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Mixed Brigades Brigadas Mixtas
Standard of the 106 Mixed Brigade of the Popular Army of the Spanish Republic
Active	1936–1939
Country	Spanish Republic
Branch	Spanish Republican Armed Forces
Type	Infantry brigade
Role	Home Defence
Part of	Spanish Republican Army divisions
Engagements	Spanish Civil War
Commanders
Notable commanders	Enrique Líster José María Galán

Mixed brigade (Spanish: brigada mixta) was a basic tactical military unit of the Republican army during the Spanish Civil War. It was initially designed as "pocket division", an innovative maneuverable combined-arms formation. Because of high saturation with specialized troops and services it would have resembled a division, but in terms of manpower it would have been much smaller and amount to some 3,700 men.

Shortages of career officers and NCOs plus inability to provide arms and equipment needed rendered the original mixed brigade pattern unworkable. The Republican general staff kept redrafting the scheme with decreasing proportion of non-infantry sub-units, though even these arrangements proved impossible to implement. Most of the 188 mixed brigades raised during the war were closer to the infantry regiment blueprint.

Assumptions about the nature of the warfare which gave rise to the mixed brigade concept were largely correct. However, the Republic could not have afforded such highly-specialized and well-equipped units. Attempts to implement the scheme put extra strain on the Republican recruitment and logistics system; as a result, the mixed brigade scheme was counterproductive and worked to the detriment of the Republican military capacity.

Origins

Origins of the mixed brigade concept are not clear and in historiography there are various theories which point to its beginnings. One is related to debates within the Spanish general staff of the 1920s; banking on experiences of the Rif War, some officers suggested formation of relatively small, flexible combined-arms units. In the early 1930s and influenced by Swiss attempts, two Brigadas Mixtas were ordered to be formed as Spanish mountain troops. During further discussions of the mid-1930s the idea that the Spanish army should include a large number of autonomous units smaller than división organica was gradually taking root.

A somewhat competitive theory claims that the concept was merely an acknowledgement of warfare reality during first weeks of the Civil War. During July, August and September 1936 most fighting took place between improvised, relatively small, lightly armed and highly maneuverable groups, usually referred to as "columns". The Republican general staff reportedly concluded that they should turn this makeshift model into a systematic and structured scheme and units raised in this way should emphasize mobility and flexibility rather than manpower. One more theory credits Soviet military advisers, present in Spain since early October 1936, for coining the concept; one version of this theory holds that the Soviets merely encouraged the Republican general staff to implement the idea which had already been in circulation for some time.

Underlying concept: "pocket division"

The basic assumption which triggered emergence of the mixed brigade concept was that the war in Spain would be about flexibility rather than manpower. Such a vision elicited the idea that the key army unit should be able to operate independently, without support of other specialized units typically assigned to larger military formations (e.g. unlike a typical infantry regiment, which requires support of other divisional services to achieve military objectives). This in turn produced a conclusion that the key army unit should be a highly maneuverable, combined-arms formation.

The resulting vision was "a cross between a reinforced regiment and a very small division", a "little great unit", "division en miniatura" or a "pocket division": a unit which in terms of manpower would be much smaller than a division, but which would reproduce some of divisional features by means of large proportion of specialized and support sub-units. This vision was eventually embodied in a scheme of a "mixed brigade"; the term "mixed" was to indicate its combined-arms composition, making it different from a typical infantry unit of comparable size. Mixed brigades were supposed to operate independently and to be grouped into a larger formation only for the purpose of waging a particular campaign or battle, but not as its permanent components.

