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Medieval music
Overview
Movements and schools
Major figures
Major forms
Lists of classical composers
by era and century
Medieval (500–1400)
Renaissance (1400–1600)
Baroque (1600–1760)
Classical (1730–1820)
Romantic (1815–1910)
Modernist (1890–1950)
Postmodernist (since 1930)
20th century (1901–1999)
21st century (since 2000)

Medieval music generally refers the music of Western Europe during the Middle Ages, from approximately the 6th to 15th centuries. The first and longest major era of Western classical music, medieval music includes composers of a variety of styles, often centered around a particular nationality or composition school. The lives of most medieval composers are generally little known, and some are so obscure that the only information available is what can be inferred from the contents and circumstances of their surviving music.

Composers of the Early Middle Ages (500–1000) almost exclusively concerned themselves with sacred music, writing in forms such as antiphons, hymns, masses, offices, sequences and tropes. Most composers were anonymous and the few whose names are known were monks or clergy. Of the known composers, the most significant are those from the Abbey of Saint Gall school, particularly Notker the Stammerer (Notker Balbulus); the Saint Martial school and its most prominent member, Adémar de Chabannes; and Wipo of Burgundy, to whom the well-known sequence "Victimae paschali laudes" is usually attributed.

In the High Middle Ages (1000–1250) sequences reached their peak with Adam of Saint Victor. By the late 11th century, the poet-composer troubadours of southern France became the first proponents of secular music to use musical notation; equivalent movements arose in the mid-12th century, with the Minnesang in Germany, trovadorismo in Galicia and Portugal, and the trouvères in northern France. Principal exponents of these traditions include troubadours Arnaut Daniel, Bertran de Born, Bernart de Ventadorn, William IX, Duke of Aquitaine; Minnesänger Gottfried von Strassburg, Hartmann von Aue, Reinmar von Hagenau and Walther von der Vogelweide; and trouvère Adam de la Halle, Blondel de Nesle and Chrétien de Troyes. Simultaneous with the spur of secular activity, Léonin and Pérotin of the religious Notre-Dame school (part of the broader Ars antiqua) developed polyphony in forms such as the clausula, conductus and organum. The nun Hildegard of Bingen was also a prolific sacred composer of this time.

During the Late Middle Ages (1250–1500) the age of secular national schools gradually faded away, in part due to the Albigensian Crusade. In France, the troubadours, trouvère and ars antiqua music was succeeded by the ars nova led by Philippe de Vitry and Guillaume de Machaut. The music of the Trecento in Italy led by Francesco Landini is sometimes considered part of the ars nova style, but by the mid-14th century the movements had become too independent to warrant such a grouping. Part of this divergence was from the death of Machaut, where—after a brief continuance of the Ars nova style through the post-Machaut generation of F. Andrieu, Grimace, Jehan Vaillant and P. des Molins—there was a new rhythmically-complex style now known as ars subtilior. The major figures of ars subtilior included both composers from France and Italy; particularly Johannes Ciconia and Solage.

Medieval composers

For Byzantine composers of the same period, see List of Byzantine composers. See also: List of medieval music theorists
Medieval composers
Name Lifetime Nationality Musical school Surviving works Ref(s)
The Western Roman Empire falls in 476, ushering in the Middle Ages

(5th century) Early Middle Ages

 High ↓
Notker the Stammerer
(Notker Balbulus) 		c. 840 – 912 Frankish? Abbey of Saint Gall Three liturgical sequences, attribution not firm
Tuotilo c. 850 – 915 Frankish Abbey of Saint Gall Five works
Stephen of Liège c. 850 – 920 Belgian – Three works
Hucbald c. 850 – 930 Frankish – Five works, none survive
Odo of Cluny c. 878 – 942 French – 15 works
3 hymns and 12 antiphons (?)
Heriger of Lobbes
(Herigerus) 		c. 925 – 1007 Belgian – Four works, none survive
Odo of Arezzo
(Abbot Oddo) 		10th century – 11th century Italian – 4 works
antiphons from a tonary
Fulbert of Chartres c. 960 – 1028 French – Three chants
William of Volpiano
(William of Dijon, William of Saint Benignus) 		962 – 1031 Italian – One work?
Office of St Benignus
Notker Physicus
(Notker II) 		d. 975 Frankish Abbey of Saint Gall Three works
Adémar de Chabannes c. 988/9 – 1034 French Saint Martial school Two works (?)
One office and mass
Wulfstan the Cantor
(Wulfstan of Winchester) 		fl. 992–6 English – Seven works; All uncertain attributions
Wipo of Burgundy c. 995 – c. 1050 Frankish? (Arles/
Burgundy) 		– Victimae paschali laudes, attribution uncertain

