Seaborg (2001), pp. 200–206.
Seaborg & Seaborg (2001), pp. 218–221.
Seaborg, G. T. (1969). "Prospects for further considerable extension of the periodic table". Journal of Chemical Education. 46 (10): 626. Bibcode:1969JChEd..46..626S. doi:10.1021/ed046p626.
"Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg". Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. March 30, 2006. Archived from the original on September 29, 2006.
^ "Meet Glenn Seaborg". Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. Archived from the original on December 9, 2016. Retrieved July 23, 2013.
"Glenn Seaborg's Works". Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Archived from the original on February 17, 2015. Retrieved August 26, 2012.
"ACS President: Glenn T. Seaborg (1912–1999)". American Chemical Society. Archived from the original on December 31, 2016. Retrieved June 16, 2013.
Matson, John (January 31, 2014). "Fact or Fiction?: Lead Can Be Turned into Gold". Scientific American. ISSN 0036-8733. Archived from the original on April 3, 2023.
Aleklett, K.; Morrissey, D.; Loveland, W.; McGaughey, P.; Seaborg, G. (1981). "Energy dependence of Bi fragmentation in relativistic nuclear collisions". Physical Review C. 23 (3): 1044. Bibcode:1981PhRvC..23.1044A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.23.1044.
Matthews, Robert (December 2, 2001). "The Philosopher's Stone". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on July 9, 2023. Retrieved September 22, 2020.
"About Us". World Cultural Council. Archived from the original on June 29, 2019. Retrieved November 8, 2016.
Yarris, L. (March 5, 1999). "Glenn Seaborg, Teacher and Educator". Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved August 26, 2012.
"A Nation at Risk' Turns 30: Where Did It Take Us?". National Education Association. April 25, 2013. Archived from the original on October 15, 2014. Retrieved July 23, 2013.
Spellings, Margaret (May 8, 2014). "25 Years After A Nation at Risk". U.S. Department of Education. Archived from the original on June 22, 2013. Retrieved July 23, 2013.
Seaborg & Seaborg (2001), pp. 193–194.
Seaborg & Seaborg (2001), pp. 79–85.
"Today at Berkeley Lab: Seaborg Family Remembers: Helen 'a Mixture of Efficiency and Diplomacy'". www2.lbl.gov. Archived from the original on February 18, 2017. Retrieved December 2, 2016.
Hoffman (2007), p. 332.
"Glenn Seaborg Trail". Department of Energy. Archived from the original on October 25, 2011. Retrieved June 16, 2013.
Hoffman (2007), p. 335.
Hoffman (2007), p. 337.
Hoffman (2007), p. 334.
"Glenn T. Seaborg No. 719 Vasa Order of America". Vasa Order of America. Archived from the original on September 18, 2013. Retrieved June 16, 2013.
Hoffman, D. C.; Ghiorso, A.; Seaborg, G. T. (2000). The Transuranium People: The Inside Story. World Scientific Publishing. pp. lxvii–lxviii. ISBN 978-1-86094-087-3.
"Kända ättlingar". Archived from the original on June 6, 2023. Retrieved June 6, 2023.
"Glenn T. Seaborg - His Biography". www2.lbl.gov. Archived from the original on January 21, 2022. Retrieved April 25, 2022.
Seaborg, Glenn Theodore (2001). Adventures in the atomic age: from Watts to Washington (1st ed.). Canada: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. p. 150. ISBN 9780374299910.
"Glenn Seaborg Tribute: A Man in Full". Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. Archived from the original on April 28, 2017. Retrieved June 16, 2013.
^ "Seaborgium: Element 106 Named in Honor of Glenn T. Seaborg, LBL's Associate Director At Large". LBL Research Review. August 1994. ISSN 0882-1305. Archived from the original on May 29, 2014. Retrieved July 24, 2013.
"The Pantheon of Skeptics". CSI. Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. Archived from the original on January 31, 2017. Retrieved April 30, 2017.
"Glenn Theodore Seaborg – A Register of His Papers in the Library of Congress" (PDF). Library of Congress. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 12, 2013. Retrieved June 16, 2013.
"Glenn T. Seaborg". www.nasonline.org. Archived from the original on February 8, 2023. Retrieved February 8, 2023.
"APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Archived from the original on February 8, 2023. Retrieved February 8, 2023.
"Glenn Theodore Seaborg". American Academy of Arts & Sciences. Archived from the original on February 8, 2023. Retrieved February 8, 2023.
"Willard Gibbs Award". American Chemical Society Chicago Section. Archived from the original on March 15, 2016. Retrieved June 8, 2015.
"Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement". American Academy of Achievement. Archived from the original on December 12, 2017. Retrieved April 10, 2020.
Winters, J. (January 1, 1998). "What's in a Name?". Discover. 19. Archived from the original on November 3, 2007. Retrieved October 17, 2006.
Ghiorso, Albert (2003). "Einsteinium and Fermium". Chemical and Engineering News. 81 (36): 174–175. doi:10.1021/cen-v081n036.p174. Archived from the original on September 6, 2018. Retrieved July 23, 2013.
"IUPAC is naming the four new elements nihonium, moscovium, tennessine, and oganesson". IUPAC | International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. June 8, 2016. Archived from the original on June 8, 2016. Retrieved June 8, 2016.

