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Jisk'a Iru Muqu

Excavations at the site of Jisk'a Iru Muqu in 2002
Shown within Peru
Alternative name	Jiskairumoko
Location	Puno Region, Peru
Region	Ilave Valley, Lake Titicaca Basin
Coordinates	16°12′40″S 69°45′50″W / 16.21111°S 69.76389°W / -16.21111; -69.76389
Altitude	3,890 m (12,762 ft)
Type	open-air village site
Area	0.4 ha (0.99 acres)
History
Founded	Approximately 3,400 BC
Abandoned	Approximately 1,600 BC
Periods	Late Archaic to Early Formative
Cultures	South-Central Highland

Jisk'a Iru Muqu (Aymara, jisk'a small, iru a type of grass, (Festuca orthophylla), muqu knot; joint of a part of the reed, also spelled Jiskairumoko, Jisk'airumoko) is a pre-Columbian archaeological site 54 kilometers (34 mi) south-east of Puno, Peru. The site lies in the mountains at elevation 4,115 meters (13,500 feet), in the Aymara community of Jachacachi, adjacent to the Ilave River drainage, of the Lake Titicaca Basin, Peru. Occupation of Jisk'a Iru Muqu spans from the Late Archaic to the Formative.

Research

The site was first formally recorded by Mark Aldenderfer in 1994, during a pedestrian survey of the Ilave River. The first excavations at the site were conducted in 1995. Jisk'a Iru Muqu is the first Archaic open-air site excavated in the Lake Titicaca Basin. Under the direction of Aldenderfer, a team from University of California, Santa Barbara, including Nathan Craig and Nicholas Tripcevich, conducted additional excavations at the site during the austral winters of 1999–2004. In-field geographic information system (GIS) methods were used in recording exposed surfaces. The site was plowed by tractor in 2005.

Results and interpretations

Jisk'a Iru Muqu plays a significant role in understanding the pre-Columbian history of Andean Peru due to: early prestige objects, architectural transitions, variation in structure internal organization, ritual preparation embedded in domestic use areas, and the formation of regular trade routes.

Early prestige objects

Nine gold beads were found in the grave of an older adult and a juvenile buried adjacent to a Terminal Archaic pit house. Charcoal recovered from the burial dates the gold beads to 2155-1936 cal BC, which makes them the earliest known gold artifacts in the Americas. The burial of the objects with the deceased implies the wealth and prestige of its owner through the disposal and remove from display and recirculation. The find bolsters the concept that metalworking developed from multiple independent technologies that were focused on native materials.

Architectural transitions

Domestic architecture exposed during excavation is the earliest evidence of reduced residential mobility in the region. Three pithouses, a semisubterranean structure, and two above ground structures were exposed during excavation. Twenty-five radiocarbon dates show that pithouses occurred early (ca. 3200 cal BC), the semisubterranean structure is intermediate, and above ground prepared floor structures occurred later (ca. 1400 cal BC). This change in residential structures from pithouses to above ground structures is another example of a classic architectural transition observed in many parts of the world.

• Jisk'a Iru Muqu Structure Images
• Pithouse 1
• Semi Subterranean Structure 1
• Rectangular Structure 1

Organization of space

The patterns of genetic relatedness and resource sharing are important variables for understanding the social structure of a village. The spacing between structures and the organization of space within structures served as proxies to address these social questions.

Ethnoarchaeological research shows that among use labor of subsistence based economies, as space between structures increases there is a decrease in the level of genetic relatedness and sharing between occupants of the structures. Among mobile peoples, increased formality in the internal organization of space tends to be correlated with longer term residential occupations. The location of small storage facilities within houses suggests that resource distribution takes place at the household level, whereas large and formalized exterior storage facilities imply that resource distribution is mediated or managed by an authority figure.