(1000) High Middle Ages

 Early ↑ Late ↓
Arnold of Saint Emmeram c. 1000 – 1050 Benedictine Saint Emmeram's Abbey 60 works; over 40 antiphons and 20 responsories
Otloh of Sankt Emmeram c. 1010–1070 Benedictine Saint Emmeram's Abbey Exultemus in ista fratres, Kyrie O pater immense and chants
Hermann of Reichenau
Hermannus Contractus 		1013–1054 German – Two works
Berno of Reichenau before 1014 – 1048 German? – Two works, attribution uncertain
The East–West Schism in 1054 separates the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church
Godric c. 1069 – 1170 English – Three songs
Adam of Saint Victor c. 1068 – 1146 French – Four works
William IX, Duke of Aquitaine
(Guilhem de Peitieus;
Guillaume d'Aquitaine) 		1071–1126 Occitan Troubadour One work; 11 poems total
Peter Abelard 1079–1142 French – Various chants, a hymn, three sequences and seven laments
Udalscalcus of Maisach died in 1149 or 1151 German – Offices for St Ulrich and for St Conrad
Hildegard of Bingen 1098–1179 German – 72 works
Jerusalem falls in 1099, during the First Crusade
Jaufre Rudel fl. 1120–47 Occitan Troubadour Four works; six poems total
Marcabru fl. c. 1129–c1150 Occitan Troubadour Four works; 42 poems total
Archpoet
(Archipoeta) 		c. 1130 – c. 1165 Western European
probably French or German 		Goliard 10 medieval Latin poems
Bernart de Ventadorn c. 1130–1140 – c. 1190–1200 Occitan Troubadour 19 (1 fragmentary) works; 45 poems total
Giraut de Bornelh c. 1140 – c. 1200 Occitan Troubadour Four works; 77 poems total
Heinrich von Veldeke 1140–1150 – c. 1190 German Minnesänger No surviving works; 61 poems total
"Vidame de Chartres"
(probably Guillaume de Ferrières) 		c. 1145–1155 – 1204 French Trouvère Six (nine?) works
Albertus Parisiensis fl. 1146–1177 French – Congaudeant catholici
Peire d'Alvernha fl. 1149–70 Occitan Troubadour Two works; 24 poems total
Dietmar von Aist fl. 2nd half of the 12th century German Minnesänger No surviving music
Friedrich von Hûsen
(Friedrich von Hausen) 		c. 1150 – 1190 German Minnesänger No music survives; 53 strophes
Rudolf von Neuenburg [de] c. 1150 – 30 August 1196 Swiss Minnesänger
Léonin fl. 1150s – c. 1201 French Notre-Dame school (Ars antiqua)
Bertran de Born 1150 – before 1215 Occitan Troubadour 1 work; 40 poems total
Gaucelm Faidit c. 1150 – c. 1220 Occitan Troubadour 14 works; 68 poems total
Arnaut Daniel c. 1150–60 – c. 1200 Occitan Troubadour Two works; 18 poems total
Raimbaut de Vaqueiras c. 1150–60 – 1207 Occitan Troubadour Seven works; 35 poems total
Folquet de Marselha
(Folquet de Marseille) 		c. 1150–60 – 1231 Occitan Troubadour 13 works; 29 poems total
Chrétien de Troyes fl. c. 1160 – 1191 French Trouvère
