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List of kings of Axum

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The kings of Axum ruled an important trading state in the area which is now northern Ethiopia and Eritrea, from 400 BC to 960 AD.

Sources

Further information: Regnal lists of Ethiopia Further information: Aksumite currency

Various regnal lists of Axumite monarchs have survived to the present day via manuscripts or oral tradition. However, the lists often contradict each other and many lists contain incomplete or scattered information. The lists were likely compiled over a long period at several different monasteries. Some historians consider these lists to be untrustworthy. There are a number of legendary figures at the beginning of some lists whose historicity is difficult to confirm or trace. Axumite kings may have used multiple names similar to the later Emperors of the Ethiopian Empire (1270–1974), resulting in different names for the same ruler on different lists.

Aksumite coins have proven useful for constructing a chronology of Axumite kings. Around 98 percent of the city of Axum has not yet been excavated. At least 18 kings have been identified with coinage covering the period from the late third century to the early seventh century.

List

The following table contains names from both traditional regnal lists and names that are archeologically verified. German August Dillmann grouped the regnal lists into three types and the order of names will be based on his lists. The spelling of certain names are taken from lists recorded by E. A. Wallis Budge. The overall order of monarchs is partially based on the 1922 regnal list of Ethiopia, which is the only official Ethiopian regnal list that attempted to combine names from different lists into a longer chronological order.

Legendary period

Monarchs who reigned before Menelik I.

Portrait Name
 Dates Notes
Arwe "the serpent" 18th century BC
(traditional) 		Mythical serpent who reigned for 400 years.
Also known as Wainaba.
Angabo 14th century BC
(traditional) 		Killed the evil serpent king Arwe.
Ruled for 200 years.
Gedur I 12th century BC
(traditional) 		Ruled for 100 years.
Also known as Zagdur.
Sebado 11th century BC
(traditional) 		Ruled for 50 years.
Kawnasya 10th century BC
(traditional) 		Ruled for 1 year.
Makeda / Azeb 10th century BC
(traditional) 		Daughter of Kawnasya. Ruled for 50 years.
In Ethiopian tradition, she is identified with the Biblical Queen of Sheba.

BCE era

Monarchs who reigned from Menelik I to Bazen.