General references

Hoffman, D. C. (2007). "Glenn Theodore Seaborg 19 April 1912 – 25 February 1999". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 53: 328–338. doi:10.1098/rsbm.2007.0021. JSTOR 20461382.
Rhodes, Richard (1986). The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-44133-3. OCLC 13793436.
Seaborg, G. T.; Seaborg, E. (2001). Adventures in the Atomic Age: From Watts to Washington. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-29991-0.

External links

Glenn T. Seaborg on Nobelprize.org including the Nobel Lecture on December 12, 1951 "The Transuranium Elements: Present Status"
1965 Audio Interview with Glenn Seaborg by Stephane Groueff Archived January 7, 2017, at the Wayback Machine Voices of the Manhattan Project
National Academy of Sciences biography Archived June 20, 2001, at the Wayback Machine
Annotated bibliography for Glenn Seaborg from the Alsos Digital Library
Nobel Institute Official Biography Archived July 23, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
UC Berkeley Biography of Chancellor Glenn T. Seaborg Archived June 28, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory's Glenn T. Seaborg website Archived May 12, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
American Association for the Advancement of Science, List of Presidents Archived July 24, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
Glenn Seaborg Trail, at Department of Energy official site Archived January 29, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
Glenn T. Seaborg Center at Northern Michigan University Archived October 19, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
Glenn T. Seaborg Medal and Symposium at the University of California, Los Angeles Archived October 21, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
Video interview with Glenn Seaborg from 1986 with transcript Archived July 9, 2023, at the Wayback Machine
"Clean" Nukes and the Ecology of Nuclear War Archived September 7, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, published by the National Security Archive
Works by or about Glenn T. Seaborg at the Internet Archive
Appearances on C-SPAN

Academic offices
Preceded byClark Kerr	Chancellor of the University of California, Berkeley 1958 – 1961	Succeeded byEdward W. Strong

v t e 1951 Nobel Prize laureates
Chemistry	Edwin McMillan (United States) Glenn T. Seaborg (United States)
Literature (1951)	Pär Lagerkvist (Sweden)
Peace	Léon Jouhaux (France)
Physics	John Cockcroft (Great Britain) Ernest Walton (Ireland)
Physiology or Medicine	Max Theiler (United States)
Nobel Prize recipients 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956