Conon de Béthune c. 1160 – 1219 /20 French Trouvère Seven works; eight poems total
Der von Kürenberg fl. 1160 German Minnesänger
Hartmann von Aue c. 1160–1165 – after 1210 German Minnesänger
Gace Brule c. 1160 – after 1213 French Trouvère
Peirol c. 1160 – after 1221 Occitan Troubadour 17 works; 34 poems total
Philippe le Chancelier c. 1160 – 1236 French Notre-Dame school (Ars antiqua)
Raimbaut d'Aurenga fl. 1162–73 Occitan Troubadour
Chastelain de Couci c. 1165 – 1203 French Trouvère –
Gautier de Dargies c. 1165 – after 1236 French Trouvère
Arnaut de Mareuil fl. c. 1170–1200 Occitan Troubadour
Walther von der Vogelweide c. 1170 – c. 1230 German Minnesänger
Aimeric de Peguilhan c. 1175 – c. 1230 Occitan Troubadour Six works; 50 poems total
Gautier de Coincy 1177/8 – 1236 French Trouvère Eight surviving poems with music
Blondel de Nesle fl. 1180–1200 French Trouvère
Peire Cardenal 1180–1278 Occitan Troubadour Three works; 90 poems total
Peire Vidal fl. c. 1183 – c. 1205 Occitan Troubadour 12 works; 50 poems total
Raimon de Miraval fl. 1185–1229 Occitan Troubadour 22 works; 48 poems total
Reinmar von Hagenau
(Reinmar der Alte) 		fl. 1185–1205 – c. 1205 German Minnesänger
Audefroi le Bastart fl. 1190–1230 French Trouvère
Comtessa de Dia
(Beatriz de Dia) 		fl. late 12th/early 13th century Occitan Trobairitz
Neidhart von Reuental c. 1190 – after 1236 German Minnesänger
Guillaume le Vinier c. 1190 – 1245 French Trouvère
Pérotin
(Perotinus) 		fl. c. 1200 French Notre-Dame school (Ars antiqua)
Albrecht von Johansdorf c. 1180 – c. 1209 German Minnesänger
Colin Muset fl. 1200–50 French Trouvère 12 works; seven with surviving music
Jehan Erart 1200–10 – 1258/9 French Trouvère
Reinmar von Zweter c. 1200 – c. 1260 German Minnesänger –
Wincenty of Kielcza c. 1200 – after 1262 Polish –
Castelloza fl. early 13th century Occitan Trobairitz No surviving music; three poems
Jehan Bretel c. 1210 – 1272 French Trouvère
Raoul de Soissons 1210–1215 – 1270 French Trouvère
Moniot d'Arras fl. 1213–39 French Trouvère
Guiot de Dijon fl. 1215–25 French Trouvère Four works; 17 poems total
Gontier de Soignies fl. before 1220 French Trouvère
Heinrich von Morungen d. 1222 German Minnesänger 33 Minnelieder survive, only one with melody.
Sordello c. 1200 — before 1269 Italian Troubadour
Gautier d'Épinal before 1220 – before 1272 French Trouvère
Konrad von Würzburg c. 1230 – 1287 German Minnesänger 23 songs
Guiraut Riquier c. 1230 – c. 1300 Occitan Troubadour 48 works; 49 poems total
Martin Codax fl. c. 1240–70 Spanish (Galician) Galician-Portuguese lyric Six songs; one know to be lost
Adam de la Halle 1245–50 – 1285–8/after 1306 French Trouvère 78 works