Theoretical composition

The original scheme as worked out in 1936 envisioned that a mixed brigade would be made of 3,700 soldiers. Internal composition was to be as follows:

• brigade staff
• 4 infantry battalions. Each battalion was to consist of 4 infantry companies, 1 machine-gun company and 1 platoon of mortars. In comparison the regular army division, named "división orgánica", was composed of 2 brigades, each brigade composed of 2 regiments, each regiment composed of 3 battalions
• 1 field artillery group. It was to be composed of 4 batteries of medium artillery (usually 75 mm guns) and 1 battery of heavy artillery (usually 105 mm guns). In comparison the regular army division was to consist of 1 regiment of light artillery and 1 regiment of heavy howitzers
• 1 cavalry squadron (in alternative versions replaced with motorized infantry). In comparison the regular army division was also to include 1 squadron, on wartime footing enlarged to 1 cavalry regiment
• 1 pioneer company. The regular army division was to incorporate 1 battalion of pioneers
• 1 motorized reconnaissance squadron
• 1 communication and logistics group. It was to consist of dedicated communication (including radio transmission), intendancy and supply-logistics sub-units
• other support sub-units, including a sanitary and medical detachment

In terms of manpower the mixed brigade as originally envisioned was in-between a regular army infantry regiment and a regular brigade. In terms of firepower it would have been stronger than a brigade. In most European armies of the late 1930s (which unlike the Spanish army did not feature brigades as fixed divisional units) it would have been comparable to a very strong regiment. In terms of modus operandi and because of its general autonomy a mixed brigade was somewhat resemblant of a division.

Implementation problems

Not a single unit has ever been raised in line with the original plan, all units named brigadas mixtas differed significantly and then very significantly from the scheme, and the entire original concept remained largely on paper. Initially the reason were pressing wartime necessities; the Nationalist army was approaching Madrid and half-formed units were thrown into battle before they reached the structure envisioned. Later it turned out that the Republic was unable to provide all weapons and equipment needed, and that shortage of NCOs and officers made it impossible to ensure their sufficient number even for traditional army units. Finally, in later stages of the war the increasingly dramatic military situation forced Republican high command to raise troops in non-systematic, makeshift manner.

Because of problems with raising mixed brigades in line with the original plan, the Republican general staff was continuously re-drafting their structure; the change was generally about reducing the weight of non-infantry components and enlarging infantry battalions (eventually from 633 to 828 men). The result was decreasing firepower and increasing manpower of the entire unit; final versions of the brigada mixta scheme envisioned its strength as some 4,200 people, though less than a half would serve in frontline combat sub-units. However, neither these revised plans have been implemented and brigada mixta theoretical schemes as developed in 1937-1938 remained a blueprint intended, but never fully put into practice.

Practice

The concept of mixed brigades was discussed during sittings of the Republican government in late September 1936; the first known military document which refers to raising of these units is dated 18 October 1936 and the first 6 units were created shortly. By December 1936 there were 15 brigades deployed, and by the spring of 1937 there were 40 units operational. Those formed in central Spain were numbered 1-50, those raised in the Levante and Andalusia were numbered 51-82, whose those built in the North were numbered until 189. The last brigade formed was numbered 246 and was created in December 1938, though the number of units actually raised which entered combat was around 190. Most of the build-up process was controlled by the military. Manpower was provided by distributing pre-war regiments among the brigades, by incorporating earlier militia units active on the front, and then by regular draft (though there were also volunteers).

Units raised as mixed brigades resembled rather a traditional infantry regiment. Their strength was some 3,500 men, though the number of rifles available was below 2,000; in practice an average unit counted some 1,600-1,800 rifles. In all 188 units created there were only 49 career officers acting either as commanders or chiefs of staff. Non-infantry sub-units were increasingly smaller; as general staff experts noted artillery was too dispersed, to gain critical mass guns and howitzers were shifted to divisional units. Deployment of mixed brigades differed significantly from the original plan; instead of operating as autonomous units, they were grouped by 3 into divisions and remained their fixed components. However, the concept of brigada mixta resulted in some change of divisional tactics. Though in terms of manpower (some 14,000 people) comparable to a Nationalist division, the Republican division was more loosely organized and its sub-components retained much greater autonomy.

Evaluation

Scholars note that the underlying assumptions which gave rise to the mixed brigade concept were basically correct, and that the nature of warfare during the Spanish Civil War indeed favored mobility, flexibility and autonomy over structure, manpower and hierarchical organization. They also note that the innovative idea of creating combined-arms units below the divisional level was later successfully implemented during World War Two in form of the improvised German Kampfgruppen. However, they also noted that the mixed brigade scheme was one that the Republic could not have afforded, and that attempts to implement it produced more harm than good.