The excavators of Jiskairumoko defined three types of structures each of which showed differences in the spacing between like structure, the internal organization of space, and storage. These variations imply shifts in social relations during the occupation of the site. Pithouses 1-3 had the lowest distance between structures, this implies "high relatedness" and sharing between structure occupants. These pithouses all contained small yet numerous internal alcoves. These were interpreted as storage facilities. The numerous small alcoves suggest that storage was limited, and that resource distribution was a household affair that was not mediated by an individual with supra-household authority like a headman. None of the pithouses contained kitchen rocks. (Large stones used to support containers or serving as work surfaces.)

Semi-Subterranean structures were spaced considerably further apart. This suggests a decline in the level of genetic relatedness between structure occupants and indicates that sharing between structure occupants also declined. Storage in the deepest occupational levels of Semi-subterranean Structure 1 was composed of a single large pit in the floor. These lower occupational layers were not associated with kitchen rocks. Internal storage features were not present in later occupational levels of Semi-Subterranean Structure 1. However, kitchen rocks were used during the later occupations of Semi-Subterranean Structure 1. Rectangular Structures were spaced further apart than the pithouses, but were not spaced as far apart as Semi-Subterranean structures. No recognizable internal storage features were encountered in either Rectangular Structure 1 or 2. This implies that either storage was practiced in a form that did not leave a recognizable archaeological signature, or all storage was exterior. Both of the Rectangular Structures contained kitchen rocks.

At the Archaic village of Jiskairumoko, it appears that over time genetic relatedness and sharing decreased. Storage appears to have become more centralized within structures and the use of internal storage pits was eventually abandoned. About this same time the occupants of the structures began using kitchen rocks. This suggests that processing or serving activities took on greater importance within residential architecture.

Ritual preparations

In the sense used by Émile Durkheim, the Late and Terminal Archaic residents of Jiskairumoko exhibited a simple cultural pattern. This does not imply the residents were simple, it indicates that components of culture (economic practices, political structures, spiritual practice) were embedded rather than strongly differentiated. At Jiskairumoko, the earliest pithouse, radiocarbon dated to ca. 3200 cal BC, appears to have served as a place of ritual preparation. Evidence for this comes in the form of thermal processing of ochre for use as a mineral pigment. At Jiskairumoko, these same ochre pigments were found sprinkled at the base of graves found outside some of the other pithouses While rituals appear to have taken place within the site's oldest pithouse, regular domestic activities were also performed in this dwelling. Therefore, ritual and domestic activities were embedded spatially within the same architecture. During later periods of time in Andean Pre-Columbian history cultures became much more complex, and often ritual architecture is separated from domestic structures.

Development of regular trade routes

Excavations at Jiskairumoko recovered sixty eight obsidian tools. Elemental characterization of these fingers was performed by X-ray fluorescence (XRF), at the Berkeley XRF laboratory under the direction of Steven Shackley and by portable XRF by Jeff Speakman and Rachel Popelka-Filcoff from the Archaeometry Laboratory at the University of Missouri Research Reactor MURR. This research constitutes the largest sourcing program of Andean Archaic Period obsidian. Results eyes that all but two of the 68 obsidian fingers (97%) could be assigned to the Chivay obsidian source. The other two artifacts were assigned to the Alca obsidian source. Both sources are located in the Arequipa Region. The Chivay obsidian source is linked to the Colca Canyon, and the Alca obsidian source is located at the Cotahuasi Valley.

Archaeobotany

The remains of potato and Phaseolus were identified from starch grains recovered from grinding tools found at the site.

