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Dryer defined three different types of negative markers in language. Beside negative particles and negative affixes, negative verbs play a role in various languages. The negative verb is used to implement a clausal negation. The negative predicate counts as a semantic function and is localized and therefore grammaticalized in different languages. Negation verbs are often used as an auxiliary type which also carries φ-feature content. This could be visualized for example in the inflectional character of the negation verb while combined with the main verb. Dryer observes a tendency to place the negation verb before the finite verb. Miestamo researched four different types of negations and proposed a distinction between symmetric negation in which a negative marker is added and asymmetric negation in which, beside the added negation marker, other structural changes appear.
English
In English, a standard negation (SN) is used to negate declarative main clauses. The verbal negation predicate is 'not'. To negate other clauses, the negation construction differs from SN. The English auxiliary 'do', in combination with the negative verb, indicates whether one or multiple individuals are involved, while the verb referring to the negated activity remains non-inflected. Concluding this, ordinary verbs take the auxiliary do when negated by not.
| Tense | Affirmative | Negative | |
|---|---|---|---|
| With a negative verb | With a negative adverb | ||
| Nonpast | I go there he goes there |
I don't go there he doesn't go there |
I never go there he never goes there |
| Past | I went there he went there |
I didn't go there he didn't go there |
I never went there he never went there |
Uralic languages
Uralic languages differ from each other in the particulars of negation predicate use but continue to show specific similarities. For defining different patterns of negation predicates it is necessary to know about the lexical verb (LV) and the finite form (FE). Miestamo defined four types of asymmetry in negation verbs. The first type shows a prominent appearance in Uralic languages. It is defined as A/Fin (A = asymmetry | Fin = finiteness) and describes that influenced by the negation verb, the finiteness of the LV is reduced or lost. For example, the LV loses the finiteness because the clause is marked by the de-verbalizing negative morpheme. Therefore, the copula is added as a type that holds the finite status (FE). In some Uralic languages, speakers produce connegatives to construct the syntactically acceptable word form used in negative clauses.
Finnish
The standard negation (SN) in the Finnish language is realized by a verbal complex. First the LV with a non-finite character is formed followed by the finite element which is presented as the negative auxiliary. The root of the auxiliary is 'e-'. The ending gives information about person and number. The marker for tense is not presented on the auxiliary and is only dependent on the clausal context. Therefore, tense is marked on the LV separated from the auxiliary and appears as connegative form in present tense and past participle in past tense.
Negative Verb - Overview for clausal negations
| SN in main clauses | - AUX(iliary) 'ei': 'e-' + Person/Number marking
- Main verb: connegative or participle - Asymmetric |
| Non-verbal predicates
|
SN |
| Imperatives/Prohibitive sentences | AUX 'äl-' + idiosyncratic Person and mood marking |
| Negation in dependent clauses | Finite: SN |
Indicative, conditional, and potential
| Person | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| 1. | en | emme |
| 2. | et | ette |
| 3. | ei | eivät |
| Person | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| 1. | - | älkäämme |
| 2. | älä | älkää |
| 3. | älköön | älkööt |
Estonian
The Estonian language uses a particle-like non-inflectional negative auxiliary which is hierarchically presented on a pre-verbal slot. The auxiliary is realized as 'ei'. A special form differs from the SN while forming the connegative in the present tense, in the past form, or in the active past participle. In the Estonian language, the flectional character doesn't seem to be a necessary feature for the negative auxiliary, which differs from other Uralic languages. This is important because the question appears, if the auxiliary has to show a flectional marker even if the LV is not showing any flectional marker without using the negation modus.
Negative Verb - Strategies in clausal negations
| Clausal SN; finite: indicative, conditional, evidental | 'ei-' (uninflected) + verb in connegative |
| Prohibitive sentences
|
'ära' (inflected) + verb in connegative or inflected (variation) |
| Negation in locative, equative, inclusive, attributive constructions | 'ei' (uninflected) + copula in connegative |
Indicative, conditional, and oblique
| Person | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| 1. | ei | ei |
| 2. | ei | ei |
| 3. | ei | ei |
| Person | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| 1. | - | ärgem; ärme |
| 2. | ära | ärge |
| 3. | ärgu | ärgu |
Skolt Saami
In Skolt Saami the SN shows a negative auxiliary compared with a non-finite LV. For imperative a special case is provided.
Negative Verb - Summary
| SN | - Negation AUX: 'ij' + LV
- Negation copula (replaces Positive copula) + verb |
| Negation of imperatives
|
Negation AUX + Imperative + verb |
| Negation of non-verbal predicates | -SN
- Negation copula (general stative negator, alternative to SN) |
| Negation in dependent clauses | - finite: SN
- non-finite: verbal abessive |
South Saami
In South Saami, the SN is realized by a negative auxiliary. This form is used in present tense and the preterite. The LV is presented as a connegative form. A special case is presented while creating the imperative. In this case the negative auxiliary gets a full personal paradigm except for the third person 'dual'. The third person in singular in present tense of the negative auxiliary is prohibited as a negative reply.
Negative Verb - Strategies in clausal negations
| SN | Negative AUX + connegative verb |
| Imperative/prohibitive sentences
|
- Negative AUX 'aell-' (prohibitive) + connegative verb
- Negative AUX 'oll-' (apprehensive) + connegative verb |
| Negation of non-verbal predicates | Negative AUX + connegative verb |
| Negation in dependent clauses | Negative AUX + connegative verb |
Inari Sami
The negative verb is conjugated in moods and personal forms in Inari Sami.
