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Karl Marx's theory of alienation describes the separation and estrangement of people from their work, their wider world, their human nature, and their selves. Alienation is a consequence of the division of labour in a capitalist society, wherein a human being's life is lived as a mechanistic part of a social class.

The theoretical basis of alienation is that a worker invariably loses the ability to determine life and destiny when deprived of the right to think (conceive) of themselves as the director of their own actions; to determine the character of these actions; to define relationships with other people; and to own those items of value from goods and services, produced by their own labour. Although the worker is an autonomous, self-realised human being, as an economic entity this worker is directed to goals and diverted to activities that are dictated by the bourgeoisie—who own the means of production—in order to extract from the worker the maximum amount of surplus value in the course of business competition among industrialists.

The theory, while found throughout Marx's writings, is explored most extensively in his early works, particularly the Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844, and in his later working notes for Capital, the Grundrisse. Marx's theory draws heavily from Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, and from The Essence of Christianity (1841) by Ludwig Feuerbach. Max Stirner extended Feuerbach's analysis in The Ego and its Own (1845), claiming that even the idea of 'humanity' is itself an alienating concept. Marx and Friedrich Engels responded to these philosophical propositions in The German Ideology (1845).

Two forms of alienation

In his writings from the early 1840s, Karl Marx uses the German words Entfremdung ("alienation" or "estrangement", derived from 'fremd', which means "alien") and Entäusserung ("externalisation" or "alienation", which alludes to the idea of relinquishment or surrender) to suggest an unharmonious or hostile separation between entities that naturally belong together.

The concept of alienation has two forms: "subjective" and "objective". Alienation is "subjective" when human individuals feel "estranged" or do not feel at home in the modern social world. By this account, alienation consists in an individuals' experience of his or her life as meaningless, or his/herself as worthless. "Objective" alienation, by contrast, makes no reference to the beliefs or feelings of human beings. Rather, human beings are objectively alienated when they are hindered from developing their essential human capacities.

For Marx, objective alienation is the cause of subjective alienation: individuals experience their lives as lacking meaning or fulfilment because modern society does not promote the deployment of their human capacities.

Marx derives this concept from Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, whom he credits with significant insight into the basic structure of the modern social world, and how it is disfigured by alienation. Hegel's view is that, in the modern social world, objective alienation has already been vanquished, as the institutions of the rational or modern state enable individuals to fulfil themselves. Hegel believes that the family, civil society, and the political state facilitate people's actualization, both as individuals and members of a community. Nonetheless, there still exists widespread subjective alienation, where people feel estranged from the modern social world, or do not recognize modern society as a home. Hegel's project is not to reform or change the institutions of the modern social world, but to change the way in which society is understood by its members.

Marx shares Hegel's belief that subjective alienation is widespread, but denies that the modern state enables individuals to actualize themselves. Marx instead takes widespread subjective alienation to indicate that objective alienation has not yet been overcome.

Dimensions of alienated labour

Marx stated that in a capitalist society, workers are alienated from their labour - they cannot decide on their own productive activities, nor can they use or own the value of what they produce. In the "Notes on James Mill" (1844), Marx explained alienation thus:

Let us suppose that we had carried out production as human beings . . . In my production I would have objectified my individuality, its specific character, and, therefore, enjoyed not only an individual manifestation of my life during the activity, but also, when looking at the object, I would have the individual pleasure of knowing my personality to be objective, visible to the senses, and, hence, a power beyond all doubt. ... Our products would be so many mirrors in which we saw reflected our essential nature.

In the first manuscript of the Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844, Marx identifies four interrelated dimensions of alienated labour: alienated labour alienates the worker, first, from the product of his labour; second, from his own activity; third, from what Marx, following Feuerbach, calls species-being; and fourth, from other human beings.

From a worker's product

Marx begins with an account of man's alienation from the products of his labour. In work, a worker objectifies his labour in the object that he produces. The objectification of a worker's labour is simultaneously its alienation. The worker loses control of the product to the owner of the means of production, the capitalist. The product's sale by the capitalist further reinforces the capitalist's power of wealth over the worker. The worker thus relates to the product as an alien object, which dominates and enslaves him. The products of his labour constitute a separate world of objects, which is alien to him. The worker creates an object, which appears to be his property. However, he now becomes its property. Where in earlier historical epochs, one person ruled over another, now the thing rules over the person, the product over the producer.