Portrait Name
 Dates Notes
Ibn al-Hakim (Menelik I) 10th century BC
(traditional) 		Son of Makeda and Solomon in Ethiopian tradition.
No. 1 on Dillmann's lists A and B.
Reigned for 24, 25 or 29 years.
Handadyu I No. 2 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 1 or 8 years.
Tomai No. 2 on Dillmann's list B.
Reigned for 15 years.
Son of Menelik I.
Sometimes known as Abd-Rakid.
Aweda No. 3 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 11 years.
Also known as Aweda-Amat.
Gedur II No. 3 on Dillmann's list B.
Aksumay No. 4 on Dillmann's list B.
Awseyo No. 4 on Dillmann's list A and no. 5 on Dillmann's list B.
Reigned for 3 years.
Sawe / Tahawasya No. 5 on Dillmann's list A and no. 6 on list B.
Reigned for 31 or 34 years.
Abralyus No. 7 on Dillmann's list B.
Warada Dahay No. 8 on Dillmann's list B.
Handadyu II No. 9 on Dillmann's list B.
Warada Nagash No. 10 on Dillmann's list B.
Awseya No. 11 on Dillmann's list B.
Gasyo No. 6 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for half a day.
Mawat No. 7 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for either 8 years and 1 month, 8 years and 4 months, or 20 years and 1 month.
Confusion of reign length may have resulted from similarity between the Ge'ez numbers for 8 (፰) and 20 (፳) and the numbers for 1 (፩) and 4 (፬).
Elalyon No. 12 on Dillmann's list B.
Toma Seyon No. 13 on Dillmann's list B.
Bahas / Basyo No. 8 on Dillmann's list A and no. 14 on list B.
Reigned for 9 years.
Possibly the same king as Gasyo in list A.
Awtet I No. 15 on Dillmann's list B.
Zaware Nebrat No. 16 on Dillmann's list B.
Safay No. 17 on Dillmann's list B.
Ramhay c. 330s–320s BC
(traditional) 		No. 18 on Dillmann's list B.
According to an unpublished manuscript from Aksum, this king was a contemporary of Alexander the Great and asked for Greek technicians and engineers to build palaces, monuments and stelae, one of which was destroyed centuries later by Gudit.
Hande No. 19 on Dillmann's list B.
Kawida No. 9 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 2 years.
Kanaz No. 10 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 10 years.
Hadena No. 11 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 9 years.
A female monarch according to the 1922 regnal list.
Wazeha No. 12 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 1 year.
Hadir No. 13 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 2 years.
Kalas No. 14 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 6 or 7 years.
Confusion may have arisen from the similarity of the Ge'ez numbers for 6 (፮) and 7 (፯).
Satyo No. 15 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 16 or 17 years.
Filya / Safelya No. 16 on Dillmann's list A and no. 20 on list B.
Reigned for 26 or 27 years.
E. A. Wallis Budge theorised this king was Aphilas.
Aglebu / Aglebul No. 17 on Dillmann's list A and no. 21 on list B.
Reigned for 3 years.
Awsena No. 18 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 1 year.
A female monarch according to the 1922 regnal list.
Bawawel No. 22 on Dillmann's list B.
Birwas / Bawaris No. 19 on Dillmann's list A and no. 23 on list B.
Reigned for 29 years.
Mahasi No. 20 on Dillmann's list A and no. 24 on list B.
Reigned for 1 year.
Nalke No. 25 on Dillmann's list B.
Bazen 8 BC–8 or 9 AD (E.C.)
(traditional) 		No. 21 on Dillmann's list A and no. 26 on list B.
Reigned for 16 or 17 years.
Axumite regnal lists consistently date this king's reign to 8 years before the birth of Jesus.
A tomb has been identified in local tradition as belong to Bazen.

CE Era (Pre-Christian)

Monarchs who reigned after Bazen and before the Christianisation of Ethiopia.

