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A mare (Old English: mære, Old Dutch: mare; Old Norse, Old High German and Swedish: mara; Proto-Slavic *mara) is a malicious entity in Germanic and Slavic folklore that walks on people's chests while they sleep, bringing on nightmares.

Etymology

The word mare comes (through Middle English mare) from the Old English feminine noun mære (which had numerous variant forms, including mare, mere, and mær). Likewise are the forms in Old Norse/Icelandic mara as well as the Old High German mara (glossed in Latin as "incuba"), while the Middle High German forms are mar, mare,

These in turn come from Proto-Germanic *marōn. *Marōn from which are derived the modern forms: Swedish: mara; Icelandic: mara; Faroese: marra; Danish: mare; Norwegian: mare / mara, Dutch: (nacht)merrie, and German: (Nacht)mahr. The -mar in French cauchemar ('nightmare') is borrowed from the Germanic through Old French mare.

Most scholars trace the word back to the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European root *mer-, associated with crushing, pressing and oppressing. or according to other sources 'to rub away' or 'to harm'. However, other etymologies have been suggested. For example, Éva Pócs saw the term as being cognate with the Greek term Moros (μόρος (Indo-European *móros)), meaning 'doom'. There is no definite answer among historians about the time of origin of the word. According to the philologist Yeleazar Meletinsky, the Proto-Slavonic root mara passed into the Germanic language no later than the 1st century BC.

In Norwegian and Danish, the words for 'nightmare' are mareritt and mareridt respectively, which can be directly translated as 'mare-ride'. The Icelandic word martröð has the same meaning (-tröð from the verb troða, 'trample', 'stamp on', related to tread), whereas the Swedish mardröm translates as 'mare-dream'.

Beliefs

The mare was believed to ride horses, which left them exhausted and covered in sweat by the morning. She could also entangle the hair of the sleeping man or beast, resulting in "marelocks", called marflätor ('mare-braids') or martovor ('mare-tangles') in Swedish or marefletter and marefloker in Norwegian. The belief probably originated as an explanation to the Polish plait phenomenon, a hair disease.

Even trees were thought to be ridden by the mare, resulting in branches being entangled. The undersized, twisted pine-trees growing on coastal rocks and on wet grounds are known in Sweden as martallar ('mare-pines') or in German as Alptraum-Kiefer ('nightmare pine').

According to Paul Devereux, mares included witches who took on the form of animals when their spirits went out and about while they were in trance (see the Icelandic example of Geirrid, below). These included animals such as frogs, cats, horses, hares, dogs, oxen, birds and often bees and wasps.

By region

Scandinavia

The Scandinavian mare is normally a female being which "rides" the victims chest, called ”mare riding” (Danish: mareridt, Norwegian: mareritt, Swedish: marritt), causing severe anxiety and suffocation feelings etc. It assaults both people and animals, and often traveles in the likeness of an animal, especially cat.

The mare is attested as early as in the Norse Ynglinga saga from the 13th century. Here, King Vanlandi Sveigðisson of Uppsala lost his life to a nightmare (mara) conjured by the Finnish sorceress Huld or Hulda, hired by the king's abandoned wife Drífa. The king had broken his promise to return within three years, and after ten years had elapsed the wife engaged the sorceress to either lure the king back to her, or failing that, to assassinate him. Vanlandi had scarcely gone to sleep when he complained that the nightmare "rode him"; when the men held the king's head it "trod on his legs" on the point of breaking, and when the retinue then "seized his feet", the creature fatally "pressed down on his head". In Sámi mythology, there is an evil elf called Deattán, who transforms into a bird or other animal and sits on the chests of sleeping people, giving nightmares.

According to the Vatnsdæla saga, Thorkel Silver (Þorkell Silfri) has a dream about riding a red horse that barely touched ground, which he interpreted as a positive omen, but his wife disagreed, explaining that a mare signified a man's fetch (fylgja), and that the red color boded bloodiness. This association of the nightmare with fetch is thought to be of late origin, an interpolation in the text dating to circa 1300, with the text exhibiting a "confounding of the words marr and mara."

Another possible example is the account in the Eyrbyggja saga of the sorceress Geirrid accused of assuming the shape of a "night-rider" or "ride-by-night" (marlíðendr or kveldriða) and causing serious trampling bruises on Gunnlaug Thorbjornsson. The marlíðendr mentioned here has been equated to the mara by commentators.