(1250) Late Middle Ages

 High ↑
Tannhäuser fl. mid 13th-century German Minnesänger
Cerverí de Girona fl. 1259–1285 Catalan Troubadour No music survives; 114 lyric poems
Heinrich Frauenlob c. 1260 – 29 November 1318 German Minnesänger
Der wilde Alexander
(Meister Alexander) 		fl. mid to late 13th-century German Minnesänger 27 works; 24 Spruch strophes, two Minnelieder and one Leich
Petrus de Cruce fl. c. 1290 French Ars antiqua
W. de Wycombe fl. late 13th century English –
Philippe de Vitry 1291–1361 French Ars nova 13 works at least
Casella died before 1300 Italian – No surviving works
Jehan de Lescurel fl. early 14th century French Ars nova 34 works; all monophonic except one
Guillaume de Machaut c. 1300 – 1377 French Ars nova 143 works
Marchetto da Padova fl. 1305–19 Italian Trecento –
Gherardello da Firenze c. 1320–1325 – 1362/1363 Italian Trecento 18 works
Francesco Landini c. 1325 – 1397 Italian Trecento
Lorenzo da Firenze c. 1325 – 1372/1373 Italian Trecento 21 works
The Hundred Years' War conflict between England and France begins in 1337
Johannes Alanus fl. late 14th century or early 15th English English ars nova Sub Arturo plebs, and maybe four others
Maestro Piero fl. 1340–1350 Italian Trecento Eight works
Giovanni da Cascia fl. 1340–1350 Italian Trecento 19 works
Jacopo da Bologna fl. 1340–1386 Italian Trecento 34 works
Vincenzo da Rimini fl. 1350 fl. mid-14th century Italian Trecento Four madrigals and two Cacce
Bartolino da Padova fl. c. 1365 – after 1405 Italian Trecento
Matheus de Sancto Johanne
(Mayshuet de Joan) 		died 1391 French Ars subtilior
Donato da Cascia fl. 2nd half of the fourteenth century Italian Trecento
Magister Franciscus fl. 1370–80 French Ars nova? Two works; both three part ballades
Philippus de Caserta fl. c. 1370 Italian? Ars subtilior 6 ballades
Mönch von Salzburg
(Monk of Salzburg) 		fl. Late 14th century German –
F. Andrieu fl. c. 1377 – c. 1400 French Ars nova One work; a ballade for Machaut's death
Johannes Symonis Hasprois fl. 1378–1428 French Ars subtilior
Petrus de Goscalch fl. c. 1385–1395 French? Ars subtilior
P. des Molins fl. mid 14th century French Ars nova Two works; among the most popular pieces of their time
Niccolò da Perugia 2nd half of the 14th century Italian Trecento
Jehan Suzay fl. c. 1380 French Ars subtilior
Trebor fl. c. 1380 – c. 1400 French Ars subtilior
Jan of Jenštejn 1348 – 1400 Bohemian – 40 works
Antonio Zacara da Teramo c. 1350–1360 — after 1413 Italian Trecento Very prolific in a variety of genres
Andrea da Firenze fl. c. 1375 – c. 1415 Italian Trecento –
Paolo da Firenze c. 1355 – 1436 Italian Trecento Possibly up to 61 works
Hugo von Montfort 1357 – 1423 German Minnesänger
Grazioso da Padova fl. 2nd half of the 14th century Italian Trecento Mass movements, ballata
Jehan Vaillant fl. 1360–1390 French Ars nova Five (six?) works
Giovanni Mazzuoli c. 1360 – 1426 Italian Trecento Ballata
Solage fl. late 14th century French Ars subtilior
Jacob Senleches fl. 1382–1383 French Ars subtilior
Borlet fl. c. 1397? – after 1409 French Ars subtilior One work; a four-voice virelai
Johannes Ciconia c. 1370 – 1412 Franco-Flemish Trecento
Ars subtilior
Leonel Power c. 1370–1385 – 1445 English Old Hall Manuscript Mass movements and other Latin settings
Johannes Tapissier c. 1370 – before 1410 French Burgundian School Mass movements, motet
Johannes Cuvelier fl. c. 1372 – after 1387 French Ars subtilior Four works
Guido fl. c. 1372 – 1374 French Ars subtilior Three works in the Chantilly Codex
Grimace fl. mid-to-late 14th century French Ars nova Five (Seven?) Works
Antonello da Caserta fl. Late 14th century Italian Trecento Ballades, Rondeaux, Virelai, Ballatas
Nicolas Grenon c. 1375 – 1456 French Burgundian School
Oswald von Wolkenstein c. 1376 – 1445 German Lieder
Pierre Fontaine c. 1380–1450 French Ballades, Rondeaux
John Dunstaple
(John Dunstable) 		c. 1390 – 1453 English Contenance angloise Mass movements and isorhythmic motets
Martinus Fabri died in 1400 North Netherlandish
Aleyn fl. c. 1400 English Old Hall Manuscript Mass movements
Egardus fl. 1400 Flemish Ars subtilior 3 works
Queldryk fl. c. 1400 English Old Hall Manuscript Mass movements
Andrea Stefani fl. c. 1400 Italian Trecento Ballate
Thomas Fabri fl. 1400–1415 Franco-Flemish
Matteo da Perugia fl. 1400–1416 Italian Trecento
Baude Cordier fl. early 15th century French Ars subtilior
Nicolaus Ricci de Nucella Campli fl. 1401–1436 Italian Trecento Ballata
Bartolomeo da Bologna fl. c. 1405–1427 Italian Trecento Mass movements, ballate
Jacobus Vide fl. 1405–1433? Franco-Flemish
Johannes Cesaris fl. 1406–1417 French Motet, ballades, rondeaux
Conradus de Pistoria fl. Early 15th century Italian Ars subtilior Ballades
Roy Henry fl. c. 1410 English Old Hall Manuscript Mass movements
Pycard fl. 1410 English Old Hall Manuscript Mass movements
Byttering fl. c. 1410–1420 English Old Hall Manuscript Mass movements
Antonio da Cividale fl. 1410–1421 Italian Trecento Mass movements, motets, ballades, rondeaux, virelais
Richard Loqueville died 1418 French Mass movements, ballades, rondeaux
Estienne Grossin fl. 1418–1421 French Numerous mass movements
Hugo de Lantins fl. 1420–1430 Flemish Mass movements, motets, rondeaux
Arnold de Lantins died before 1432 Flemish Mass movements, ballades, rondeaux
Jefimija 1349 – 1405 Serbian Composed tuzhbalice (laments)