The key point raised is that mixed brigades required even more specialists, NCOs, and career officers than pre-war brigades; as the Republic faced dramatic shortages of skilled military men, enforcing the scheme made matters even worse. Another point is that the Republic was unable to provide sufficient equipment and arms, and as a result non-infantry sub-units remained to a large extent an under-armed and under-equipped fiction. Splitting up the artillery gravely reduced firepower. Finally, it is noted that the mixed brigade pattern was a "waste of men", as an unusually high proportion of soldiers were assigned to non-combat roles. One military historian claims that "thanks to the decision to adopt the mixed brigade as its basic unit, the People's Army was crippled as a fighting force almost from its very inception".

Favorable comments are related not that much to the mixed brigade itself, but rather to its role within larger military units. It is noted that divisions formed from mixed brigades were more flexible, and that loose organisation of such divisions allowed greater efficiency when manoeuvre and relatively open front determined the nature of military operations. However, otherwise the mixed-brigade-based organisation might have contributed to chaos.

Mixed Brigades

The Mixed Brigades of the International Brigades are in Roman numerals.

1st to 100th

101st to 200th

201st to 246th

See also

• Spanish Republican Armed Forces
• Fifth Regiment
• Military organization
• International Brigades
• Si me quieres escribir
• Brigade combat team: Modern military unit based on the concept of a combined-arms brigade formation

Bibliography

• Alpert, Michael (2013); The Republican Army in the Spanish Civil War, 1936-1939, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107028739
• Carlos Engel Masoliver (1999). Historia de las Brigadas Mixtas del Ejército Popular de la República. Madrid: Almena. ISBN 978-8-492-26447-6.
• Helen Graham (2003). The Spanish Republic at War 1936-1939. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521459327.
• Salas Larrazábal, Ramón (2006); Historia del Ejército Popular de la República. La Esfera de los Libros S.L. ISBN 84-9734-465-0