v t e Laureates of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1901–1925	1901: Jacobus van 't Hoff 1902: Emil Fischer 1903: Svante Arrhenius 1904: William Ramsay 1905: Adolf von Baeyer 1906: Henri Moissan 1907: Eduard Buchner 1908: Ernest Rutherford 1909: Wilhelm Ostwald 1910: Otto Wallach 1911: Marie Curie 1912: Victor Grignard / Paul Sabatier 1913: Alfred Werner 1914: Theodore Richards 1915: Richard Willstätter 1916 1917 1918: Fritz Haber 1919 1920: Walther Nernst 1921: Frederick Soddy 1922: Francis Aston 1923: Fritz Pregl 1924 1925: Richard Zsigmondy
1926–1950	1926: Theodor Svedberg 1927: Heinrich Wieland 1928: Adolf Windaus 1929: Arthur Harden / Hans von Euler-Chelpin 1930: Hans Fischer 1931: Carl Bosch / Friedrich Bergius 1932: Irving Langmuir 1933 1934: Harold Urey 1935: Frédéric Joliot-Curie / Irène Joliot-Curie 1936: Peter Debye 1937: Norman Haworth / Paul Karrer 1938: Richard Kuhn 1939: Adolf Butenandt / Leopold Ružička 1940 1941 1942 1943: George de Hevesy 1944: Otto Hahn 1945: Artturi Virtanen 1946: James B. Sumner / John Northrop / Wendell Meredith Stanley 1947: Robert Robinson 1948: Arne Tiselius 1949: William Giauque 1950: Otto Diels / Kurt Alder
1951–1975	1951: Edwin McMillan / Glenn T. Seaborg 1952: Archer Martin / Richard Synge 1953: Hermann Staudinger 1954: Linus Pauling 1955: Vincent du Vigneaud 1956: Cyril Hinshelwood / Nikolay Semyonov 1957: Alexander Todd 1958: Frederick Sanger 1959: Jaroslav Heyrovský 1960: Willard Libby 1961: Melvin Calvin 1962: Max Perutz / John Kendrew 1963: Karl Ziegler / Giulio Natta 1964: Dorothy Hodgkin 1965: Robert Woodward 1966: Robert S. Mulliken 1967: Manfred Eigen / Ronald Norrish / George Porter 1968: Lars Onsager 1969: Derek Barton / Odd Hassel 1970: Luis Federico Leloir 1971: Gerhard Herzberg 1972: Christian B. Anfinsen / Stanford Moore / William Stein 1973: Ernst Otto Fischer / Geoffrey Wilkinson 1974: Paul Flory 1975: John Cornforth / Vladimir Prelog
1976–2000	1976: William Lipscomb 1977: Ilya Prigogine 1978: Peter D. Mitchell 1979: Herbert C. Brown / Georg Wittig 1980: Paul Berg / Walter Gilbert / Frederick Sanger 1981: Kenichi Fukui / Roald Hoffmann 1982: Aaron Klug 1983: Henry Taube 1984: Robert Merrifield 1985: Herbert A. Hauptman / Jerome Karle 1986: Dudley R. Herschbach / Yuan T. Lee / John Polanyi 1987: Donald J. Cram / Jean-Marie Lehn / Charles J. Pedersen 1988: Johann Deisenhofer / Robert Huber / Hartmut Michel 1989: Sidney Altman / Thomas Cech 1990: Elias Corey 1991: Richard R. Ernst 1992: Rudolph A. Marcus 1993: Kary Mullis / Michael Smith 1994: George Olah 1995: Paul J. Crutzen / Mario Molina / F. Sherwood Rowland 1996: Robert Curl / Harold Kroto / Richard Smalley 1997: Paul D. Boyer / John E. Walker / Jens Christian Skou 1998: Walter Kohn / John Pople 1999: Ahmed Zewail 2000: Alan J. Heeger / Alan MacDiarmid / Hideki Shirakawa
2001–present	2001: William Knowles / Ryoji Noyori / K. Barry Sharpless 2002: John B. Fenn / Koichi Tanaka / Kurt Wüthrich 2003: Peter Agre / Roderick MacKinnon 2004: Aaron Ciechanover / Avram Hershko / Irwin Rose 2005: Robert H. Grubbs / Richard R. Schrock / Yves Chauvin 2006: Roger D. Kornberg 2007: Gerhard Ertl 2008: Osamu Shimomura / Martin Chalfie / Roger Y. Tsien 2009: Venkatraman Ramakrishnan / Thomas A. Steitz / Ada E. Yonath 2010: Richard F. Heck / Akira Suzuki / Ei-ichi Negishi 2011: Dan Shechtman 2012: Robert Lefkowitz / Brian Kobilka 2013: Martin Karplus / Michael Levitt / Arieh Warshel 2014: Eric Betzig / Stefan Hell / William E. Moerner 2015: Tomas Lindahl / Paul L. Modrich / Aziz Sancar 2016: Jean-Pierre Sauvage / Fraser Stoddart / Ben Feringa 2017: Jacques Dubochet / Joachim Frank / Richard Henderson 2018: Frances Arnold / Gregory Winter / George Smith 2019: John B. Goodenough / M. Stanley Whittingham / Akira Yoshino 2020: Emmanuelle Charpentier / Jennifer Doudna 2021: David MacMillan / Benjamin List 2022: Carolyn R. Bertozzi / Morten P. Meldal / Karl Barry Sharpless 2023: Moungi G. Bawendi / Louis E. Brus / Alexei I. Ekimov 2024: David Baker / Demis Hassabis / John M. Jumper

v t e United States Atomic Energy Commission Chairs
David E. Lilienthal (1946) Gordon Dean (1950) Lewis Strauss (1953) John A. McCone (1958) Glenn T. Seaborg (1961) James R. Schlesinger (1971) Dixy Lee Ray (1973)

v t e Presidents and Chancellors of the University of California, Berkeley
Presidents	Henry Durant (1870) Daniel Coit Gilman (1872) John LeConte (1875) W.T. Reid (1881) Edward S. Holden (1885) Horace Davis (1888) Martin Kellogg (1890) Benjamin Ide Wheeler (1899) David Prescott Barrows (1919) William Wallace Campbell (1923) Robert Gordon Sproul (1930)
Chancellors	Clark Kerr (1952) Glenn T. Seaborg (1958) Edward W. Strong (1961) Martin E. Meyerson # (1965) Roger W. Heyns (1965) Albert H. Bowker (1971) Ira Michael Heyman (1980) Chang-Lin Tien (1990) Robert M. Berdahl (1997) Robert J. Birgeneau (2004) Nicholas Dirks (2013) Carol T. Christ (2017)
# denotes an interim chancellor

