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The number of dwarf planets in the Solar System is unknown. Estimates have run as high as 200 in the Kuiper belt and over 10,000 in the region beyond. However, consideration of the surprisingly low densities of many large trans-Neptunian objects, as well as spectroscopic analysis of their surfaces, suggests that the number of dwarf planets may be much lower, perhaps only nine among bodies known so far. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) defines dwarf planets as being in hydrostatic equilibrium, and notes six bodies in particular: Ceres in the inner Solar System and five in the trans-Neptunian region: Pluto, Eris, Haumea, Makemake, and Quaoar. Only Pluto and Ceres have been confirmed to be in hydrostatic equilibrium, due to the results of the New Horizons and Dawn missions. Eris is generally assumed to be a dwarf planet because it is similar in size to Pluto and even more massive. Haumea and Makemake were accepted as dwarf planets by the IAU for naming purposes and will keep their names if it turns out they are not dwarf planets. Smaller trans-Neptunian objects have been called dwarf planets if they appear to be solid bodies, which is a prerequisite for hydrostatic equilibrium: planetologists generally include at least Gonggong, Orcus, and Sedna. In practice the requirement for hydrostatic equilibrium is often loosened to include all gravitationally rounded objects, even by the IAU, as otherwise even Mercury would not be a planet. Quaoar has been accepted as a dwarf planet under a 2022–2023 annual report.

Limiting values

Beside directly orbiting the Sun, the qualifying feature of a dwarf planet is that it have "sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid-body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape". Current observations are generally insufficient for a direct determination as to whether a body meets this definition. Often the only clues for trans-Neptunian objects (TNO) is a crude estimate of their diameters and albedos. Icy satellites as large as 1,500 km in diameter have proven to not be in equilibrium, whereas dark objects in the outer solar system often have low densities that imply they are not even solid bodies, much less gravitationally controlled dwarf planets.

Ceres, which has a significant amount of ice in its composition, is the only accepted dwarf planet in the asteroid belt, though there are unexplained anomalies. 4 Vesta, the second-most-massive asteroid and one that is basaltic in composition, appears to have a fully differentiated interior and was therefore in equilibrium at some point in its history, but no longer is today. The third-most massive object, 2 Pallas, has a somewhat irregular surface and is thought to have only a partially differentiated interior; it is also less icy than Ceres. Michael Brown has estimated that, because rocky objects such as Vesta are more rigid than icy objects, rocky objects below 900 kilometres (560 mi) in diameter may not be in hydrostatic equilibrium and thus not dwarf planets. The two largest icy outer-belt asteroids 10 Hygiea and 704 Interamnia are close to equilibrium, but in Hygiea's case this may be a result of its disruption and the re-aggregation of its fragments, while Interamnia is now somewhat away from equilibrium due to impacts.

Based on a comparison with the icy moons that have been visited by spacecraft, such as Mimas (round at 400 km in diameter) and Proteus (irregular at 410–440 km in diameter), Brown estimated that an icy body relaxes into hydrostatic equilibrium at a diameter somewhere between 200 and 400 km. However, after Brown and Tancredi made their calculations, better determination of their shapes showed that Mimas and the other mid-sized ellipsoidal moons of Saturn up to at least Iapetus (which, at 1,471 km in diameter, is approximately the same size as Haumea and Makemake) are no longer in hydrostatic equilibrium; they are also icier than TNOs are likely to be. They have equilibrium shapes that froze in place some time ago, and do not match the shapes that equilibrium bodies would have at their current rotation rates. Thus Rhea, at 1528 km in diameter, is the smallest body for which gravitational measurements are consistent with current hydrostatic equilibrium. Ceres, at 950 km in diameter, is close to equilibrium, but some deviations from equilibrium shape remain unexplained. Much larger objects, such as Earth's moon and the planet Mercury, are not near hydrostatic equilibrium today, though the Moon is composed primarily of silicate rock and Mercury of metal (in contrast to most dwarf planet candidates, which are ice and rock). Saturn's moons may have been subject to a thermal history that would have produced equilibrium-like shapes in bodies too small for gravity alone to do so. Thus, at present it is unknown whether any trans-Neptunian objects smaller than Pluto and Eris are in hydrostatic equilibrium. Nonetheless, it does not matter in practice, because the precise statement of hydrostatic equilibrium in the definition is universally ignored in favour of roundness and solidity.