Germany

In Germany, they were known as Mara, Mahr (masculine noun, i.e. ""der Mahr"), or Mare. It is called in Low German mårt (or Mahrt or de môr)) in Pomerania and Rügen, and when it rides a sleeper it can hardly breathe, or it lies over his chest, making its victim drenched with sweat, whereby the victim is able to groan but otherwise rendered speechless and spellbound, and unable to waken unless he is called by his baptismal name. While the mårt is usually a girl with a bad foot according to one source (a certain daughter of a smith in the village of Bork near Stargard having that reputation), there are tales of the môr either male or female (see below).

The môr enters a house through a hole the carpenter forgot to plug, and can be captured by plugging the hole. A male môr who had been tormenting a woman was caught by this method in one tale; he became husband, fathering her children, but left after being told about the hole, returning just once a year. In another tale, a female môr was caught by the method of applying green paint on the hands, and the captor set her permanently on an oak which withered but always shivered. The môr also rides a horse and makes its mane matted and impossible to untangle (folklore collected from Rügen).

It is also said that to prevent a Mahrt from returning, a man who sees it after being visited should offer it a cold bowl and buttered bread for breakfast in the morning, after which she will cease to visit. Another way is boil water in a newly bought jar plugged with a new cork, at which the Mahrt will request the cork to be removed and will not come back again. (folklore of Quazow, Schlawe district [de], now Kwasowo, Gmina Sławno, Poland). More generally in Pomerania, an upside down pair of slippers left by the bed will ward it off.

German Folklorist Adalbert Kuhn records a Westphalian charm or prayer used to ward off mares, from Wilhelmsburg near Paderborn:

Such charms are preceded by the example of the Münchener Nachtsegen of the fourteenth century (See Elf under §Medieval and early modern German texts). Its texts demonstrates that certainly by the Late Middle Ages, the distinction between the Mare, the Alp, and the Trute (Drude) was being blurred, the Mare being described as the Alp's mother.

Slavic

Poland

The Polish nightmare is known by such names as mara (around Podlachia), zmora (around Kraków). An etymological connection with Marzanna, the name of a demon/goddess of winter has been conjectured.

It could be a soul of a person (alive or dead) such as a sinful woman, someone wronged or someone who died without confession. If a woman was promised to marry a man, but then he married another, the rejected one could also become a mare at night. A very common belief was that if the sponsor (godparent) mispronounced a prayer – e.g. Zmoraś Mario instead of Zdrowaś Mario (an inverted version of Ave Maria) at baptism, the child would become a zmora.

The zmora could be recognized by the joined unibrow (żrośnięte brwi), according to the lore of the Wielkopolska (Greater Poland), including Kreis Posen [de] (Poznań County) where a zmora of either sex is recognizable by huge black eyebrows joined in the middle above the nose. Black unibrow is ascribed to zmora or the morus (likened to a ciátow, ciátow 'witch'). Other signs of someone being a mare could be: having multicoloured eyes or a unibrow (exclusive to the Kalisz region, Poland).

The zmora by the power of the devil can shapeshift into various forms, a straw, or grass, or a mouse, a dog, a cat, a mare, a cow, (also white shadow, leather bag, snake!--frogs, yarn, apples-->) or anything to disturb a person's sleep. The zmora is also called a strzyga (‘witch’, cog. strigoi), and hard to distinguish from normal human woman, except she prowl at night doing things she will not remember afterwards. The zmora differs from strzyga according to another account, which asserts that when the zmora dies, it dies for good, while the strzyga becomes a revenant and exhibits transformational abilities only after becoming an undead.

In a family with seven daughters and no sons. the eldest or youngest was bound to become a zmora, so it has been told. Or if a pregnant woman passes through in-between two other pregnant woman, the daughter born becomes a zmora.

It is said that the zmora, once it turns to day, becomes completely unaware of her own strangling or blood-sucking activities during the night. Some say she sticks in her tongue while mounting the victim on his chest, and sucks the blood from his tongue, leaving him emaciated.

It can transform into a moth or mosquito and invade a house through cracks in the window. It is also said that the zmora must exit by the same hole it entered, and this characteristic can be exploited to capture it, as told in one tale where a jilted whore who was a zmora sneaks into the home and blood-sucks her chosen man and his wife. She was bound with a belt of St. Francis, which he converted to a halter, and she turned into a female horse and ridden by him for 7 years to her death. In a variant (also from Krakow County penned by the same woman), a farmhand marries the zmore but tests how she may suffer after plugging her conduit, only uplugging it after she is pregnant. Another variant (from Lublin County) tells of a farmhand who catches the zmora in cat-for using St. Francis's belt; it turns out to be a girl in love with him.