v t e Presidents of the American Chemical Society
1876–1900	John W. Draper (1876) J. Lawrence Smith (1877) Samuel William Johnson (1878) T. Sterry Hunt (1879) Frederick A. Genth (1880) Charles F. Chandler (1881) John W. Mallet (1882) James C. Booth (1883) Albert B. Prescott (1886) Charles Anthony Goessmann (1887) T. Sterry Hunt (1888) Charles F. Chandler (1889) Henry B. Nason (1890) George F. Barker (1891) George C. Caldwell (1892) Harvey W. Wiley (1893) Edgar Fahs Smith (1895) Charles B. Dudley (1896) Charles E. Munroe (1898) Edward W. Morley (1899) William McMurtrie (1900)
1901–1925	Frank W. Clarke (1901) Ira Remsen (1902) John H. Long (1903) Arthur Amos Noyes (1904) Francis P. Venable (1905) William F. Hillebrand (1906) Marston T. Bogert (1907) Willis R. Whitney (1909) Wilder D. Bancroft (1910) Alexander Smith (1911) Arthur Dehon Little (1912) Theodore W. Richards (1914) Charles H. Herty (1915) Julius Stieglitz (1917) William H. Nichols (1918) William A. Noyes (1920) Edgar Fahs Smith (1921) Edward C. Franklin (1923) Leo H. Baekeland (1924) James Flack Norris (1925)
1926–1950	George D. Rosengarten (1927) Samuel W. Parr (1928) Irving Langmuir (1929) William McPherson (1930) Moses Gomberg (1931) Lawrence V. Redman (1932) Arthur B. Lamb (1933) Charles L. Reese (1934) Roger Adams (1935) Edward Bartow (1936) Edward R. Weidlein (1937) Frank C. Whitmore (1938) Charles A. Kraus (1939) Samuel C. Lind (1940) William Lloyd Evans (1941) Harry N. Holmes (1942) Per K. Frolich (1943) Thomas Midgley Jr. (1944) Carl S. Marvel (1945) Bradley Dewey (1946) W. Albert Noyes Jr. (1947) Charles A. Thomas (1948) Linus Pauling (1949) Ernest H. Volwiler (1950)
1951–1975	N. Howell Funnan (1951) Edgar C. Britton (1952) Farrington Daniels (1953) Harry L. Fisher (1954) Joel H. Hildebrand (1955) John C. Warner (1956) Roger J. Williams (1957) Clifford F. Rassweiler (1958) John C. Bailar Jr. (1959) Albert L. Elder (1960) Arthur C. Cope (1961) Karl Folkers (1962) Henry Eyring (1963) Maurice H. Arveson (1964) Charles C. Price (1965) William J. Sparks (1966) Charles G. Overberger (1967) Robert W. Cairns (1968) Wallace R. Brode (1969) Byron Riegel (1970) Melvin Calvin (1971) Max Tishler (1972) Alan C. Nixon (1973) Bernard S. Friedman (1974) William J. Bailey (1975)
1976–2000	Glenn T. Seaborg (1976) Henry A. Hill (1977) Anna J. Harrison (1978) Gardner W. Stacy (1979) James D. D'Ianni (1980) Albert C. Zettlemoyer (1981) Robert W. Parry (1982) Fred Basolo (1983) Warren D. Niederhauser (1984) Ellis K. Fields (1985) George C. Pimentel (1986) Mary L. Good (1987) Gordon L. Nelson (1988) Clayton F. Callis (1989) Paul G. Gassman (1990) S. Allen Heininger (1991) Ernest L. Eliel (1992) Helen M. Free (1993) Ned D. Heindel (1994) Brian M. Rushton (1995) Ronald Breslow (1996) Paul S. Anderson (1997) Paul H.L. Walter (1998) Edel Wasserman (1999) Daryle H. Busch (2000)
2001–present	Attila E. Pavlath (2001) Eli M. Pearce (2002) Elsa Reichmanis (2003) Charles P. Casey (2004) William F. Carroll Jr. (2005) Elizabeth Ann Nalley (2006) Catherine T. Hunt (2007) Bruce E. Bursten (2008) Thomas H. Lane (2009) Joseph Francisco (2010) Nancy B. Jackson (2011) Bassam Z. Shakhashiri (2012) Marinda Li Wu (2013) Thomas J. Barton (2014) Diane Grob Schmidt (2015) Donna J. Nelson (2016) Allison A. Campbell (2017) Peter K. Dorhout (2018) Bonnie A. Charpentier (2019) Luis Echegoyen (2020) H.N. Cheng (2021) Angela K. Wilson (2022) Judith Giordan (2023) Mary K. Carroll (2024) Dorothy J. Phillips, President Elect (2025)