The majority of mid-sized TNOs up to about 900–1000 km in diameter have significantly lower densities (~ 1.0–1.2 g/ml) than larger bodies such as Pluto (1.86 g/cm). Brown had speculated that this was due to their composition, that they were almost entirely icy. However, Grundy et al. point out that there is no known mechanism or evolutionary pathway for mid-sized bodies to be icy while both larger and smaller objects are partially rocky. They demonstrated that at the prevailing temperatures of the Kuiper Belt, water ice is strong enough to support open interior spaces (interstices) in objects of this size; they concluded that mid-size TNOs have low densities for the same reason that smaller objects do—because they have not compacted under self-gravity into fully solid objects, and thus the typical TNO smaller than 900–1000 km in diameter is (pending some other formative mechanism) unlikely to be a dwarf planet.

Assessment by Tancredi

In 2010, Gonzalo Tancredi presented a report to the IAU evaluating a list of 46 trans-Neptunian candidates for dwarf planet status based on light-curve-amplitude analysis and a calculation that the object was more than 450 kilometres (280 mi) in diameter. Some diameters were measured, some were best-fit estimates, and others used an assumed albedo of 0.10 to calculate the diameter. Of these, he identified 15 as dwarf planets by his criteria (including the 4 accepted by the IAU), with another 9 being considered possible. To be cautious, he advised the IAU to "officially" accept as dwarf planets the top three: Sedna, Orcus, and Quaoar. Although the IAU had anticipated Tancredi's recommendations, by late 2023 only Quaoar had been accepted.

Assessment by Brown

Mike Brown considers 130 trans-Neptunian bodies to be "probably" dwarf planets, ranked them by estimated size. He does not consider asteroids, stating "in the asteroid belt Ceres, with a diameter of 900 km, is the only object large enough to be round."

The terms for varying degrees of likelihood he split these into:

• Near certainty: diameter estimated/measured to be over 900 kilometres (560 mi). Sufficient confidence to say these must be in hydrostatic equilibrium, even if predominantly rocky. 10 objects as of 2020.
• Highly likely: diameter estimated/measured to be over 600 kilometres (370 mi). The size would have to be "grossly in error" or they would have to be primarily rocky to not be dwarf planets. 17 objects as of 2020.
• Likely: diameter estimated/measured to be over 500 kilometres (310 mi). Uncertainties in measurement mean that some of these will be significantly smaller and thus doubtful. 41 objects as of 2020.
• Probably: diameter estimated/measured to be over 400 kilometres (250 mi). Expected to be dwarf planets, if they are icy, and that figure is correct. 62 objects as of 2020.
• Possibly: diameter estimated/measured to be over 200 kilometres (120 mi). Icy moons transition from a round to irregular shape in the 200–400 km range, suggesting that the same figure holds true for KBOs. Thus, some of these objects could be dwarf planets. 611 objects as of 2020.
• Probably not: diameter estimated/measured to be under 200 km. No icy moon under 200 km is round, and the same may be true of KBOs. The estimated size of these objects would have to be in error for them to be dwarf planets.

Beside the five older accepted by the IAU plus Quaoar, the 'nearly certain' category includes Gonggong, Sedna, Orcus, 2002 MS4, and Salacia. Note that although Brown's site claims to be updated daily, these largest objects haven't been updated since late 2013, and indeed the current best diameter estimates for Salacia and 2002 MS₄ are less than 900 km. (Orcus is just above the threshold.)

Assessment by Grundy et al.