The design of the product and how it is produced are determined, not by the producers who make it (the workers), nor by the consumers of the product (the buyers), but by the capitalist class who besides accommodating the worker's manual labour also accommodate the intellectual labour of the engineer and the industrial designer who create the product in order to shape the taste of the consumer to buy the goods and services at a price that yields a maximal profit. Aside from the workers having no control over the design-and-production protocol, alienation (Entfremdung) broadly describes the conversion of labour (work as an activity), which is performed to generate a use value (the product), into a commodity, which—like products—can be assigned an exchange value. That is, the capitalist gains control of the manual and intellectual workers and the benefits of their labour, with a system of industrial production that converts this labour into concrete products (goods and services) that benefit the consumer. Moreover, the capitalist production system also reifies labour into the "concrete" concept of "work" (a job), for which the worker is paid wages— at the lowest-possible rate— that maintain a maximum rate of return on the capitalist's investment capital; this is an aspect of exploitation. Furthermore, with such a reified system of industrial production, the profit (exchange value) generated by the sale of the goods and services (products) that could be paid to the workers is instead paid to the capitalist classes: the functional capitalist, who manages the means of production; and the rentier capitalist, who owns the means of production.

From a worker's productive activity

In the capitalist mode of production, the generation of products (goods and services) is accomplished with an endless sequence of discrete, repetitive motions that offer the worker little psychological satisfaction for "a job well done." By means of commodification, the labor power of the worker is reduced to wages (an exchange value); the psychological estrangement (Entfremdung) of the worker results from the unmediated relation between his productive labour and the wages paid to him for the labour. The worker is alienated from the means of production via two forms: wage compulsion and the imposed production content. The worker is bound to unwanted labour as a means of survival, labour is not "voluntary but coerced" (forced labour). The worker is only able to reject wage compulsion at the expense of their life and that of their family. The distribution of private property in the hands of wealth owners, combined with government enforced taxes compel workers to labour. In a capitalist world, our means of survival is based on monetary exchange, therefore we have no other choice than to sell our labour power and consequently be bound to the demands of the capitalist.

The worker "oes not feel content but unhappy, does not develop freely his physical and mental energy but mortifies his body and ruins his mind. The worker therefore only feels himself outside his work, and in his work feels outside himself;" "abor is external to the worker," it is not a part of their essential being. During work, the worker is miserable, unhappy and drained of their energy, work "mortifies his body and ruins his mind." The production content, direction and form are imposed by the capitalist. The worker is being controlled and told what to do since they do not own the means of production they have no say in production, "labour is external to the worker, i.e. it does not belong to his essential being. A person's mind should be free and conscious, instead it is controlled and directed by the capitalist, "the external character of labour for the worker appears in the fact that it is not his own but someone else's, that it does not belong to him, that in it he belongs, not to himself, but to another." This means he cannot freely and spontaneously create according to his own directive as labour's form and direction belong to someone else.

From a worker's Gattungswesen (species-being)

The Gattungswesen ('species-being' or 'human nature'), of individuals is not discrete (separate and apart) from their activity as a worker and as such species-essence also comprises all of innate human potential as a person.

Conceptually, in the term species-essence, the word species describes the intrinsic human mental essence that is characterised by a "plurality of interests" and "psychological dynamism," whereby every individual has the desire and the tendency to engage in the many activities that promote mutual human survival and psychological well-being, by means of emotional connections with other people, with society. The psychic value of a human consists in being able to conceive (think) of the ends of their actions as purposeful ideas, which are distinct from the actions required to realise a given idea. That is, humans are able to objectify their intentions by means of an idea of themselves as "the subject" and an idea of the thing that they produce, "the object." Conversely, unlike a human being, an animal does not objectify itself as "the subject" nor its products as ideas, "the object," because an animal engages in directly self-sustaining actions that have neither a future intention, nor a conscious intention. Whereas a person's Gattungswesen does not exist independently of specific, historically conditioned activities, the essential nature of a human being is actualised when an individual— within their given historical circumstance— is free to subordinate their will to the internal demands they have imposed upon themselves by their imagination and not the external demands imposed upon individuals by other people.