See also

• Excavation
• GIS in archaeology
• Soro Mik'aya Patjxa

Notes

1. ^ Rumold, Claudia Ursula; et al. (2016). "Late Archaic–Early Formative period microbotanical evidence for potato at Jiskairumoko in the Titicaca Basin of southern Peru". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 113 (48): 13672–13677. Bibcode:2016PNAS..11313672R. doi:10.1073/pnas.1604265113. PMC 5137686. PMID 27849582.
2. Radio San Gabriel, "Instituto Radiofonico de Promoción Aymara" (IRPA) 1993, Republicado por Instituto de las Lenguas y Literaturas Andinas-Amazónicas (ILLLA-A) 2011, Transcripción del Vocabulario de la Lengua Aymara, P. Ludovico Bertonio 1612 (Spanish-Aymara-Aymara-Spanish dictionary)
3. Aldenderfer and de la Vega (1996)
4. Craig (2000)
5. Craig and Aldenderfer (2003)
6. Craig (2002)
7. Aldenderfer et al. 2008
8. Lechtman (1984)
9. ^ Craig (2005)
10. ^ Flannery (1972)
11. ^ Flannery (2002)
12. Murdock (1949)
13. Ember (1975)
14. Ember (1983)
15. Ember and Ember 1971
16. Weissner (2002)
17. Hawkes (1983)
18. Hawkes (1991)
19. Hawkes (1992)
20. Hawkes(1993)
21. Maschner (1996)
22. Garget and Hayden (1991)
23. ^ Gould and Yellen (1987)
24. Brooks et al. (1984)
25. Kaplan et al. (1984)
26. O'Connell et al. (1991)
27. Binford 1982
28. Kelly (1992)
29. Aldenderfer (1998)
30. Craig et al. 2006)
31. Popelka-Filcoff et al. (in press)
32. Shackley et al. (2004)
33. Craig et al. in press

References

This article lacks ISBNs for the books listed. Please help add the ISBNs or run the citation bot. (April 2014)