Grundy et al. propose that dark, low-density TNOs in the size range of approximately 400–1000 km are transitional between smaller, porous (and thus low-density) bodies and larger, denser, brighter, and geologically differentiated planetary bodies (such as dwarf planets). Bodies in this size range should have begun to collapse the interstitial spaces left over from their formation, but not fully, leaving some residual porosity.

Many TNOs in the size range of about 400–1000 km have oddly low densities, in the range of about 1.0–1.2 g/cm, that are substantially less than those of dwarf planets such as Pluto, Eris and Ceres, which have densities closer to 2. Brown has suggested that large low-density bodies must be composed almost entirely of water ice since he presumed that bodies of this size would necessarily be solid. However, this leaves unexplained why TNOs both larger than 1,000 km and smaller than 400 km, and indeed comets, are composed of a substantial fraction of rock, leaving only this size range to be primarily icy. Experiments with water ice at the relevant pressures and temperatures suggest that substantial porosity could remain in this size range, and it is possible that adding rock to the mix would further increase resistance to collapsing into a solid body. Bodies with internal porosity remaining from their formation could be at best only partially differentiated, in their deep interiors (if a body had begun to collapse into a solid body, there should be evidence in the form of fault systems from when its surface contracted). The higher albedos of larger bodies are also evidence of full differentiation, as such bodies were presumably resurfaced with ice from their interiors. Grundy et al. propose therefore that mid-size (< 1,000 km), low-density (< 1.4 g/cm) and low-albedo (< ~0.2) bodies such as Salacia, Varda, Gǃkúnǁʼhòmdímà, and (55637) 2002 UX25 are not differentiated planetary bodies like Orcus, Quaoar, and Charon. The boundary between the two populations would appear to be in the range of about 900–1000 km, although Grundy et al. also suggest that 600–700 km might constitute an upper limit to retaining significant porosity.

If Grundy et al. are correct, then very few known bodies in the outer Solar System are likely to have compacted into fully solid bodies, and thus to possibly have become dwarf planets at some point in their past or to still be dwarf planets at present. Pluto–Charon, Eris, Haumea, Gonggong, Makemake, Quaoar, and Sedna are either known (Pluto) or strong candidates (the others). Orcus is again just above the threshold by size, though it is bright.

There are a number of smaller bodies, estimated to be between 700 and 900 km in diameter, for most of which not enough is known to apply these criteria. All of them are dark, mostly with albedos under 0.11, with brighter 2013 FY27 (0.18) an exception; this suggests that they are not dwarf planets. However, Salacia and Varda may be dense enough to at least be solid. If Salacia were spherical and had the same albedo as its moon, it would have a density of between 1.4 and 1.6 g/cm, calculated a few months after Grundy et al.'s initial assessment, though still an albedo of only 0.04. Varda might have a higher density of 1.78±0.06 g/cm (a lower density of 1.23±0.04 g/cm was considered possible though less probable), published the year after Grundy et al.'s initial assessment; its albedo of 0.10 is close to Quaoar's.

Assessment by Emery et al.

In 2023, Emery et al. wrote that near-infrared spectroscopy by the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) in 2022 suggests that Sedna, Gonggong, and Quaoar internally melted and differentiated and are chemically evolved, like the larger dwarf planets Pluto, Eris, Haumea, and Makemake, but unlike "all smaller KBOs". This is because light hydrocarbons are present on their surfaces (e.g. ethane, acetylene, and ethylene), which implies that methane is continuously being resupplied, and that methane would likely come from internal geochemistry. On the other hand, the surfaces of Sedna, Gonggong, and Quaoar have low abundances of CO and CO₂, similar to Pluto, Eris, and Makemake but in contrast to smaller bodies. This suggests that the threshold for dwarf planethood in the trans-Neptunian region is a diameter of ~900 km (thus including only Pluto, Eris, Haumea, Makemake, Gonggong, Quaoar, Orcus, and Sedna), and that even Salacia may not be a dwarf planet.