  Monarchs who are attested via archaeology and/or external written sources outside the traditional regnal lists.
Portrait Name
 Dates Notes
Sartu No. 1 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 26 or 27 years.
Senfa Asgad No. 1 on Dillmann's list C.
Senfa Arad No. 1 on Dillmann's list B.
L'as No. 2 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 10 years.
Bahr Asagad No. 2 on both Dillmann's list B and list C.
Masenh No. 3 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 7 years.
Germa Sor No. 3 on Dillmann's list B.
Setwa No. 4 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 9 years.
Germa Asfare I No. 4 on Dillmann's list B and no. 3 on list C.
Adgala No. 5 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 10 years and 6 or 7 months.
Agba No. 6 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 6 months.
Serada No. 4 on Dillmann's list C.
Malis or Malik No. 7 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 4, 6 or 7 years.
Kulu Seyon No. 5 on Dillmann's list C.
Hakli No. 8 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 13 years.
Zoskales 1st century The earliest known Axumite king from outside the traditional regnal lists.
Recorded in Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.
Could be the king Za Hakli or a local ruler in Adulis.
The identification with Hakli has been disputed by some historians because the earliest of the regnal lists post date the Periplus by well over a thousand years
Sarguai No. 4 on Dillmann's list B and no. 6 on list C.
Demahe No. 9 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 10 years.
Zaray No. 5 on Dillmann's list B and no. 7 on list C.
Awtet II No. 10 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 2 years.
Bagamai No. 8 on Dillmann's list C.
El–Aweda No. 11 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 30 years.
Djan Asagad No. 9 on Dillmann's list C.
Saba Asgad No. 6 on Dillmann's list B.
Zegen and Rema
(Joint rule) 		No. 12 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 4 or 8 years.
Seyon Hegez No. 10 on Dillmann's list C.
Seyon Geza No. 7 on Dillmann's list B.
Moal Genha No. 11 on Dillmann's list C.
Gafale No. 13 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 1 year.
Besi Sark No. 14 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 4 years.
Agdur No. 8 on Dillmann's list B and no. 13 on list C.
Ela–Asguagua No. 15 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 76 or 77 years.
GDRT
(vocalized by historians as Gadarat) 		Early 3rd century Inscriptions of GDR are the oldest surviving royal inscriptions in the Ge'ez alphabet.
Inscriptions mention his son BYGT (vocalized as "Beygat" or "Beyga").
Possibly the king who wrote the Monumentum Adulitanum.
His name could have inspired the names Gedur and Zagdur that appear on traditional lists.
Ela–Herka No. 16 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 21 years.
Besi Saweza No. 17 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 1 year.
Wakana No. 18 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 1 or 2 days.
A female monarch according to the 1922 regnal list.
Hadus No. 19 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 4 months.
Ela–Sagal No. 20 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 2 or 3 years.
Ela–Asfeha I No. 21 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 14 years.
ʽDBH
(vocalized by historians as `Azaba or `Adhebah) 		First half of the 3rd century Known through South Arabian inscriptions.
Inscriptions mention his son GRMT (vocalized as "Girma").
Ela–Segab No. 22 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 23 years.
Ela–Samara No. 23 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 3 years.
Sembrouthes c. 250 Known from a single inscription in Ancient Greek that was found at Dekemhare, which is dated to his 24th regnal year.
First known ruler of Ethiopia to use the title "King of Kings".
May have erected the Monumentum Adulitanum.
May be the same king as Ela–Samara, but regnal lists only record 3 years of rule for him.
DTWNS
(vocalized by historians as Datawnas) 		Second half of the 3rd century Mentioned with his son ZQRNS (vocalized as "Zaqarnas") in an inscription from al-Mis'al in Yemen.
Ela–Aiba No. 24 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 16 or 17 years.
Ela–Eskendi No. 25 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 37 years.
Ela–Saham I No. 26 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 9 years.
Ela–San No. 27 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 13 years.
Ela–Ayga No. 28 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 18 years.
Endubis c. 295–310 The oldest known Axumite coins date to this king's reign.
Aphilas c. 310–early 320s Only known from coins minted during his reign.
Ousanas I
Ela–Ameda I
Saifa Ared 		early 320s–mid 340s Stuart Munro-Hay believed it is "very likely" that Ousanas is the king to whom Aedesius and Frumentius were brought. This king is known as Ella Amida in Ethiopian tradition.
No. 29 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 30 years and 8 months according to traditional lists.
Known as Tazer in some sources and lists.
Saifa Ared is the throne name of Tazer, and this name is no. 9 on Dillmann's list B and no. 12 on list C.
Tazer/Seifa Ared is the father of Abreha and Atsbeha in Ethiopian tradition.
Wazeba late 330s Only known from coins minted during his reign, which were the first to be engraved in Ge'ez.
Possibly a usurper during the reign of Ousanas.
Ela–Ahyawa
Sofya (Regent) 		mid 340s Regent during the minority of her son Ezana.
According to an unpublished history of kings from Axum, this ruler was the wife of Ella Amida (Ousanas) and reigned for three years during the minority of her sons Abreha and Atsbeha.
The Gedle Abreha and Asbeha from the Church of Abreha wa-Atsbeha names her Sofya, and states she was the wife of king Tazer (Ousanas) and mother of Abreha and Atsbeha.
No. 30 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 3 years.
Known as Egwala Anbasa in some sources.

Christian Monarchs (4th–10th centuries)

Monarchs who were Christian, beginning with the reign of Ezana of Axum (historical) and/or Abreha and Atsbeha (traditional).