People believed that the mare drained people – as well as cattle and horses –of energy and/or blood at night. And not only is she a bloodsucker of men, but even a sapsucker of trees, according to Krakovian lore. The ways purportedly effective for warding the stable (and perhaps home too) are hanging a slaughtered magpie (sroka), inviting the mare for breakfast, cutting off a string from the doorknob, sticking an awl in the door, or putting a broom and an axe crosswise on the threshold (or a broom in the bedroom to ward it off). To protect livestock, some people hung mirrors over the manger (to scare the mare with its own face) or sometimes the horses were given red ribbons, or covered in a stinking substance.

Other protection practices include:

• drinking coffee before sleeping,
• taking the mare's hat,
• throwing a piece of a noose at the demon,
• sleeping with a leather, wedding belt or a scythe,
• changing one's sleeping position,
• smearing feces on the front door,
• leaving a bundle of hay in one's bed and going to sleep in another room.

Other

Polish mora and Czech můra denotes both a kind of elf (alp, nightmare) as well as a moth. Other Slavic languages with cognates that have the double meaning of moth are: Kashubian mòra/mora, and Slovak mora.

The Polish term nocnice attested in the 15th century means an illness condition of a child, who suffers from spasmodic crying, for which demons were sometimes blamed. This is precursor to the related term nocnica referring to the adult condition of "nightmare oppression" (German: Alpdruck); note that nocnica could also mean "night moth". Another Polish synonym was gniotek.

In Croatian, mora refers to a 'nightmare'. Mora or Mara is one of the spirits from ancient Slav mythology, a dark one who becomes a beautiful woman to visit men in their dreams, torturing them with desire before killing them. In Serbia, a mare is called zmora or mora, or noćnik/noćnica ('night creature', masculine and feminine respectively). In Romania they were known as Moroi.

The Russian counterpart is called kikimora or hihimore, like the French name cauchemar.

Some believe that a mora enters the room through the keyhole, sits on the chest of the sleeper and tries to strangle them (hence moriti, 'to torture', 'to bother', 'to strangle', umoriti, 'to tire', 'to kill', umor, 'tiredness' and umoran, 'tired'). To repel moras, children are advised to look at the window or to turn the pillow and make the sign of the cross on it (prekrstiti jastuk); in the early 19th century, Vuk Karadžić mentions that people would repel moras by leaving a broom upside down behind their doors, or putting their belt on top of their sheets, or saying an elaborate prayer poem before they go to sleep.

See also

• Alp (folklore)
• Basty
• Batibat
• Enchanted Moura
• Ghosts in Thai culture
• Incubus
• Lietuvēns
• Madam Koi Koi
• Mara (demon)
• Mara (Hindu goddess)
• Marzanna (Slavic goddess of death and winter)
• Maya (illusion)
• Moroi
• Moros
• Mouros
• Night hag
• Nightmare
• Pesanta
• Sleep paralysis, medical term for the condition the mare is thought to originate from.
• Slavic fairies
• Succubus

Fiction:

• Paranormal Entity, a 2009 found-footage film featuring a mare named Maron as the antagonist
• Marianne, a 2011 Swedish horror film featuring mares
• Borgman, a 2013 Dutch thriller film featuring mares
• Outlast, a 2013 video game featuring Mares/Alps
• Hilda, a 2018 TV series. Episode 6 "The Nightmare Spirit" focuses on one
• Mara, a 2018 American horror film
• Phasmophobia, a 2020 video game featuring Mares

Explanatory notes

1. The 17th century accused witch Katarzyna of Wojnicz administered this inverted Hail Mary attempting to heal children who suffered from "nightmare oppression" (nocnice) symptoms.
2. #149 and #150 possibly literary, attributed to Elżbieta Kostaśka in Modlnica.
3. In a variant, the promise of bread or butter the next day must be fulfilled when a strange woman or little girl comes in the morning, otherwise the consequences will be dire
4. The from nocznicze is given by Ostling, which he says literally means 'night ones'