Likeliest dwarf planets

The assessments of the IAU, Tancredi et al., Brown, and Grundy et al. for some of potential dwarf planets are as follows. For the IAU, the acceptance criteria were for naming purposes; Quaoar was called a dwarf planet in a 2022–2023 IAU annual report. An IAU question-and-answer press release from 2006 was more specific: it estimated that objects with mass above 5×10 kg and diameter greater than 800 km (800 km across) would "normally" be in hydrostatic equilibrium ("the shape ... would normally be determined by self-gravity"), but that "all borderline cases would need to be determined by observation." This is close to Grundy et al.'s suggestion for the approximate limit.

Several of these objects had not yet been discovered when Tancredi et al. did their analysis. Brown's sole criterion is diameter; he accepts significantly many more as "highly likely" to be dwarf planets, for which his threshold is 600 km (see below). Grundy et al. did not determine which bodies were dwarf planets, but rather which could not be. A red marks objects that are not dense enough to be solid bodies; to this is added a question mark for the objects whose densities are not known (they are all dark, suggesting that they are not dwarf planets). Emery et al. suggest that Sedna, Quaoar, and Gonggong went through internal melting, differentiation, and chemical evolution like the larger dwarf planets, but that all smaller KBOs did not. The question of current equilibrium was not addressed; nonetheless, it is not generally taken seriously despite being in the definition. (Mercury is round but known to be out of equilibrium; it is universally considered as a planet according to the intent of the IAU and geophysical definitions, rather than to the letter.) This would be relevant for Quaoar, as in 2024, Kiss et al. found that Quaoar has an ellipsoidal shape incompatible with hydrostatic equilibrium for its current spin. They hypothesised that Quaoar originally had a rapid rotation and was in hydrostatic equilibrium, but that its shape became "frozen in" and did not change as it spun down due to tidal forces from its moon Weywot. If so, this would resemble the situation of Saturn's moon Iapetus, which is too oblate for its current spin. Iapetus is generally still considered a planetary-mass moon nonetheless, though not always.

Two moons are included for comparison: Triton formed as a TNO, and Charon is larger than some dwarf planet candidates.

Designation	Measured mean diameter (km)	Density (g/cm)	Albedo	Identified as a dwarf planet					Category
				by Emery et al.	by Grundy et al.	by Brown	by Tancredi et al.	by the IAU
N I Triton	2707±2	2.06	0.60 to 0.95	(likely in equilibrium)					(moon of Neptune)
134340 Pluto	2376±3	1.854±0.006	0.49 to 0.66						2:3 resonant
136199 Eris	2326±12	2.43±0.05	0.96						SDO
136108 Haumea	≈ 1560	≈ 2.018	0.51					(naming rules)	7:12 resonant cubewano
136472 Makemake	1430+38 −22	1.9±0.2	0.81					(naming rules)	hot cubewano
225088 Gonggong	1230±50	1.74±0.16	0.14				N/A		3:10 resonant
P I Charon	1212±1	1.70±0.02	0.2 to 0.5	(possibly in equilibrium)					(moon of Pluto)
50000 Quaoar	1086±4	≈ 1.7	0.11					(2022–2023 annual report)	hot cubewano
1 Ceres	946±2	2.16±0.01	0.09	(close to equilibrium)					asteroid
90482 Orcus	910+50 −40	1.4±0.2	0.23	(Not directly mentioned, but within the qualifying size range.)					plutino (2:3 resonant)
90377 Sedna	906+314 −258	?	0.41						detached
120347 Salacia	846±21	1.5±0.12	0.04						hot cubewano
(307261) 2002 MS4	796±24	?	0.10		?		N/A		hot cubewano
(55565) 2002 AW197	768±39	?	0.11		?	"highly likely"			hot cubewano
174567 Varda	749±18	1.78±0.06? or 1.23±0.04?	0.10			"highly likely"			4:7 resonant
(532037) 2013 FY27	742+78 −83	?	0.17		?	"highly likely"	N/A		SDO
(208996) 2003 AZ84	723 or 772±12	0.76	0.10			"highly likely"			plutino (2:3 resonant)
28978 Ixion	710±0.2	?	0.10		?	"highly likely"			plutino (2:3 resonant)
(145452) 2005 RN43	679+55 −73	?	0.107+0.029 −0.018		?	"highly likely"			hot cubewano
(55637) 2002 UX25	665±29 or 659±38	0.82±0.11	0.107+0.005 −0.008 or 0.1±0.01			"highly likely"	N/A		hot cubewano
2018 VG18	656 or 500	?	0.12		?	"highly likely"	N/A		SDO
20000 Varuna	654+154 −102 or 668+154 −86	?	0.127+0.04 −0.042		?	"highly likely"			hot cubewano
229762 Gǃkúnǁʼhòmdímà	642±28 or 638+24 −12	1.04±0.17	0.142±0.015			"highly likely"	N/A		SDO
2014 UZ224	635+65 −72	?	0.131+0.038 −0.028		?	"highly likely"	N/A		SDO
2012 VP113	574?	?	0.09 assumed		?	"likely"	N/A		detached
(528381) 2008 ST291	549 or 584	?	0.09 assumed		?	"likely"	N/A		1:6 resonant SDO
(523794) 2015 RR245	≈500	?	0.11 assumed		?	"highly likely"	N/A	(claimed without citation by AGU)	SDO
19521 Chaos	415+83 −30	?	ca. 0.1		?	"highly likely"	N/A		hot cubewano
38628 Huya	411±7.3	0.8	0.081			"probably"			plutino (2:3 resonant)
(15874) 1996 TL66	339±20 or 575±115	?	0.110+0.021 −0.015			"possibly"			SDO