Relations of production

Whatever the character of a person's consciousness (will and imagination), societal existence is conditioned by their relationships with the people and things that facilitate survival, which is fundamentally dependent upon cooperation with others, thus, a person's consciousness is determined inter-subjectively (collectively), not subjectively (individually), because humans are a social animal. In the course of history, to ensure individual survival societies have organised themselves into groups who have different, basic relationships to the means of production. One societal group (class) owned and controlled the means of production while another societal class worked the means of production and in the relations of production of that status quo the goal of the owner-class was to economically benefit as much as possible from the labour of the working class. In the course of economic development when a new type of economy displaced an old type of economy—agrarian feudalism superseded by mercantilism, in turn superseded by the Industrial Revolution—the rearranged economic order of the social classes favoured the social class who controlled the technologies (the means of production) that made possible the change in the relations of production. Likewise, there occurred a corresponding rearrangement of the human nature (Gattungswesen) and the system of values of the owner-class and of the working-class, which allowed each group of people to accept and to function in the rearranged status quo of production-relations.

Despite the ideological promise of industrialisation—that the mechanisation of industrial production would raise the mass of the workers from a brutish life of subsistence existence to honourable work—the division of labour inherent to the capitalist mode of production thwarted the human nature (Gattungswesen) of the worker and so rendered each individual into a mechanistic part of an industrialised system of production, from being a person capable of defining their value through direct, purposeful activity. Moreover, the near-total mechanisation and automation of the industrial production system would allow the (newly) dominant bourgeois capitalist social class to exploit the working class to the degree that the value obtained from their labour would diminish the ability of the worker to materially survive. As a result of this exploitation, when the proletarian working-class become a sufficiently developed political force, they will effect a revolution and re-orient the relations of production to the means of production—from a capitalist mode of production to a communist mode of production. In the resultant communist society, the fundamental relation of the workers to the means of production would be equal and non-conflictual because there would be no artificial distinctions about the value of a worker's labour; the worker's humanity (Gattungswesen) thus respected, men and women would not become alienated.

In the communist socio-economic organisation, the relations of production would operate the mode of production and employ each worker according to their abilities and benefit each worker according to their needs. Hence, each worker could direct their labour to productive work suitable to their own innate abilities, rather than be forced into a narrowly defined, minimum-wage "job" meant to extract maximal profit from individual labour as determined by and dictated under the capitalist mode of production. In the classless, collectively-managed communist society, the exchange of value between the objectified productive labour of one worker and the consumption benefit derived from that production will not be determined by or directed to the narrow interests of a bourgeois capitalist class, but instead will be directed to meet the needs of each producer and consumer. Although production will be differentiated by the degree of each worker's abilities, the purpose of the communist system of industrial production will be determined by the collective requirements of society, not by the profit-oriented demands of a capitalist social class who live at the expense of the greater society. Under the collective ownership of the means of production, the relation of each worker to the mode of production will be identical and will assume the character that corresponds to the universal interests of the communist society. The direct distribution of the fruits of the labour of each worker to fulfil the interests of the working class—and thus to an individual's own interest and benefit— will constitute an un-alienated state of labour conditions, which restores to the worker the fullest exercise and determination of their human nature.

From other workers

Capitalism reduces the labour of the worker to a commercial commodity that can be traded in the competitive labour-market, rather than as a constructive socio-economic activity that is part of the collective common effort performed for personal survival and the betterment of society. In a capitalist economy, the businesses who own the means of production establish a competitive labour-market meant to extract from the worker as much labour (value) as possible in the form of capital. The capitalist economy's arrangement of the relations of production provokes social conflict by pitting worker against worker in a competition for "higher wages", thereby alienating them from their mutual economic interests; the effect is a false consciousness, which is a form of ideological control exercised by the capitalist bourgeoisie through its cultural hegemony. Furthermore, in the capitalist mode of production the philosophic collusion of religion in justifying the relations of production facilitates the realisation and then worsens the alienation (Entfremdung) of the worker from their humanity; it is a socio-economic role independent of religion being "the opiate of the masses".

Philosophical significance and influences

The concept of alienation does not originate with Marx. Marx's two main influences in his use of the term are Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Ludwig Feuerbach.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

For Hegel, alienation consists in an "unhappy consciousness". By this term, Hegel means a misunderstood form of Christianity, or a Christianity that hasn't been interpreted according to Hegel's own pantheism.