United States National Medal of Science laureates

Behavioral and social science

1960s	1964 Neal Elgar Miller
1980s	1986 Herbert A. Simon 1987 Anne Anastasi George J. Stigler 1988 Milton Friedman
1990s	1990 Leonid Hurwicz Patrick Suppes 1991 George A. Miller 1992 Eleanor J. Gibson 1994 Robert K. Merton 1995 Roger N. Shepard 1996 Paul Samuelson 1997 William K. Estes 1998 William Julius Wilson 1999 Robert M. Solow
2000s	2000 Gary Becker 2003 R. Duncan Luce 2004 Kenneth Arrow 2005 Gordon H. Bower 2008 Michael I. Posner 2009 Mortimer Mishkin
2010s	2011 Anne Treisman 2014 Robert Axelrod 2015 Albert Bandura

Biological sciences

1960s	1963 C. B. van Niel 1964 Theodosius Dobzhansky Marshall W. Nirenberg 1965 Francis P. Rous George G. Simpson Donald D. Van Slyke 1966 Edward F. Knipling Fritz Albert Lipmann William C. Rose Sewall Wright 1967 Kenneth S. Cole Harry F. Harlow Michael Heidelberger Alfred H. Sturtevant 1968 Horace Barker Bernard B. Brodie Detlev W. Bronk Jay Lush Burrhus Frederic Skinner 1969 Robert Huebner Ernst Mayr
1970s	1970 Barbara McClintock Albert B. Sabin 1973 Daniel I. Arnon Earl W. Sutherland Jr. 1974 Britton Chance Erwin Chargaff James V. Neel James Augustine Shannon 1975 Hallowell Davis Paul Gyorgy Sterling B. Hendricks Orville Alvin Vogel 1976 Roger Guillemin Keith Roberts Porter Efraim Racker E. O. Wilson 1979 Robert H. Burris Elizabeth C. Crosby Arthur Kornberg Severo Ochoa Earl Reece Stadtman George Ledyard Stebbins Paul Alfred Weiss
1980s	1981 Philip Handler 1982 Seymour Benzer Glenn W. Burton Mildred Cohn 1983 Howard L. Bachrach Paul Berg Wendell L. Roelofs Berta Scharrer 1986 Stanley Cohen Donald A. Henderson Vernon B. Mountcastle George Emil Palade Joan A. Steitz 1987 Michael E. DeBakey Theodor O. Diener Harry Eagle Har Gobind Khorana Rita Levi-Montalcini 1988 Michael S. Brown Stanley Norman Cohen Joseph L. Goldstein Maurice R. Hilleman Eric R. Kandel Rosalyn Sussman Yalow 1989 Katherine Esau Viktor Hamburger Philip Leder Joshua Lederberg Roger W. Sperry Harland G. Wood
1990s	1990 Baruj Benacerraf Herbert W. Boyer Daniel E. Koshland Jr. Edward B. Lewis David G. Nathan E. Donnall Thomas 1991 Mary Ellen Avery G. Evelyn Hutchinson Elvin A. Kabat Robert W. Kates Salvador Luria Paul A. Marks Folke K. Skoog Paul C. Zamecnik 1992 Maxine Singer Howard Martin Temin 1993 Daniel Nathans Salome G. Waelsch 1994 Thomas Eisner Elizabeth F. Neufeld 1995 Alexander Rich 1996 Ruth Patrick 1997 James Watson Robert A. Weinberg 1998 Bruce Ames Janet Rowley 1999 David Baltimore Jared Diamond Lynn Margulis
2000s	2000 Nancy C. Andreasen Peter H. Raven Carl Woese 2001 Francisco J. Ayala George F. Bass Mario R. Capecchi Ann Graybiel Gene E. Likens Victor A. McKusick Harold Varmus 2002 James E. Darnell Evelyn M. Witkin 2003 J. Michael Bishop Solomon H. Snyder Charles Yanofsky 2004 Norman E. Borlaug Phillip A. Sharp Thomas E. Starzl 2005 Anthony Fauci Torsten N. Wiesel 2006 Rita R. Colwell Nina Fedoroff Lubert Stryer 2007 Robert J. Lefkowitz Bert W. O'Malley 2008 Francis S. Collins Elaine Fuchs J. Craig Venter 2009 Susan L. Lindquist Stanley B. Prusiner
2010s	2010 Ralph L. Brinster Rudolf Jaenisch 2011 Lucy Shapiro Leroy Hood Sallie Chisholm 2012 May Berenbaum Bruce Alberts 2013 Rakesh K. Jain 2014 Stanley Falkow Mary-Claire King Simon Levin