Largest measured candidates

The following trans-Neptunian objects have measured diameters at least 600 kilometres (370 mi) to within measurement uncertainties; this was the threshold to be considered a "highly likely" dwarf planet in Brown's early assessment. Grundy et al. speculated that 600 km to 700 km diameter could represent "the upper limit to retain substantial internal pore space", and that objects around 900 km could have collapsed interiors but fail to completely differentiate. The two satellites of TNOs that surpass this threshold have also been included: Pluto's moon Charon and Eris' moon Dysnomia. The next largest TNO moon is Orcus' moon Vanth at 442.5±10.2 km and a poorly constrained (87±8)×10 kg, with an albedo of about 8%.

Ceres, generally accepted as a dwarf planet, is added for comparison. Also added for comparison is Triton, which is thought to have been a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt before it was captured by Neptune.

Bodies with very poorly known sizes (e.g. 2018 VG18 "Farout") have been excluded. Complicating the situation for poorly known bodies is that a body assumed to be a large single object might turn out to be a binary or ternary system of smaller objects, such as 2013 FY₂₇ or Lempo. A 2021 occultation of 2004 XR₁₉₀ ("Buffy") found a chord of 560 km: if the body is approximately spherical, it is likely that the diameter is greater than 560 km, but if it is elongated, the mean diameter may well be less. Explanations and sources for the measured masses and diameters can be found in the corresponding articles linked in column "Designation" of the table.

• The bodies with estimated diameter over 900 km are bolded; they have general consensus as being dwarfs, per the previous section. Charon is also bolded, as it has sometimes been considered a possible dwarf in its own right; Triton is bolded as a former KBO that is still rounded and geologically active. Orcus and Sedna are put in the next category due to uncertainties.
• Those with estimated diameter between 700 km and 900 km are in bold italic; most are borderline possibilities, but in most cases are too poorly known for much certainty. They tend to be dark, suggesting that they are not dwarf planets, but some might be dense enough to be fully solid bodies.
• The others, having estimated diameter below 700 km, are unlikely to be dwarf planets on the basis of current evaluation, but may be transitional (partially compressed) bodies.
• Light grey indicates objects whose densities may or may not be higher than 1.5 g/cm.
• Dark grey indicates those whose densities are known to be lower, and hence if the data is correct cannot be dwarf planets.
• Satellites are highlighted in pink, as under the current definition a dwarf planet must directly orbit the Sun.