References

Citations

1. ^ Bjorvand, Harald; and Lindeman, Fredrik Otto edd. (2000). Våre arveord: Etymologisk ordbok, p. 586
2. Alaric Hall, 'The Evidence for Maran, the Anglo-Saxon "Nightmares"', Neophilologus, 91 (2007), 299–317, doi:10.1007/s11061-005-4256-8.
3. Cleasby-Vigfusson (1884) s.v. "mara". An An Icelandic-English Dictionary.
4. ^ Batten (2021), p. 352.
5. Batten gives OHG mahr.
6. Steinmeyer, Elias; Sievers, Eduard, eds. (1898). Die althochdeutschen Glossen. Vol. 4. Berlin: Weidmann. p. 204.
7. ^ Newerkla, Stefan Michael (2004). "můra". Sprachkontakte Deutsch - Tschechisch - Slowakisch. Lang. p. 544. ISBN 9783631517536.
8. Lexer (1878). "mar, mare", Mittelhochdeutsches Handwörterbuch
9. ^ Grimm & Stallybrass tr. (1883) 2: 464 and note2; Grimm (1875) 1: 384 and n3.
10. Even though Grimm could not find the Old High German or Middle High German attestations.
11. Kluge, Friedrich; Seebold, Elmar, eds. (2012) . "Mahr". Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache (25 ed.). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 406. ISBN 9783110223651.
12. Pokorny, Julius (1959) s.v. "5. mer-" Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. 2 vols. Bern: Franck.
13. de Vries, Jan (1961) s.vv. "mara, mǫrn". Altnordisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. Leiden: Brill
14. C. Lecouteux, 'Mara–Ephialtes–Incubus: Le couchemar chez les peuples germaniques.' Études germaniques 42: 1–24 (pp. 4–5).
15. "mer- Archived 2005-09-10 at the Wayback Machine" in Pickett et al. (2000). Retrieved on 2008-11-22.
16. Pócs 1999, p. 32
17. ^ Devereux (2001), Haunted Land, p.78
18. μόρος. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
19. Yeleazar Meletinsky, ed. (1990). Mythological dictionary (in Russian). Stuttgart: Moscow: Soviet encyclopedia. ISBN 5-85270-032-0.
20. ^ Baier, Rudolf (January 1855). "Beitrage von der Insel Rügen". Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde. 2: 139–141.
21. ^ The môr riding horse (pîrd) and casusing mane to be verfilzen ("felted") (lore from island of Rügen).
22. ^ Kolberg, Oskar (1874). "Zmora". Lud: jego zwyczaje [The People. Their Customs, Way of Life, Language..]. Vol. 7. Warszawa: Drukarni Jaworskiego. pp. 69–71. (Okolice Krakowa: część III. Gusła, Czary Przesądy)
23. Cf. Tale of the shivering oak below (Pomerania) and repuatation as sap-sucker (Poland),
24. Ynglinga saga, chapter 13 (and quoted stanza from Ynglingatal), in Hødnebø and Magerøy (1979), p. 12
25. Snorri Sturluson (2010) . Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway. Translated by Hollander, Lee M. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0292786967.
26. Siida – Staalon ja maahisten maa – Kertojien perilliset (in Finnish)
27. Kelchner, Georgia Dunham (2013) . Dreams in Old Norse Literature and their Affinities in Folklore. Cambridge University Press. pp. 20–22. ISBN 978-1107620223.
28. Morris, William; Magnússon, Eiríkr (1892), The Story of the Ere-dwellers (Eyrbyggja Saga), B. Quaritch, pp. 29–, 274, 348
29. Du Chaillu, Paul Belloni (1890), "The Viking Age: The Early History, Manners, and Customs of the ancestors of the English-speaking Nations", Nature, 1 (1052), Scribner's Sons: 433, Bibcode:1889Natur..41..173F, doi:10.1038/041173a0, hdl:2027/hvd.hn4ttf, S2CID 11662165
30. Ármann Jakobsson (2009), "The Fearless Vampire Killers: A Note about the Icelandic Draugr and Demonic Contamination in Grettis Saga", Folklore, 120 (3): 307–316, doi:10.1080/00155870903219771, S2CID 162338244
31. ^ Temme, Jodocus Deodatus Hubertus , ed. (1889) . "Nachtrag. X. Die Mahrt. 695. Schutz vor der Mahrt". Volkssagen aus Pommern und Rügen (2 ed.). Berlin: Mayer & Müller. p. 559.
32. ^ Temme, Jodocus Deodatus Hubertus , ed. (1840). "Abergläubische Meinungen und Gebräuche in Pommern and Rügen (Alp)". Die Volkssagen von Pommern und Rügen. Berlin: Nicolai. p. 340.