  Monarchs who are attested via archaeology and/or external written sources outside the traditional regnal lists.
Portrait Name
 Dates Notes
Ezana / Ezanas mid 340s–380 First Christian king of Axum. Converted by Frumentius.
The exact date for the conversion is unknown and the circumstances around it have been obscured by hagiographical writings which have been "embellished by novelistic elements".
The latest possible year for Ezana's conversion would be 360, which was calculated by Ethiopians as the beginning of an era in their medieval calendar (Amata Mehrat).
His name does not appear on traditional regnal lists.
Ela–Abreha and Atsbeha
(Joint rule) 		Early 4th century In Ethiopian tradition, these brothers were the first to convert to Christianity.
Likely based on Ezana and his brother Saizana.
No. 31 on Dillmann's list A, no. 10 on list B and no. 14 on list C.
Reigned for 27 years and 6 months.
Abreha I
(Sole rule) 		No. 1 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 12 years.
Atsbeha I
(Sole rule) 		No. 1 on Dillmann's list B.
Asfeha II No. 2 on Dillmann's list A and no. 1 on list C.
Reigned for 6 or 7 years.
Sahel I No. 3 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 14 years.
Ouazebas late 4th century Only known from coins minted during his reign.
Adhana I No. 4 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 14 years.
A female monarch according to the 1922 regnal list.
Rete No. 5 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 1 year.
Asfeha III No. 6 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 1 year.
Atsbeha II No. 7 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 5 years.
Eon/Noe first third of 5th century Primarily known from coins minted during his reign.
Name written as Eon Bisi Anaaph on his coins.
His coins were the first to use the title of "King of the land of the Abyssinians" instead of "King of the Axumites".
Possibly the "Huina" from the Book of the Himyarites.
MHDYS
(vocalized as Mehadeyis) 		c. 430 Primarily known from coins minted during his reign.
May have been mentioned in Dionysiaca by Nonnus.
Ameda II No. 8 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 16 years.
Abreha II No. 9 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 6 months.
Sahel II No. 10 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 2 months.
Gabaz I No. 11 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 2 years.
Sahel III No. 12 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 1 year.
Atzbah No. 13 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 3 years.
Ebana middle third of 5th century Only known from coins minted during his reign.
Abreha III and Adhana II
(Joint rule) 		No. 14 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 16 years.
Adhana II was a female monarch according to the 1922 regnal list.
Saham II No. 15 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 28 years.
Nezool / Nezana later 5th century Only known from coins minted during his reign.
The name Nezool is the king's native name transcribed into Greek.
The title "King of the land of the Abyssinians" was replaced by the formula "God's beneficence" beginning with coins of this king.
Ameda III No. 16 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 12 years.
Sahel IV No. 17 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 2 years.
Sebah No. 18 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 2 years.
Saham III No. 19 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 15 years.
Gabaz II No. 20 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 21 years.
Agabe and Lewi
(Joint rule) 		No. 21 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 4 years.
Arfed No. 2 on both Dillmann's lists B and C.
Brother of and co-ruler with Amsi according to list C.
Amsi No. 3 on both Dillmann's lists B and C.
Brother of and co-ruler with Arfed according to list C.
Arad No. 4 on Dillmann's list C.
Saladoba No. 4 on Dillmann's list B and no. 5 on list C.
Ameda IV
Alamida 		late 530s–550s The Nine Saints came to Ethiopia during his reign.
No. 22 on Dillmann's list A, no. 5 on list B and no. 6 on list C.
Reigned for 11 years.
Yaqob I and Dawit
(Joint rule) 		No. 23 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned jointly for 3 years.
Armah I No. 24 on Dillmann's list A and no. 13 on list C.
Reigned for 14 years and 7 months.
Ousas / Ousanas II