All of these categories are subject to change with further evidence.

1. The geometric albedo ${\displaystyle A}$ is calculated from the measured absolute magnitude ${\displaystyle H}$ and measured diameter ${\displaystyle D}$ via the formula: ${\displaystyle A=\left({\frac {1329\times 10^{-H/5}}{D}}\right)^{2}}$. Ranges have been given for Triton, Pluto, and Charon, which have been observed up close and therefore have known local albedo variations.
2. This is the total system mass (including moons), except for Pluto, Haumea, and Orcus.

Brightest unmeasured candidates

For objects without a measured size or mass, sizes can only be estimated by assuming an albedo. Most sub-dwarf objects are thought to be dark, because they haven't been resurfaced; this means that they are also relatively large for their magnitudes. Below is a table for assumed albedos between 4% (the albedo of Salacia) and 20% (a value above which suggests resurfacing), and the sizes objects of those albedos would need to be (if round) to produce the observed absolute magnitude. Backgrounds are blue for >900 km and teal for >600 km.

1. The diameter can be calculated from the measured absolute magnitude ${\displaystyle H}$, and for an assumed albedo ${\displaystyle p}$, via the formula: ${\displaystyle D={\frac {1329\times 10^{-H/5}}{\sqrt {p}}}}$

See also

• Lists of astronomical objects
• List of trans-Neptunian objects
• List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System
• List of former planets
• Planetary-mass moon

References

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External links

• NASA JPL Small-Body Database Search Engine
• TNOs are cool public database, incl. diameters and albedos measured by Herschel and Spitzer to date, Herschel OT KP "TNOs are Cool: A Survey of the Transneptunian Region"
• How many dwarf planets are there in the outer solar system? (updates daily) (Mike Brown)
• Details on the dwarf planet size calculations (Mike Brown)
• Which are the Dwarfs in the Solar System? Tancredi, G.; Favre, S. Icarus, Volume 195, Issue 2, p. 851–862.

v t e Dwarf planets
List of possible dwarf planets Former dwarf planets Phoebe Triton Vesta Pallas Mesoplanet Planemo
Consensus	Ceres Geology Atmosphere Orcus Moon Pluto Geology Atmosphere Moons Haumea Moons Ring Makemake Moon Quaoar Moon Rings Eris Moon Gonggong Moon Sedna
Candidate	Asteroids Hygiea Interamnia Centaurs Chariklo Chiron Pholus 1999 OX3 2013 TC146 2014 NW65 Plutinos Huya Ixion 2001 QF298 2002 VR128 2002 XV93 2003 AZ84 2003 UZ413 2003 VS2 2007 JH43 2017 OF69 Twotinos 2002 WC19 Cubewanos Chaos Salacia Varda Varuna 1998 SN165 2002 AW197 2002 CY248 2002 KX14 2002 MS4 2002 UX25 2003 QW90 2004 GV9 2004 NT33 2004 PF115 2004 TY364 2004 UX10 2005 RN43 2005 UQ513 2010 FX86 Other KBOs 1999 CD158 1999 DE9 2000 YW134 2002 XW93 2010 JO179 2010 VK201 2011 FW62 2011 GM27 2013 FZ27 2014 UM33 2015 AM281 2015 RR245 Scattered disc objects Gǃkúnǁʼhòmdímà Dziewanna 1996 GQ21 1996 TL66 2001 UR163 2002 TC302 2004 XA192 2005 QU182 2005 RM43 2006 QH181 2008 OG19 2010 KZ39 2010 RE64 2010 RF43 2010 JO179 2010 TJ 2010 VZ98 2013 FY27 2014 AN55 2014 EZ51 2014 UZ224 2014 WK509 2015 KH162 2015 RR245 2017 FO161 2018 AG37 2018 VG18 2021 DR15 2021 LL37 Detached objects 2003 FY128 2003 QX113 2004 XR190 2005 TB190 2007 JJ43 2008 ST291 Sednoids 2012 VP113
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