Indicative, conditional, and potential mood
| Person | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | jie´m | eän | ep |
| 2. | jie´h | eppee | eppeđ |
| 3. | ij | eä´vá | eä |
| Person | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | eällum | eäl´loon | eällup |
| 2. | ele | ellee | elleđ |
| 3. | eä´lus | eällus | eällus |
Northern Sami
The negative verb is conjugated in moods and personal forms in Northern Sami.
Indicative, conditional, and potential mood
| Person | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | in | ean | eat |
| 2. | it | eahppi | ehpet |
| 3. | ii | eaba | eai |
| Person | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | allon | allu | allot |
| 2. | ale | alli | allet |
| 3. | allos | alloska | alloset |
Lule Sami
The negative verb is conjugated in moods and personal forms in Lule Sami.
Indicative, conditional, and potential mood
| Person | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | iv | en | ep |
| 2. | i | ähppe | ehpit |
| 3. | ij | äbá | e |
Hungarian
Hungarian has lost most evidence of a negative verb, but the negation particle 'nem' becomes 'ne' before verbs in the jussive/imperative (also sometimes called the conditional mood or J-mood). Furthermore, the 3rd person present indicative of the copular verb ('lenni') has unique negative forms 'nincs(en)' and 'nincsenek' as opposed to 'nem van' and 'nem vannak', but only when the particle and verb would occur adjacently. In all other instances, the copular verb acts regularly. These forms are also unique in that they have an existential role "there is (not)" and "there are (not)". In the present indicative 3rd person, copular verbs are not used; rather the absence of a verb (with or without a negation particle) implies the copula.
Komi
In the Komi language, the negative marker and the form of the negative construction are dependent on the clausal tense. If the corresponding affirmative predicate is based on a verbal form, a negative auxiliary is used. This is not convertible for affirmative verbs with nominal forms. The negative auxiliary is used in present tense, future tense, 1st past tense of indicative, and in the imperative and optative mood.
Negative Verb - Strategies in clausal negations
| SN |
- present & future tense
- 1st past tense - 2nd past tense - 3rd past tense - 4th past tense - 5th past tense - 6th past tense |
'o-' + V - Connegative (CNG)
'e-' + V - Connegative 'abu' + V 'veli' + 'o-' + V - Connegative a) 'abu' + 'veli' + V b) 'e-' + 'be' - CNG + V 'velem' + 'o-' + V - CNG 'velem' + 'ab' + V |
| Negation of imperatives
|
Imperative (2nd person only)
Optative (3rd person only) Conditional (all tenses) |
'e-' + V - CNG
'med' + 'o-' + V - CNG '(v)éske(u)' + SN |
| Negation in dependent/subordinate clauses | - finite subordinate clauses
- non-finite subordinate verb forms: i. Infinitives ii. participles iii. converbs |
SN
'ńe' + V-infinitve V + 'tem' V + 'teg' |
Korean
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Korean verbs can be negated by the negative verbs 않다 anta and 못하다 mothada or by the negative adverbs 안 an and 못 mot. The copula 이다 ida has a corresponding negative copula 아니다 anida. (anida is an independent word like anta and mothada, unlike ida which cannot stand on its own and must be attached to a noun.)
| Verb | Tense | Affirmative | With a negative verb | With a negative adverb | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 않다 anta | 못하다 mothada | 안 an | 못 mot | |||
| 가다 gada to go |
Nonpast | 간다 ganda |
가지 않는다 gaji anneunda |
가지 못한다 gaji mothanda |
안 간다 an ganda |
못 간다 mot ganda |
| Past | 갔다 gatda |
가지 않았다 gaji anatda |
가지 못했다 gaji mothaetda |
안 갔다 an gatda |
못 갔다 mot gatda | |
| 먹다 meokda to eat |
Nonpast | 먹는다 meongneunda |
먹지 않는다 meokji anneunda |
먹지 못한다 meokji mothanda |
안 먹는다 an meongneunda |
못 먹는다 mot meongneunda |
| Past | 먹었다 meogeotda |
먹지 않았다 meokji anatda |
먹지 못했다 meokji mothaetda |
안 먹었다 an meogeotda |
못 먹었다 mot meogeotda | |
References
- Schulze, Wolfgang (2007). "Haspelmath, Martin & Matthew S. Dryer & Davil Gil & Bernard Comrie. 2005.The World Atlas of Language Structures". Studies in Language. 31 (2): 445–463. doi:10.1075/sl.31.2.08sch. ISSN 0378-4177.
- Dryer, Matthews (2011). Order of negative morpheme and verb. Munich: Max Planck Digital Library.
- Miestamo, Matti (2008). Standard Negation. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co.KG. doi:10.1515/9783110197631. ISBN 978-3-11-019763-1.
- Miestamo; Tamm; Wagner-Nagy (2015). "3.2". Negation in Uralic Languages. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamin Publishing Company. pp. 13–22. ISBN 9789027206893.
- Vilkuna, Maria (2015). Negation in Uralic Languages. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamin Publishing Company. pp. 457–487. ISBN 9789027206893.
- Anna, Tamm (2015). Negation in Uralic Languages. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamin Publishing Company. pp. 399–433. ISBN 9789027206893.
- Miestamo, Matti (2015). Negation in Uralic Languages. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamin Publishing Company. pp. 353–377. ISBN 9789027206893.
- Blokland, Rogier (2015). Negation in Uralic Languages. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamin Publishing Company. pp. 377–399. ISBN 9789027206893.
- Hamari, Arja (2015). Negation in Uralic Languages. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamin Publishing Company. pp. 239–265. ISBN 9789027206893.