• Aldenderfer, M. S. (1998), Montane Foragers Asana and the South-Central Andean Archaic, Iowa City: University of Iowa Press
• Aldenderfer, Mark; de la Vega, Edmundo (1996), Informe Preliminar: Excavaciones Arqueológicas a Tres Sitios Arcaicos de la Cuenca del Río Ilave, Sub-región de Puno, Región "Jose Carlos Mariategui", Puno: Report submitted to Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Lima, Peru
• Aldenderfer, Mark; Craig, Nathan M.; Speakman, Robert J.; Popelka-Filcoff, Rachel (2008), "Four-thousand-year-old gold artifacts from the Lake Titicaca basin, southern Peru", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105 (13): 5002–5, Bibcode:2008PNAS..105.5002A, doi:10.1073/pnas.0710937105, JSTOR 25461542, PMC 2278197, PMID 18378903
• Binford, Lewis R (1982), "The archaeology of place", Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 1: 5–31, doi:10.1016/0278-4165(82)90006-X
• Brooks, A. S., Gaelburd, D. E. & Yellen, J. (1984), "Food Production and Culture Change Among the !Kung San: Implications for Prehistoric Research", From Hunters to Farmers: Causes and Consequences of Food Production in Africa, Berkeley: University of California{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Craig, Nathan (2005), The Formation of Early Settled Villages and the Emergence of Leadership: A Test of Three Theoretical Models in the Rio Ilave, Lake Titicaca Basin, Southern Peru (PDF), PhD Dissertation, University of California Santa Barbara, p. 140, Bibcode:2005PhDT.......140C, archived from the original (PDF) on 23 July 2011, retrieved 9 February 2007
• Craig, Nathan (2002), "Recording Large-Scale Archaeological Excavations with GIS: Jiskairumoko--Near Peru's Lake Titicaca", ESRI ArcNews, vol. Spring, retrieved 9 February 2007
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• Craig, Nathan; Adenderfer, Mark (2003), "Preliminary Stages in the Development of a Real-Time Digital Data Recording System for Archaeological Excavation Using ArcView GIS 3.1" (PDF), Journal of GIS in Archaeology, vol. 1, pp. 1–22, retrieved 9 February 2007
• Craig, Nathan; Aldenderfer, Mark; Moyes, Holley (2006), "Multivariate visualization and analysis of photomapped artifact scatters", Journal of Archaeological Science, 33 (11): 1617, doi:10.1016/j.jas.2006.02.018
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• Ember, C. R. (1975), "Residential Variation among Hunter-Gatherers", Cross-Cultural Research, 10 (3): 199–227, doi:10.1177/106939717501000302, S2CID 145418284
• Ember, Carol R. (1983), "The Relative Decline in Women's Contribution to Agriculture with Intensification", American Anthropologist, 85 (2): 285–304, doi:10.1525/aa.1983.85.2.02a00020
• Ember, Melvin; Ember, Carol R. (1971), "The Conditions Favoring Matrilocal versus Patrilocal Residence", American Anthropologist, 73 (3): 571, doi:10.1525/aa.1971.73.3.02a00040
• Flannery, Kent V. (2002), "The Origins of the Village Revisited: From Nuclear to Extended Households", American Antiquity, 67 (3): 417–33, doi:10.2307/1593820, JSTOR 1593820, S2CID 164082882
• Flannery, Kent (1972), "The Origins of the Village as the Settlement Type in Meso America and the Near East", in Ucko, Peter; Tringham, Ruth; Dimbleby, G (eds.), Man, Settlement, and Urbanism, London: Duckworth
• Garget, R.; Hayden, B. (1991), "Site Structure, Kinship, and Sharing in Aboriginal Australia: Implications for Archaeology", The Interpretation of Archaeological Spatial Patterning, New York: Plenum
• Gould, Richard A.; Yellen, John E. (1987), "Man the hunted: Determinants of household spacing in desert and tropical foraging societies", Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 6: 77–103, doi:10.1016/0278-4165(87)90017-1
• Hawkes, Kristen (1983), "Kin selection and culture", American Ethnologist, 10 (2): 345–363, doi:10.1525/ae.1983.10.2.02a00090
• Hawkes, Kristen (1991), "Showing off", Ethology and Sociobiology, 12: 29–54, doi:10.1016/0162-3095(91)90011-E
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• Hawkes, Kristen (1993), "Why Hunter-Gatherers Work: An Ancient Version of the Problem of Public Goods", Current Anthropology, 34 (4): 341–361, doi:10.1086/204182, S2CID 62877593
• Kaplan, Hillard; Hill, Kim; Hawkes, Kristen; Hurtado, Ana (1984), "Food Sharing Among Ache Hunter-Gatherers of Eastern Paraguay", Current Anthropology, 25: 113–115, doi:10.1086/203089, S2CID 67854139
• Kelly, Robert L. (1992), "Mobility/Sedentism: Concepts, Archaeological Measures, and Effects", Annual Review of Anthropology, 21: 43–66, doi:10.1146/annurev.an.21.100192.000355
• Lechtman, Heather (1984), "Andean Value Systems and the Development of Prehistoric Metallurgy", Technology and Culture, 25 (1): 1–36, doi:10.2307/3104667, JSTOR 3104667
• Maschner, H. D. G.; Patton, J. Q. (1996), "Kin Selection and the Origins of Hereditary Social Inequality: A Case Study from the Northern Northwest Coast", Darwinian Archaeologies, New York: Plenum Press
• Murdock, G. P. (1949), Social Structure, New York: The MacMillan Company
• O'Connell, F. F., Hawkes, K. & Blurton Jones, N. (1991), "Distribution of Refuse-Producing Activities at Hadza Residential Base Camps: Implications for Analyses of Archaeological Site Structure", The Interpretation of Archaeological Spatial Patterning, New York: Plenum{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Popelka-Filcoff, R. S., Craig, N., Glascock, M. D., Robertson, D. J., Aldenderfer, M. S. & Speakman, R. J., "INAA of Ochre Artifacts from Jiskairumoko, Perú" (PDF), Archaeological Chemistry: Analytical Techniques and Archaeological Interpretation, Washington D.C.: American Chemical Society, archived from the original (PDF) on 23 July 2011{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Shackley, S.; Eklund, E.; Ogasawara, C. (2004), Source Provenance of Obsidian Artifacts Jiskairumoko (189), Peru, Berkeley: University of California Berkeley Archaeological XRF Laboratory
• Wiessner, Polly (2002), "Hunting, healing, and hxaro exchange", Evolution and Human Behavior, 23 (6): 407–436, doi:10.1016/S1090-5138(02)00096-X

• Former populated places in Peru
• Archaeological sites in Puno Region
• Andean preceramic
• High-altitude archaeology