| Battle of Kandalur salai Capture of Kandalur salai | |||||||||
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| Part of Chola Expansions under Rajaraja I (late 10th century CE) | |||||||||
 Inscription of Chola emperor Rajaraja from Suchindram, Kanyakumari (15th regnal year) | |||||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
 Chola Empire |
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| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
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Rajaraja Chola I |
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| Units involved | |||||||||
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Chola Army (?) Chola Navy |
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| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
| Unknown | Destruction of Kandalur Salai | ||||||||
The battle of Kandalur salai (c. 988 CE), also spelled Kanthaloor salai, was a naval engagement of the Cholas under Rajaraja I (985—1014 CE) against the "salai" at Kandalur in south Kerala. The exact location of Kandalur—somewhere south Kerala—is a subject of scholarly debate. The above (988 CE) event is sometimes assumed to be identical with the "conquest of Vizhinjam by a general of Rajaraja ", before the "burning of Lanka", described in the Tiruvalangadu Grant/Plates.
The phrase "Kandalur salai kalamarutta" is again used as a title with distinction of three other Chola emperors also (Rajendra, Rajadhiraja and Kulottunga).
Assessment of the title
The "salais" were considered prized possessions as they are claimed to have been sacked by many kings of South India. The character of the salais was re-examined in the 1970 paper 'Kantalur Salai-New Light on Brahmin Expansion in South India' by historian M. G. S. Narayanan.
It is now clear that the salai (or ghatika or kalakam or kalam) was a peculiar institution... A multipurpose training centre for celibate arms-bearing Brahmins (Chathar/Chathirar) in material and spiritual fields (including military training to equip them to serve the chieftain or the king and vedic and sastraic studies)...
— M. G. S. Narayanan (1970)
Older assessments
Different views were expressed by early scholars regarding the character of "salai" (such as a naval base (or) a military training centre (or) a cantonment (or) an ammunition depot).
- Dr. Hultzsch
- "Built a jewell-like hall at Kandalur" or
- "Cut the vessel in the hall at Kandalur" or
- "Destroyed ships at Kandalur "
- Gopinatha Rao - "destroyed/discontinued/transferred the Brahmin feeding at Kandalur Feeding House or Hall "
- Desikavinayakam Pillai - "regulation of the Brahmin feeding at Kandalur Feeding House "
- K. A. Nilakanta Sastri - "destroyed ships at Kandalur "
- Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan Pillai - "discontinued/destroyed the feeding of the armed Brahmins at Kandalur".
Location of Kandalur salai
The exact location of Kandalur is a subject of scholarly debate. It is possible the original Kandalur salai was located near the Ay headquarters Vizhinjam and the deity was later shifted to Trivandrum (after the Chola raids of the 10th-11th centuries).
- Original (?) location:— a village around 20 km east of Vizhinjam with a Shiva temple called Kandalur Salai.
- Shifted (?) location:— within the city of Trivandrum (Valiya Salai or Valiassala Temple)
Raid by Rajaraja I (c. 988 CE)
As per historian K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, the capture was the first military achievement of Emperor Rajaraja's reign. The success was summed up in the famous phrase "Kandalur salai kalamarutta", which precedes Rajaraja's name in several of his inscriptions from the 4th regnal year (988 CE) onwards.
- The Kandalur salai belonged to the Ay chief, a vassal of the Pandya king at Madurai, in the mid-860s (865 CE).
- It is possible that at the time of the raid, the salai may have been under control of the Chera Perumal king of Kerala, Bhaskara Ravi. If that was the case, the campaign can be viewed as part of Rajaraja's early battles against the Cheras, Pandyas and the rulers of Sri Lanka.
- However, some historians argue that Kandalur salai, which only later Chola inscriptions (1048 CE) claim to have belonged to the Chera Perumals, may have been held by the Pandyas when it was attacked by Rajaraja I.
Chengam hero stone inscription
A hero stone inscription, dated to the 14th regnal year of Rajaraja I, was unearthed from Chengam, Tiruvannamalai in November, 2009. It supports the view that a military engagement indeed took place at Kandalur. It has a eulogy that talks about Rajaraja I, "who defeated the Nolambas, the Gangas and the Vengai Nadu", "beheading the Malai Alarkal of Kandalur Salai". According to the newspaper report, it also describes that Rajaraja I built a mantapa platform there, that he split in two a naval vessel belonging to the Chera king and that he destroyed a number of "boats".
References to Kandalur salai
Corrections by M. G. S. Narayanan on K. A. Nilakanta Sastri are employed.
- 865 CE — Huzur Office/Parthivapuram Plates of Ay chieftain Karunantatakkan Srivallabha (a vassal of the Pandya king Srimara Srivallabha).
- 988 CE — first Chola reference to the fall of Kandalur salai ("Kandalur salai kalamarutta").
- 1018-19 CE — Chola (Rajadhiraja and Rajendra) campaigns in Kerala.
"...confined the undaunted king of Venatu to Chenatu .... and put on a fresh garland of Vanchi after capturing Kantalur Salai while the strong Villavan hid himself in terror inside the jungle..."
- 1048 CE – Velur and Tiruppangili inscriptions – Kandalur salai is mentioned as 'Cheralan Velaikkelu Kantalur Chalai'.
- Kalingattupparani (III-21) mentions Kulottunga Chola's victory of over the Bow Emblem and the Chola capture of Kantalur Salai.
- c. 1102 — c.1118 CE – Jatavarman Parakrama Pandya mentions the capture of Kantalur Salai (for his Chola overlord Vikrama Chola).
References
- ^ Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013) . Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. pp. 115–117 and 135. ISBN 9788188765072.
- Roy, Kaushik (2022). A Global History of Pre-Modern Warfare. Routledge. ISBN 9781000432121.
- ^ Karashima, Noburu (2014). "The Balance of Two Powers". A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. Oxford University Press. pp. 125–26.
- ^ Narayanan, M. G. S. (1970). "Kandalur Salai: New Light on the Nature of Aryan Expansion in South India". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 32: 125–136.
- ^ Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1955). A History of South India: From Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagara. Oxford University Press. pp. 164–9.
- ^ Venkayya, V., South Indian Inscriptions, (Madras), Vol II, Intn, p. 2.
- ^ Subramanian, T. S. (27 November 2009). "Unearthed Stone Ends Debate". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 24 June 2018.