33. Kuhn, Adalbert (1864). "Indische und germanische Segenssprüche". Zeitschrift für Vergleichende Sprachforschung. 13: 124.
34. Last line supplied from "541. Mahrsegen" Kuhn 1859, vol. 2, p.191
35. Mahr, August C. (1935). "A Pennsylvania Dutch 'Hexzettel'". Monatshefte für Deutschen Unterricht. 27 (6): 215–225. JSTOR 30169065.
36. Last line of translation supplied by Ashliman, D. L. "Night-Mares". Folklore and Mythology Electronic Texts. Retrieved 23 May 2013.
37. Hall, Alaric (2007). Elves in Anglo-Saxon England: Matters of Belief, Health, Gender and Identity. Boydell Press. pp. 125–126. ISBN 978-1843832942.
38. ^ Szelągowski, Adam (1914). Wici i topory: studyum nad geneza i znaczeniem godeł polskich i zawołń. Kraków: Akademia Umiejętności, Skład główny w księg. pp. 13–14.
39. ^ Ostling, Michael (2011). Between the devil and the host : imagining witchcraft in early modern Poland. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 233. ISBN 978-0199587902. OCLC 751748759.
40. Lorentz, Fischer & Lehr-Spławiński (1934), p. 175; Lorentz, Fischer & Lehr-Spławiński (1935), p. 231
41. Nowak, Henryk (2001). "829 Znaczenie wyrazów mora, zmora, wieszczyca". In Sobierajski, Zenon (ed.). Atlas języka i kultury ludowej Wielkopolski: Lecznictwo ludowe. Magia. Wykazy i komentarze do map 764-834. Vol. 10. Wydawn. Polskiej Akad. Nauk. p. 178. ISBN 9788323211129.
42. ^ Kolberg, Oskar (1882). "Zmora". Lud: jego zwyczaje [The People. Their Customs, Way of Life, Language..]. Vol. 15. Warszawa: Drukarni Jaworskiego. pp. 69–71. (W. Kreis Poznańskie)
43. Berwiński (I, 195), as well as F. Klepaczewski, apud Lud 15 (1882).
44. ^ Kmietowicz, Frank A. Slavic Mythical Beliefs. Windsor, Ontario: 157–158.
45. Kmietowicz (1982) states "A man might be a Zmora from birth, in which case he had bushy, black eyebrows, growing together above his nose".
46. ^ Baranowski (1965), p. 171.
47. Baranowski (1965) relates the belief that "the seventh, sixth, or fifth daughter born will be a zmora (że zmorą jest każda siódma córka, względnie szósta lub nawet piąta)", but opinions differ whether sons born in between will affect this. Kmietowicz (1981) states the fifth, sixth, and seventh daughters born in a row become zmory.
48. ^ Kolberg, Oskar (1884). "Zmora". Lud: jego zwyczaje [The People. Their Customs, Way of Life, Language..]. Vol. 17. Warszawa: Drukarni Jaworskiego. pp. 99–100.
49. ^ Gołębiowski, Łukasz (1830). Lud polski, jego zwyczaje, zabobony. Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Artystyczne i Filmowe. p. 156157.
50. Kmietowicz: "even injured and withered trees".
51. While Golębiowski writes as if this is to protect the stable, Kolberg (1874), p. 74, footnote, allows for both human and animal protection, citing Golębiowski and Tomasz Wolicki "Nauka dla włościan", p, 175 for describing the same protection.
52. Baranowski (1981), p. 72: "..pozbyć się zmory obietnicą dania jej nazajutrz chleba , masła lub czegoś innego chleba , masła , lub czegoś innego.."
53. Grimm gives Abend-schmetterling, and specifies sphinx moth. Stallybrass adds "night butterfly" but it is dubious whether this phrase has any appreciable currency in English for the meaning "moth". Newerkla glosses Czech můra or Slavic mora, mura as meaning nachtfalter, which also means "moth".
54. Bernard Sychta. Słownik gwar kaszubskich na tle kultury ludowej, Ossolineum, Wrocław - Warszawa - Kraków 1969, tom III, pp. 102-105
55. Lorentz, Fischer & Lehr-Spławiński (1935), p. 281.
56. "Slovenské slovníky". slovnik.juls.savba.sk. Retrieved 2021-02-06.
57. ^ Brückner, Aleksander (1924). Mitologja polska: studjum porównawcze. Warszawa: Instytut wydawniczy Bibljoteka poska. pp. 110–111.
58. Linde, Samuel (1809). "nocnica". Słownik języka polskiego: M - T. Vol. 2. Warsaw: autor. p. 325.
59. Pócs 1999, p. 33 gives the feminine form.
60. Karadžić, Vuk (1898) , Srpski rječnik, Central European University Press, ISBN 9789639116184