Chemistry

1960s	1964 Roger Adams
1980s	1982 F. Albert Cotton Gilbert Stork 1983 Roald Hoffmann George C. Pimentel Richard N. Zare 1986 Harry B. Gray Yuan Tseh Lee Carl S. Marvel Frank H. Westheimer 1987 William S. Johnson Walter H. Stockmayer Max Tishler 1988 William O. Baker Konrad E. Bloch Elias J. Corey 1989 Richard B. Bernstein Melvin Calvin Rudolph A. Marcus Harden M. McConnell
1990s	1990 Elkan Blout Karl Folkers John D. Roberts 1991 Ronald Breslow Gertrude B. Elion Dudley R. Herschbach Glenn T. Seaborg 1992 Howard E. Simmons Jr. 1993 Donald J. Cram Norman Hackerman 1994 George S. Hammond 1995 Thomas Cech Isabella L. Karle 1996 Norman Davidson 1997 Darleane C. Hoffman Harold S. Johnston 1998 John W. Cahn George M. Whitesides 1999 Stuart A. Rice John Ross Susan Solomon
2000s	2000 John D. Baldeschwieler Ralph F. Hirschmann 2001 Ernest R. Davidson Gábor A. Somorjai 2002 John I. Brauman 2004 Stephen J. Lippard 2005 Tobin J. Marks 2006 Marvin H. Caruthers Peter B. Dervan 2007 Mostafa A. El-Sayed 2008 Joanna Fowler JoAnne Stubbe 2009 Stephen J. Benkovic Marye Anne Fox
2010s	2010 Jacqueline K. Barton Peter J. Stang 2011 Allen J. Bard M. Frederick Hawthorne 2012 Judith P. Klinman Jerrold Meinwald 2013 Geraldine L. Richmond 2014 A. Paul Alivisatos

Engineering sciences

1960s	1962 Theodore von Kármán 1963 Vannevar Bush John Robinson Pierce 1964 Charles S. Draper Othmar H. Ammann 1965 Hugh L. Dryden Clarence L. Johnson Warren K. Lewis 1966 Claude E. Shannon 1967 Edwin H. Land Igor I. Sikorsky 1968 J. Presper Eckert Nathan M. Newmark 1969 Jack St. Clair Kilby
1970s	1970 George E. Mueller 1973 Harold E. Edgerton Richard T. Whitcomb 1974 Rudolf Kompfner Ralph Brazelton Peck Abel Wolman 1975 Manson Benedict William Hayward Pickering Frederick E. Terman Wernher von Braun 1976 Morris Cohen Peter C. Goldmark Erwin Wilhelm Müller 1979 Emmett N. Leith Raymond D. Mindlin Robert N. Noyce Earl R. Parker Simon Ramo
1980s	1982 Edward H. Heinemann Donald L. Katz 1983 Bill Hewlett George Low John G. Trump 1986 Hans Wolfgang Liepmann Tung-Yen Lin Bernard M. Oliver 1987 Robert Byron Bird H. Bolton Seed Ernst Weber 1988 Daniel C. Drucker Willis M. Hawkins George W. Housner 1989 Harry George Drickamer Herbert E. Grier
1990s	1990 Mildred Dresselhaus Nick Holonyak Jr. 1991 George H. Heilmeier Luna B. Leopold H. Guyford Stever 1992 Calvin F. Quate John Roy Whinnery 1993 Alfred Y. Cho 1994 Ray W. Clough 1995 Hermann A. Haus 1996 James L. Flanagan C. Kumar N. Patel 1998 Eli Ruckenstein 1999 Kenneth N. Stevens
2000s	2000 Yuan-Cheng B. Fung 2001 Andreas Acrivos 2002 Leo Beranek 2003 John M. Prausnitz 2004 Edwin N. Lightfoot 2005 Jan D. Achenbach 2006 Robert S. Langer 2007 David J. Wineland 2008 Rudolf E. Kálmán 2009 Amnon Yariv
2010s	2010 Shu Chien 2011 John B. Goodenough 2012 Thomas Kailath