In The Phenomenology of Spirit (1807), Hegel described the stages in the development of the human Geist ('spirit'), by which men and women progress from ignorance to knowledge of the self and of the world. Developing Hegel's human-spirit proposition, Marx said that those poles of idealism— "spiritual ignorance" and "self-understanding"— are replaced with material categories, whereby "spiritual ignorance" becomes "alienation" and "self-understanding" becomes man's realisation of his Gattungswesen (species-essence).

Ludwig Feuerbach

The middle-period writings of Ludwig Feuerbach, where he critiques Christianity and philosophy, are pre-occupied with the problem of alienation. In these works, Feuerbach argues that an inappropriate separation of individuals from their essential human nature is at the heart of Christianity.

Feuerbach believes the alienation of modern individuals consists in their holding false beliefs about God. God is not an objective being, but is instead a projection of man's own essential predicates. Christian belief entails the sacrifice, the practical denial or repression, of essential human characteristics. Feuerbach characterises his own work as having a therapeutic goal – healing the painful separation at the heart of alienation.

Entfremdung and the theory of history

In Part I: "Feuerbach – Opposition of the Materialist and Idealist Outlook" of The German Ideology (1846), Karl Marx said the following:

Things have now come to such a pass that the individuals must appropriate the existing totality of productive forces, not only to achieve self-activity, but also, merely, to safeguard their very existence.

That humans psychologically require the life activities that lead to their self-actualisation as persons remains a consideration of secondary historical relevance because the capitalist mode of production eventually will exploit and impoverish the proletariat until compelling them to social revolution for survival. Yet, social alienation remains a practical concern, especially among the contemporary philosophers of Marxist humanism. In The Marxist-Humanist Theory of State-Capitalism (1992), Raya Dunayevskaya discusses and describes the existence of the desire for self-activity and self-actualisation among wage-labour workers struggling to achieve the elementary goals of material life in a capitalist economy.

Entfremdung and social class

In Chapter 4 of The Holy Family (1845), Marx said that capitalists and proletarians are equally alienated, but that each social class experiences alienation in a different form:

The propertied class and the class of the proletariat present the same human self-estrangement. But the former class feels at ease and strengthened in this self-estrangement, it recognises estrangement as its own power, and has in it the semblance of a human existence. The class of the proletariat feels annihilated, this means that they cease to exist in estrangement; it sees in it its own powerlessness and in the reality of an inhuman existence. It is, to use an expression of Hegel, in its abasement, the indignation at that abasement, an indignation to which it is necessarily driven by the contradiction between its human nature and its condition of life, which is the outright, resolute and comprehensive negation of that nature. Within this antithesis, the private property-owner is therefore the conservative side, and the proletarian the destructive side. From the former arises the action of preserving the antithesis, from the latter the action of annihilating it.

Criticism

In discussion of "aleatory materialism" (matérialisme aléatoire) or "materialism of the encounter," French philosopher Louis Althusser criticised a teleological (goal-oriented) interpretation of Marx's theory of alienation because it rendered the proletariat as the subject of history; an interpretation tainted with the absolute idealism of the "philosophy of the subject," which he criticised as the "bourgeois ideology of philosophy".

See also

• Commodity fetishism
• Critique of political economy
• Cultural evolution
• Theories of class consciousness and reification by Georg Lukács
• The Society of the Spectacle
• Disenchantment

Footnotes

1. "Karl Marx on alienated labour". 2009.
2. Ollman 1983, p. 271.
3. Schacht 1970, pp. 67–68.
4. Wood 2004, p. 3.
5. Leopold 2007, p. 68.
6. Leopold 2007, pp. 68–69.
7. Wood 2004, p. 8.
8. ^ Leopold 2007, p. 69.
9. Leopold 2007, p. 74.
10. Leopold 2007, p. 76.
11. Leopold 2007, pp. 76–77.
12. ^ Qian, Ying (2024). Revolutionary Becomings: Documentary Media in Twentieth-Century China. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231204477.
13. Jaeggi 2014, p. 11.
14. ^ Petrović 1967, p. 83.
15. Arthur 1986.
16. Leopold 2007, p. 230.
17. ^ Marx, Karl. 1932. Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844.
18. Marx on Alienation
19. ^ Wood 2004, p. 10.
20. Leopold 2007, pp. 205–206.
21. ^ Leopold 2007, p. 206.
22. Leopold 2007, pp. 207–208.
23. Marx, Karl (1846). "Part I: Feuerbach. Opposition of the Materialist and Idealist Outlook". The German Ideology.
24. Chapter 4 of The Holy Family- see under Critical Comment No. 2
25. Bullock, Allan, and Stephen Trombley, eds. 1999. "Alienation." Pp. 22 in The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought.