Zitana / Tazena 		early 6th century No. 25 on Dillmann's list A, no. 6 on list B and no. 7 on list C.
Reigned for 2 years.
The name Ousanas was abbreviated to Ousana or Ousas on some coins.
Yaqob II No. 26 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 9 years.
Known for his shocking cruelties and wickedness and was defeated by Ella Atsbeha (Kaleb).
Kaleb / K(h)aleb
Constantinos I
Atsbeha III 		510s–late 530s No. 27 on Dillmann's list A, no. 7 on list B and no. 8 on list C.
Reigned for 28 years.
Some of his coins record the filiation "son of Thezana", which is unique among Axumite kings. This suggests he wanted to legitimise his descent from a former king. Wolfgang Kahn and Vincent West suggested this king was Nezana.
Beta Israel c. 550
or
570s 		Son of Kaleb.
No. 28 on Dillmann's list A.
Reigned for 8 months according to the traditional lists.
Gabra Masqal 534–548 Son of Kaleb.
The composer Yared lived during this king's reign.
No. 29 on Dillmann's list A, no. 8 on list B and no. 9 on list C.
Reigned for 14 years.
Constantinos II Son of Gabra Masqal.
No. 9 on Dillmann's list B and no. 10 on list C.
Wazena 550s and 560s Only known from coins minted during his reign.
WʽZB
(vocalized as Waʽzeb) 		6th century Only known from coins minted during his reign.
Wasan Sagad No. 10 on Dillmann's list B.
Son of Gabra Masqal according to one list.
Theorised by E. A. Wallis Budge to be the same person as Bazgar.
Bazgar No. 11 on Dillmann's list C.
Asfeha IV No. 12 on Dillmann's list C.
Djan Asfeh No. 14 on Dillmann's list C.
Djan Asgad No. 15 on Dillmann's list C.
Saifu c. 577 A possible Axumite king mentioned in a Chinese biography of the prophet Muhammad, as the grandfather of the king who ruled during the Muslime Migration to Abyssinia.
Stuart Munro-Hay thought it was plausible Saifu was a historical Axumite king.
Wolfgang Hahn instead believes Saifu was Saif ibn Dhi Yazan and had no connection at all with the Axumite monarchy.
Fere Sanai No. 11 on Dillmann's list B and no. 16 on list C.
Gersem c. 580 Only known from coins minted during his reign.
E. A. Wallis Budge theorised this king used the Biblical name Gershom.
Ioel / Joel 590s–after 600
or
c. 600 		Only known from coins minted during his reign.
Hataz / Hethasas c. 590
or
c. 620 		Only known from coins minted during his reign.
Known as Iathlia on some coins.
Armah late 6th century/early 7th century Primarily known from coins minted during his reign.
Two kings named Armah appear on traditional regnal lists, but their chronological placement is at odds with numistic evidence.
Aderaz No. 12 on Dillmann's list B and no. 17 on list C.
Najashi 614–630 Reigned at the time of the Muslim Migration to Abyssinia in 613 or 615.
Name likely based on the title Negus.
Akala Udem No. 13 on Dillmann's list B and no. 23 on list C.
Germa Asfare II No. 14 on Dillmann's list B and no. 24 on list C.
Zergaz No. 15 on Dillmann's list B and no. 25 on list C.
Degna Mikael No. 16 on Dillmann's list B and no. 26 on list C.
Bahr Ikla No. 17 on Dillmann's list B.
Gum No. 18 on Dillmann's list B.
Asguamgum No. 19 on Dillmann's list B.
Letem No. 20 on Dillmann's list B.
Talatem No. 21 on Dillmann's list B.
Oda Gosh / Badagaz No. 22 on Dillmann's list B and no. 27 on list C.
Ayzur No. 23 on Dillmann's list B and no. 18 on list C.
Reigned for half a day.
Dedem No. 24 on Dillmann's list B.
Udedem No. 25 on Dillmann's list B.
Wedem Asfare c. 792–822 No. 26 on Dillmann's list B.
Lived for 150 years according to the traditional lists.
Armah II No. 27 on Dillmann's list B and no. 28 on list C.
Last ruler before the Zagwe dynasty according to list C.
Degna Djan No. 28 on Dillmann's list B.
Geda Djan No. 29 on Dillmann's list B.
Anabasa Udem No. 30 on Dillmann's list B and no. 22 on list C.
Dil Na'od 10th century Most sources consider this king to be last to rule the Axumite kingdom.
He was the younger of son of Degna Djan and brother of Anbasa Wedem.
Had a short reign of around 10 years.
One tradition recorded by James Bruce states he was an infant when Gudit killed the princes imprisoned at Debre Damo and had to be taken out of the kingdom by nobles to save his life.
No. 31 on Dillmann's list B and no. 19 on list C.
Last ruler before the Zagwe dynasty according to list B.
Madai No. 20 on Dillmann's list C.
Gudit / Esato No. 21 on Dillmann's list C.
Ruled after Dil Na'od on list B and after Madai on list C.