Mathematical, statistical, and computer sciences

1960s	1963 Norbert Wiener 1964 Solomon Lefschetz H. Marston Morse 1965 Oscar Zariski 1966 John Milnor 1967 Paul Cohen 1968 Jerzy Neyman 1969 William Feller
1970s	1970 Richard Brauer 1973 John Tukey 1974 Kurt Gödel 1975 John W. Backus Shiing-Shen Chern George Dantzig 1976 Kurt Otto Friedrichs Hassler Whitney 1979 Joseph L. Doob Donald E. Knuth
1980s	1982 Marshall H. Stone 1983 Herman Goldstine Isadore Singer 1986 Peter Lax Antoni Zygmund 1987 Raoul Bott Michael Freedman 1988 Ralph E. Gomory Joseph B. Keller 1989 Samuel Karlin Saunders Mac Lane Donald C. Spencer
1990s	1990 George F. Carrier Stephen Cole Kleene John McCarthy 1991 Alberto Calderón 1992 Allen Newell 1993 Martin David Kruskal 1994 John Cocke 1995 Louis Nirenberg 1996 Richard Karp Stephen Smale 1997 Shing-Tung Yau 1998 Cathleen Synge Morawetz 1999 Felix Browder Ronald R. Coifman
2000s	2000 John Griggs Thompson Karen Uhlenbeck 2001 Calyampudi R. Rao Elias M. Stein 2002 James G. Glimm 2003 Carl R. de Boor 2004 Dennis P. Sullivan 2005 Bradley Efron 2006 Hyman Bass 2007 Leonard Kleinrock Andrew J. Viterbi 2009 David B. Mumford
2010s	2010 Richard A. Tapia S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan 2011 Solomon W. Golomb Barry Mazur 2012 Alexandre Chorin David Blackwell 2013 Michael Artin

Physical sciences

1960s	1963 Luis W. Alvarez 1964 Julian Schwinger Harold Urey Robert Burns Woodward 1965 John Bardeen Peter Debye Leon M. Lederman William Rubey 1966 Jacob Bjerknes Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar Henry Eyring John H. Van Vleck Vladimir K. Zworykin 1967 Jesse Beams Francis Birch Gregory Breit Louis Hammett George Kistiakowsky 1968 Paul Bartlett Herbert Friedman Lars Onsager Eugene Wigner 1969 Herbert C. Brown Wolfgang Panofsky
1970s	1970 Robert H. Dicke Allan R. Sandage John C. Slater John A. Wheeler Saul Winstein 1973 Carl Djerassi Maurice Ewing Arie Jan Haagen-Smit Vladimir Haensel Frederick Seitz Robert Rathbun Wilson 1974 Nicolaas Bloembergen Paul Flory William Alfred Fowler Linus Carl Pauling Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer 1975 Hans A. Bethe Joseph O. Hirschfelder Lewis Sarett Edgar Bright Wilson Chien-Shiung Wu 1976 Samuel Goudsmit Herbert S. Gutowsky Frederick Rossini Verner Suomi Henry Taube George Uhlenbeck 1979 Richard P. Feynman Herman Mark Edward M. Purcell John Sinfelt Lyman Spitzer Victor F. Weisskopf
1980s	1982 Philip W. Anderson Yoichiro Nambu Edward Teller Charles H. Townes 1983 E. Margaret Burbidge Maurice Goldhaber Helmut Landsberg Walter Munk Frederick Reines Bruno B. Rossi J. Robert Schrieffer 1986 Solomon J. Buchsbaum H. Richard Crane Herman Feshbach Robert Hofstadter Chen-Ning Yang 1987 Philip Abelson Walter Elsasser Paul C. Lauterbur George Pake James A. Van Allen 1988 D. Allan Bromley Paul Ching-Wu Chu Walter Kohn Norman Foster Ramsey Jr. Jack Steinberger 1989 Arnold O. Beckman Eugene Parker Robert Sharp Henry Stommel
1990s	1990 Allan M. Cormack Edwin M. McMillan Robert Pound Roger Revelle 1991 Arthur L. Schawlow Ed Stone Steven Weinberg 1992 Eugene M. Shoemaker 1993 Val Fitch Vera Rubin 1994 Albert Overhauser Frank Press 1995 Hans Dehmelt Peter Goldreich 1996 Wallace S. Broecker 1997 Marshall Rosenbluth Martin Schwarzschild George Wetherill 1998 Don L. Anderson John N. Bahcall 1999 James Cronin Leo Kadanoff
2000s	2000 Willis E. Lamb Jeremiah P. Ostriker Gilbert F. White 2001 Marvin L. Cohen Raymond Davis Jr. Charles Keeling 2002 Richard Garwin W. Jason Morgan Edward Witten 2003 G. Brent Dalrymple Riccardo Giacconi 2004 Robert N. Clayton 2005 Ralph A. Alpher Lonnie Thompson 2006 Daniel Kleppner 2007 Fay Ajzenberg-Selove Charles P. Slichter 2008 Berni Alder James E. Gunn 2009 Yakir Aharonov Esther M. Conwell Warren M. Washington
2010s	2011 Sidney Drell Sandra Faber Sylvester James Gates 2012 Burton Richter Sean C. Solomon 2014 Shirley Ann Jackson