For later composers see the List of Renaissance composers

References

Notes

  1. Adémar de Chabannes and Guillaume de Machaut are among the few medieval composers whose lives are substantially documented.
  2. For a complete list see List of troubadours and trobairitz. As to not overwhelm this list with Troubadours, only those that Grove Music Online designates as the "principal troubadours" are included: Aimeric de Peguilhan, Arnaut Daniel, Arnaut de Mareuil, Bernart de Ventadorn, Bertran de Born, Cerveri de Girona, Folquet de Marselha, Gaucelm Faidit, Giraut de Bornelh, Guiraut Riquier, Jaufre Rudel, Marcabru, Peire d'Alvernhe, Peire Cardenal, Peire Vidal, Peirol, Raimbaut d'Aurenga, Raimbaut de Vaqeiras, Raimon de Miraval, Sordello and William IX, Duke of Aquitaine. In addition, for Trobaritzs, only what Grove identifies as "the most celebrated figures", are listed: Comtessa de Dia and Castelloza.
  3. For a complete list see Trouvère#List of trouvères. As to not overwhelm this list with Trouvère, only those that Grove Music Online designates as "important trouvères" are listed.
  4. ^ F. Andrieu and Magister Franciscus may be the same person; scholars identify them as the person with varying degrees of certainty:
    • Reaney 2001a: Their works being from the same manuscript "suggest that the two composers may be the same person".
    • Abraham & Hughes 1960, p. 27: "Franciscus is doubtless the same man as the F. Andrieu..."
    • Reaney 1954, p. 67: "It would not be impossible for Magister Franciscus and F. Andrieu to be one and the same person"
    • Günther 2001a: " may be the F. Andrieu..."
    • Strohm 2005, p. 53: " may be the same man as Magister Franciscus"
    • Magnan 1993, p. 49: " this tenuous identification leads nowhere."
  5. He may be the same person as Trebor