Bibliography

• Baranowski, Bohdan (1965). Pożegnanie z diabłem i czarownicą [Farewell to the Devil and the Witch]. Wydawn. Łódzkie.
• Baranowski, Bohdan (1981). W kręgu upiorów i wilkołaków [In the circle of ghosts and werewolves]. Wydawn. Łódzkie. ISBN 9788321800721.
• Batten, Caroline R. (2021). "Dark Riders: Disease, Sexual Violence, and Gender Performance in the Old English Mære and Old Norse Mara". The Journal of English and Germanic Philology. 120 (3): 352–80. doi:10.5406/jenglgermphil.120.3.0352. JSTOR 10.5406/jenglgermphil.120.3.0352. S2CID 236779356.
• Bjorvand, Harald; Lindeman, Fredrik Otto edd. (2007). Våre arveord. 2nd edition. Novus. ISBN 978-82-7099-467-0.
• Devereux, Paul (2001). Haunted Land: Investigations into Ancient Mysteries and Modern Day Phenomena, Piatkus Publishers.
• Grimm, Jacob (1875). "XVII. Wichte und Elbe". Deutsche Mythologie. Vol. 1 (4 ed.). Göttingen: W. Swan Sonnenschein & Allen. pp. 363–428.
  • Grimm, Jacob (1883). "XVII. Wights and Elves". Teutonic Mythology. Vol. 2. Translated by James Steven Stallybrass. W. Swan Sonnenschein & Allen. pp. 439–517.
• Hødnebø, Finn and Magerøy, Hallvard (eds.) (1979). Snorres kongesagaer 1, 2nd ed. Gyldendal Norsk Forlag. ISBN 82-05-22184-7.

• Kuhn, Adalbert (1859). Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen und einigen andern, besonders den angrenzenden Gegenden Norddeutschlands. Brockhaus. pp. 18–22, 191.
• Lorentz, Friedrich; Fischer, Adam ; Lehr-Spławiński, Tadeusz (1934). Kaszubi: kultura ludowa i język. Instytut Bałtycki.
  • Lorentz, Friedrich; Fischer, Adam ; Lehr-Spławiński, Tadeusz (1935). The Cassubian Civilization. Vol. 1. Faber & Faber, limited.

• Pickett, Joseph P. et al. (eds.) (2000). The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-82517-2.
• Pócs, Éva (1999). Between the living and the dead: a perspective on witches and seers in the early modern age. Central European University Press. ISBN 978-9639116184.

Further reading

• Barešin, Sandra (2013). "Mora kao nadnaravno biće tradicijske kulture" [Mare as Supernatural Being of Traditional Culture]. Ethnologica Dalmatica. 20: 39–68.

• Pieńczak, Agnieszka; Povetkina, Polina (2023). "The Polish Nightmare Being (Zmora) and the Problem with Defining the Category of Supernatural Double-Souled Beings". Folklore. 134 (1): 73–90. doi:10.1080/0015587X.2022.2088957.

v t e Scandinavian folklore
Beings	Askafroa Bäckahäst Bøyg Bysen Changeling Church grim Cyprianus Deildegast Di sma undar jordi Draugr Land draugr Sea draugr Dwarf Elf Erlking Älvor Fossegrim Gjenganger Helhest Kraken Lindworm Mare (nightmare) Marmennill Myling Nisse Nis Puk Neck Pixie Rå Bergsrå Hulder Sjörå Skogsrå Tomterå Sea serpent Selma Skrømt Troll Forrest troll Mountain troll Sea troll Troll cat Valravn Vardøger Vargr Vittra Vættir Vǫrðr Wight Will-o'-the-wisp Ysätters-Kajsa
People	Amleth Askeladden Blenda Disa Feng Påskkärring
Origins	Norse mythology Old Norse religion
See also	Danish folklore Nordic folklore (Sweden, Norway, Iceland, and Faroe Islands)

• German legendary creatures
• Scandinavian legendary creatures
• Scandinavian folklore
• English folklore
• Slavic legendary creatures
• Germanic legendary creatures
• Sleep in mythology and folklore
• Supernatural legends