v t e Manhattan Project
Timeline
Sites	Ames Berkeley Chicago (Site A) Dayton Hanford Inyokern Los Alamos Montreal New York Oak Ridge Salt Wells Pilot Plant Trinity Wendover Heavy water sites
Administrators	Vannevar Bush Arthur Compton James B. Conant Priscilla Duffield Thomas Farrell Leslie Groves John Lansdale Ernest Lawrence James Marshall Franklin Matthias Dorothy McKibbin Kenneth Nichols Robert Oppenheimer Deak Parsons Boris Pash William Purnell Frank Spedding Charles Thomas Paul Tibbets Bud Uanna Harold Urey Stafford Warren Ed Westcott Roscoe Wilson
Scientists	Luis Alvarez Robert Bacher Hans Bethe Aage Bohr Niels Bohr Norris Bradbury James Chadwick John Cockcroft Charles Critchfield Harry Daghlian John R. Dunning Enrico Fermi Richard Feynman Val Fitch James Franck Klaus Fuchs Maria Goeppert Mayer George Kistiakowsky George Koval Willard Libby Edwin McMillan Mark Oliphant George B. Pegram Norman Ramsey Jr. Isidor Isaac Rabi James Rainwater Bruno Rossi Glenn Seaborg Emilio Segrè Louis Slotin Henry DeWolf Smyth Leo Szilard Edward Teller Stanisław Ulam John von Neumann John Wheeler Eugene Wigner Robert Wilson Leona Woods Chien-Shiung Wu
Operations	Alsos Mission Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Operation Crossroads Operation Peppermint Project Alberta Silverplate 509th Composite Group Enola Gay Bockscar The Great Artiste
Weapons	Fat Man Little Boy Pumpkin bomb Thin Man
Related topics	African Americans Atomic Energy Act of 1946 Bismuth phosphate process British contribution Calutron Girls Chicago Pile-1 Demon core Einstein–Szilard letter Franck Report Interim Committee K-25 Project Los Alamos Primer Nobel Prize laureates Oppenheimer security hearing Plutonium Quebec Agreement RaLa Experiment S-1 Executive Committee S-50 Project Smyth Report Uranium X-10 Graphite Reactor Y-12 Project
Category

v t e Founding members of the World Cultural Council
Christian B. Anfinsen Werner Arber James Baddiley M. Balasegaram Frank Barnaby Christiaan Barnard Colin Blakemore Aage N. Bohr Norman Borlaug Harold G. Callan André Frédéric Cournand William J. Darby Eduardo de Robertis Cornelis de Jager Guy Blaudin de Thé Jean-François Denisse Venancio Deulofeu Frank J. Dixon Richard S. Doll Audouin Dollfus Jacques-Émile Dubois Gerald Durrell Francisco J. Dy John C. Eccles Paul Ehrlich Manfred Eigen Mohammed El Fasi Ernest L. Eliel Kenneth O. Emergy José Rafael Estrada Hans J. Eysenck Don W. Fawcett David J. Finney Val L. Fitch Carl G. Gahmberg Alfred D. Hershey Gerhard Herzberg David H. Hubel Osmo H. Järvi Reginald V. Jones Adrian Kantrowitz Nathan O. Kaplan Leo A. Kaprio Vassos Karageorghis Peter E. Kent Donald W. Kerst Seymour S. Kety Prem N. Kirpal Georges B. Koelle Walther Manshard Georges Mathé William D. McElroy Henry McIlwain John McMichael Jerrold Meinwald Harry Melville Desmond J. Morris Giuseppe Moruzzi Nevill F. Mott Vernon B. Mountcastle Robert S. Mulliken Walter H. Munk Ilie G. Murgulescu Jayant V. Narlikar Louis E. F. Néel Yuval Ne'eman Bernhard H. Neumann William A. Nierenberg Marshall W. Nirenberg George E. Palade Arthur B. Pardee David Phillips Jacques Piccard Jens J. Pindborg Comlan A. A. Quenum Hermann Rahn G. N. Ramachandran Gunnar Randers Chintamani N. R. Rao Rex Richards Jean Rösch Abraham J. A. Roux Stanley K. Runcorn Donald H. Sadler Hakim Muhammad Saeed Nobufusa Saito Abdus Salam Stuart J. Saunders Menahem Max Schiffer William G. Schneider Glenn T. Seaborg Ernest R. Sears Frederick Seitz Leonard T. Skeggs Stefan Ślopek George J. Smets George D. Snell Leonard Sosnowky Roger W. Sperry Lyman Spitzer Frederick Stewart Heikki Suomalainen Pol Swings Charles Tanford Henry Taube John M. Tedder Edward Teller Howard Temin Harold Thompson Peter C. Thonemann Phillip V. Tobias Alexander R. Todd Jan Peter Toennies Andrzej Trautman Jean L. F. Tricart Ioan Ursu Constantin Vago Eugene van Tamelen Ulf S. von Euler Alan Walsh William J. Whelan Karel F. Wiesner Rosalyn S. Yalow John Z. Young

Founding members of the World Cultural Council