See also

References

  1. Munro-Hay 1991, p. 33.
  2. Budge 1928a, pp. xi, 204.
  3. Kropp 2006, pp. 304–305.
  4. Kropp 2006, p. 312.
  5. Budge 1928a, p. xi.
  6. Hahn, Wolfgang, "Coinage" in Uhlig, Siegbert, ed., Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2003), pp. 767–768.
  7. Prendergast, Kate (2005). "Axum: The Ancient Civilization of Ethiopia". Islam Online. Archived from the original on October 17, 2006.
  8. ^ Hahn & West 2016, p. 17.
  9. Dillmann 1853.
  10. ^ Budge 1928a, pp. 193, 205–210.
  11. ^ Dillmann 1853, pp. 341–350.
  12. ^ Dillmann 1853, p. 341.
  13. "Wainaba, the Serpent Ruler". Oxford Reference. Retrieved 16 June 2024.
  14. ^ Salt 1814, p. 460.
  15. ^ Páez 2008, p. 106.
  16. ^ Budge 1928a, p. 206.
  17. ^ Budge 1928a, p. 207.
  18. Budge 1928a, p. 229.
  19. Dillmann 1853, pp. 341–342.
  20. ^ Dillmann 1853, p. 342.
  21. Selassie 1972b, p. 116.
  22. ^ Budge 1928a, p. 136.
  23. "King Bazen's Tomb". Lonely Planet.
  24. ^ Dillmann 1853, p. 343.
  25. ^ Dillmann 1853, p. 346.
  26. ^ Dillmann 1853, p. 345.
  27. ^ Dillmann 1853, pp. 345–346.
  28. ^ Dillmann 1853, p. 344.
  29. ^ Budge 1928a, p. 209.
  30. Hatke, George (2013-01-07). Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-6066-6.
  31. Salt 1814, p. 463.
  32. Selassie 1972a, p. 72.
  33. Henze 2000, p. 18.
  34. Hatke, George (2013-01-07). Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-6066-6.
  35. Bowersock, G. W. (2013-07-25). The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam. OUP USA. ISBN 978-0-19-973932-5.
  36. Munro-Hay 1978, p. 73.
  37. ^ Munro-Hay 1978, p. 185.
  38. Bowersock, G. W. (2013-04-01). The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-19-933367-7.
  39. Munro-Hay 1991, p. 74.
  40. Hahn & West 2016, p. 10.
  41. Munro-Hay 1991, p. 77.
  42. ^ Selassie 1972a, pp. 92–93.
  43. Matthews, Derek; Mordini, Antonio (1959). "The Monastery of Debra Damo, Ethiopia" (PDF). Archaeologia. 97: 29. doi:10.1017/S0261340900009930 – via Cambridge Core.
  44. Munro-Hay 1991, p. 189.
  45. ^ Hahn & West 2016, p. 11.
  46. Selassie 1972a, p. 93.
  47. Budge 1928a, pp. 209–210.
  48. ^ Hahn & West 2016, p. 12.
  49. Prouty, Chris (1981). Historical dictionary of Ethiopia. Metuchen, N.J. : Scarecrow Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-8108-1448-6.
  50. Dillmann 1853, pp. 344–346.
  51. ^ Dillmann 1853, p. 347.
  52. Dillmann 1853, pp. 346, 349.
  53. Munro-Hay 1991, p. 84.
  54. Agosti, Gianfranco (2020). "New Evidence of King MḤDYS?". Aethiopica. 23: 201–212. ISSN 1430-1938.
  55. ^ Hahn & West 2016, p. 13.
  56. ^ Dillmann 1853, pp. 347, 349.
  57. ^ Dillmann 1853, p. 349.
  58. ^ Dillmann 1853, pp. 347–349.
  59. ^ Budge 1928a, p. 261.
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Bibliography

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