References

• Althusser, Louis (2005) . For Marx. Translated by Brewster, Ben. London: Verso. ISBN 978-1-84467-052-9.
• Arthur, Christopher J. (1986). "Alienated Labour". Dialectics of Labour: Marx and his Relation to Hegel. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

• Hook, Sidney (1962) . From Hegel To Marx: Studies in the Intellectual Development of Karl Marx. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press.

• Jaeggi, Rahel (2014). "Marx and Heidegger: Two Versions of Alienation Critique". In Neuhoser, Frederick (ed.). Alienation. Columbia University Press. pp. 11–21. ISBN 978-0-231-53759-9.

• Leopold, David (2007). The Young Karl Marx: German Philosophy, Modern Politics and Human Flourishing. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511490606. ISBN 978-0-511-28935-4.

• Marx, Karl (1992) . "Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts". Early Writings. Translated by Livingstone, Rodney; Benton, Gregory. London: Penguin Classics. pp. 279–400. ISBN 0-14-044574-9.

• Mészáros, Istvan (1970). Marx's Theory of Alienation. London: Merlin Press. ISBN 9780850361193.

• Ollman, Bertell (1983) . Alienation: Marx's Conception of Man in Capitalist Society (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-09813-0.

• Petrović, Gajo (1967). Marx in the Mid-twentieth Century: A Yugoslav Philosopher Considers Karl Marx's Writings. Garden City, New York: Anchor Books. OCLC 1036708143. Retrieved 4 December 2024.

• Schacht, Richard (1970). Alienation. Garden City, New York: Doublkeday & Company, Inc.

• Wood, Allen W. (2004) . Karl Marx (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-34001-1.

Further reading

• Althusser, Louis. 1965. For Marx. Verso.
• Avineri, Shlomo. Hegel's Philosophy of Right and Hegel's Theory of the Modern State.
• Axelos, Kostas. Alienation and Techne in the Thought of Karl Marx.
• Blackledge, Paul. 2008. "Marxism and Ethics." International Socialism 120.
• Cohen, G. A. 1977. "Alienation and Fetishism." Ch. 5 in Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence.
• Dahms, Harry. 2006. "Does "Alienation" Have a Future? – Recapturing the Core of Critical Theory." In The Evolution of Alienation.
• Elster, Jon. 1985. Making Sense of Marx.
• Geras, Norman. Marx and Human Nature: Refutation of a Legend. — discusses alienation and the related concept of human nature.
• Gouldner, Alvin W. 1980. "Alienation: From Hegel to Marx." Pp. 177–98 in The Two Marxisms. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Langman, Lauren, and Devorah K. Fishman, eds. 2006. The Evolution of Alienation: Trauma, Promise, and the Millennium. Lanham.
• Mandel, Ernest. 1970. "The Causes of Alienation." International Socialist Review 31(3):19–23, 49–50.
• Mandel, Ernest, and George Novack. 1973. The Marxist Theory of Alienation (2nd ed.).
• Marcuse, Herbert. 1941. Reason and Revolution: Hegel and the Rise of Social Theory.
• Mészáros, István. 1970. Marx's Theory of Alienation.
• —— Lukács' The Young Hegel and Origins of the Concept of Alienation.
• Ollman, Bertell. 1976. Alienation: Marx's Conception of Man in Capitalist Society (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
• Pappenheim, Fritz. 1964. "Alienation in American Society." Monthly Review 52(2).
• Plamenatz, John. 1975. Karl Marx's Philosophy of Man.
• Schacht, Richard. 1970. Alienation.
• Wolff, Jonathan. Why Read Marx Today? — an introduction to the concept and types of Entfremdung.
• Wood, Allen W. "Part I: Alienation of Karl Marx." In The Arguments of the Philosophers.
• "Alienation," Glossary of Terms. Encyclopaedia of Marxism.
• "Ludwig Feuerbach." Encyclopaedia of Marxism.

External links

• Warburton, Nigel. 19 January 2015. "Karl Marx on Alienation," narrated by Gillian Anderson. A History of Ideas. UK: BBC Radio 4.

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