Citations

  1. Wolinski & Borders 2020, § "Introduction".
  2. ^ Grier 2006, p. 1.
  3. Stevens 2001a
  4. Stevens 2001b
  5. Hiley, David (2001). "Notker". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.20128. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 1 September 2020. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  6. Yudkin 1989, p. 221.
  7. Hoppin 1978, p. 155.
  8. Reese 1940, pp. 129, 187–188.
  9. Roche & Roche 1981, p. 136.
  10. Planchart, Alejandro Enrique (2001). "Tuotilo". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.28589. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 1 September 2020. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  11. Reese 1940, p. 185.
  12. Huglo, Michel (2001). "Stephen of Liège". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.26706. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 1 September 2020. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  13. Chartier, Yves (2001). "Hucbald of St Amand". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.13475. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 1 September 2020. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  14. Reese 1940, pp. 125–126.
  15. Roche & Roche 1981, p. 97.
  16. Brockett, Clyde; Huglo, Michel (2001). "Odo of Cluny". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.20255. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 1 September 2020. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  17. Reese 1940, p. 126.
  18. Huglo, Michel (2001). "Herigerus". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.12853. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 1 September 2020. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  19. Brockett, Clyde; Huglo, Michel (2001). "Odo of Arezzo". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.20255. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 1 September 2020. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  20. Fassler, Margot E. (2001). "Fulbert of Chartres". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.10366. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 29 November 2020. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  21. Huglo, Michel (2001). "Guillaume de Dijon". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.11982. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 19 September 2020. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  22. Kühne, Udo (2010). "Notker der Arzt" [Notker the doctor]. Historical Dictionary of Switzerland (in German). Bern, Switzerland: Swiss Academy of Humanities and Social Sciences. Retrieved 30 November 2020.
  23. Grier, James (2001). "Adémar de Chabannes". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.52477. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 1 September 2020. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  24. Teviotdale, Elizabeth C. (2001). "Wulfstan [Wulstan, Wolstan] of Winchester". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.30612. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 1 September 2020. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  25. Crocker, Richard L. (2001). "Wipo". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.30429. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 29 November 2020. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  26. "Arnold of St Emmeram". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2001. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.52832. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 1 September 2020. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  27. Hiley, David (2001). "Otloh of St Emmeram". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.52834. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 20 September 2020. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  28. Gushee, Lawrence (2001). "Hermannus Contractus". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.12864. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 1 September 2020. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  29. Gushee, Lawrence (2001). "Berno of Reichenau". Grove Music Online. Revised by Dolores Pesce. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.02878. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 1 September 2020. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  30. Hoppin 1978, pp. 322–323.
  31. Trowell, Brian (2001). "Godric". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.11345. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 30 November 2020. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  32. Fassler, Margot E. (2001). "Adam of St Victor". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.00166. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 30 November 2020. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  33. Reese 1940, p. 189.
  34. Falck, Robert (2001). "Guillaume IX, Duke of Aquitaine and 7th Count of Poitiers". Grove Music Online. Revised by John Haines. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.11979. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 30 November 2020. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  35. Fassler 2014, p. 123.
  36. Weinrich, Lorenz (2001). "Abelard, Peter". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.00036. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 1 September 2020. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  37. Gushee, Lawrence (2001). "Udalscalcus [Udalschalk, Uodalscalc] of Maisach". Grove Music Online. Revised by David Hiley. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.28695. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 4 September 2022. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  38. Vogt, Wilhelm (2001). "Udalschalk (Uodalscalcus)". Deutsche Biographie. Munich: Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
  39. Bent, Ian D. (2001). "Hildegard of Bingen". Grove Music Online. Revised by Marianne Pfau. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.13016. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 30 November 2020. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  40. Reese 1940, p. 129.
  41. Falck, Robert (2001). "Rudel [Rudelh, Rudel de Blaja], Jaufre". Grove Music Online. Revised by John Haines. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.24076. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 30 November 2020. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
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  147. Wright, Craig (2001). "Tapissier, Johannes". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.27495. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  148. Günther, Ursula (2001). "Cuvelier, Jo(hannes)". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.06990. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 14 November 2020. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  149. Ursula Günther (2001). "Guido". Grove Music Online. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.11961.
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  152. Wright, Craig (2001). "Grenon, Nicolas". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.11744. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  153. Welker, Lorenz (2001). "Oswald von Wolkenstein". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.20555. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  154. Wright, Craig (2001). "Fontaine, Pierre". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.09944. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
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  157. Bent, Margaret (2001). "Aleyn". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.00546. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
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  162. Günther, Ursula; Stone, Anne (2001). "Matteo da Perugia". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.18089. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  163. Reaney, Gilbert (2001). "Cordier, Baude". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.06474. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 8 May 2022. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  164. Giuliano Di Bacco; Nádas, John (2001). "Nucella". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.20163. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  165. Schoop, Hans (2001). "Bartolomeo da Bologna". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.02170. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  166. Wright, Craig (2001). "Vide, Jacobus". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.29312. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  167. Ward, Tom R. (2001). "Cesaris, Johannes". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.05327. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  168. Günther, Ursula (2001). "Conradus de Pistoria". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.06304. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  169. Bent, Margaret (2001). "Roy Henry". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.24019. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  170. Bent, Margaret (2001). "(1) Pycard [Picart]". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.21660. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  171. Bent, Margaret (2001). "Byttering". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.04493. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  172. Schoop, Hans (2014) . "Antonius de Civitate Austrie". Grove Music Online. Revised by Robert Nosow. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.01061. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  173. Reaney, Gilbert (2001). "Loqueville, Richard". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.16976. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 3 December 2020. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  174. Wright, Craig (2001). "Grossin [Grossim], Estienn". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.11829. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  175. Schoop, Hans (2009) . "(5) Hugo [Hugho, Ugho, Ugo] de Lantins [Lantinis, Latinis]". Grove Music Online. Revised by J. Michael Allsen. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.16002. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  176. Schoop, Hans (2009) . "(4) Arnold [Arnoldo, Arnoldus] de Lantins [Lantinis, Latinis]". Grove Music Online. Revised by J. Michael Allsen. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.16002. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription or UK public library membership required)

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