References

1. José Vicente Herrero Pérez, De la división orgánica a la brigada mixta (evolución de las grandes unidades en España 1914-1927), Revista de Historia Militar XLVI/93 (2003), p. 115
2. Michael Alpert, The Republican Army in the Spanish Civil War, Cambridge 2008, ISBN 9781107028739, p. 73
3. Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 116
4. Herrero Pérez 2003, pp. 117-118
5. Alpert 2007, p. 73; other authors tend to downplay the theory, compare Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 118
6. Alexander Clifford, The People's Army in the Spanish Civil War: A Military History of the Republic and International Brigades, 1936–1939, Philadelphia 2020, ISBN 9781526760937, p. 23
7. Alpert 2007, pp. 73-74
8. Charles J. Esdaile, The Spanish Civil War. A Military History, London/New York 2019, ISBN 9781138311275, p. 100
9. Clifford 2020, p. 28
10. Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 118
11. Alpert 2007, p. 71
12. Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 119
13. Herrero Pérez 2003, pp. 112-113
14. Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 113
15. Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 112
16. Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 113
17. E. R. Hooton, Spain in Arms: A Military History of the Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939, London 2019, ISBN 978-1612006376, p. 43
18. most armies of the mid-1930s followed a triangular pattern, with an infantry division composed of 3 regiments, a regiment composed of 3 battalions, and a battalion composed of 3 companies. Spanish division with its binar structure was a bit of an exception. Also, in most European armies brigades were specialized army units, e.g. cavalry brigades in the Polish army or panzer brigades in the Wehrmacht, though brigades were regular units of some British infantry divisions
19. German infantry regiment in 1917 was 3,832 men, W. Schilling, The Organization of Armies, Columbia service; Italian infantry regiment of early World War Two was 3,279 men, Regio Esercito. L'Organizzazione, RegioEsercito service; US infantry regiment of 1944 was 3,118 men, Regio Esercito. L'Organizzazione, RegioEsercito service; Polish infantry regiment of 1939 was 3,300 men, Zdzisław Jagiełło: Piechota Wojska Polskiego 1918-1939, Warszawa 2007, ISBN 9788311102064, p. 30; Wehrmacht infantry regiment of early World War Two was 3,049 men, Nigel Thomas, The German army in World War II, London 2002, ISBN 9781841766164, p. 10
20. Alpert 2007, p. 74
21. Clifford 2020, p. 24
22. e.g. already in November 1936 the field artillery component was reduced to 3 batteries, plus antitank company and a mortar support group, Hooton 2019, p. 43
23. Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 119
24. Herrero Pérez 2003, pp. 119-120
25. Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 121
26. Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 119
27. Herrero Pérez 2003, pp. 118-119
28. they were commanded by 3 career army officers, 1 Carabineros officer, 1 civilian who underwent training in the Soviet military academy and 1 lawyer. Alpert 2007, p. 75
29. Hugh Thomas, The Spanish Civil War, London 2001, ISBN 9780375755156, p. 526
30. Thomas 2001, p. 530
31. Alpert 2007, p. 75
32. Carlos Engel Masóliver, Historia de las Brigadas Mixtas del Ejército Popular de la República, 1936-1939, Madrid 2005, ISBN 9788496170193, p. 228
33. Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 125
34. Alpert 2007, p. 76
35. "shortages of equipment meant many BM were purely infantry formations, sometimes 1,500-2,000 men", Hooton p. 43, see also Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 121
36. Herrero Pérez 2003, pp. 122-123
37. Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 123
38. and most served at a rank not higher than a captain in 1936, Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 125
39. Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 124, Herrero Pérez 2017, p. 250
40. though some divisions were formed by 4 and some by 2 mixed brigades, José Vicente Herrero Pérez, The Spanish Military and Warfare from 1899 to the Civil War, London 2017, ISBN 9783319547466, Herrero Pérez 251
41. Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 119
42. the Nationalist division as reorganized during the war was composed of 12 battalions; the Republican one, if at full strength, was also 12 battalions, Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 127
43. Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 120
44. Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 115
45. Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 129
46. Esdaile 2019, p. 101
47. Clifford 2020, p. 26
48. Esdaile 2019, p. 101
49. Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 128, Herrero Pérez 2017, p. 250
50. Herrero Pérez 2003, p. 126
51. Date uncertain
52. "República - EPR - B.M." Retrieved 12 June 2016.
53. Antony Beevor (2006); p. 167
54. Hugh Thomas (1976); p. 528
55. Carlos Engel Masoliver (1999); p. 37
56. Herreros, Sebastià. "The International Brigades in the Spanish War 1936-1939: Flags and Symbols" (PDF). The Flag Institute.
57. Hugh Thomas (1976), p. 639
58. "¿...Y por qué no un blog...? : Fragmentos de metralla: el Batallón Elche en la red". Retrieved 12 June 2016.
59. Hugh Thomas (1976); p. 892
60. Carlos Engel Masoliver (1999); p. 114
61. Carlos Engel Masoliver (1999); p. 41
62. Hugh Thomas (1976); p. 892
63. Hugh Thomas (1976); p. 1035
64. Carlos Engel Masoliver (1999); p. 194
65. This was a Central Zone brigade that was sent by sea to Catalonia along with the 198th and 199th Mixed Brigades in December 1938 in order to support the republican troops there. After disembarking in Barcelona it was incapable of reorganizing itself and fell apart in the middle of the chaos provoked by the retreat towards the French border.
66. Carlos Engel Masoliver (1999); p. 204
67. Carlos Engel Masoliver (1999); p. 208
68. Carlos Engel Masoliver (1999); p. 219
69. Carlos Engel Masoliver (1999); p. 222
70. Suffered such heavy losses during the Aragon Offensive that it was no longer operational and was disbanded. Re-established anew on 19 April 1938.
71. Carlos Engel Masoliver (1999); p. 228

External links

• SBHAC - Guía de Brigadas Mixtas
• The International Brigades in the Spanish War 1936-1939: Flags and Symbols
• Arab volunteers in the Spanish Mixed Brigades
• Las Brigadas Mixtas según Carlos Engel (1.999)
• Las Brigadas Mixtas según Mike Blacksmith
• La Evolución de las Brigadas Mixtas.
• Las Brigadas Mixtas según Ciutat y Rojo (1.974 y 1.967)
• Las Brigadas Mixtas según Alpert (1.977)

• Mixed Brigades (Spain)