Pacific Railroad Surveys

Explorations of the American West, 1853–1855

The Pacific Railroad Surveys (1853–1855) were a series of explorations of the American West designed to find and document possible routes for a transcontinental railroad across North America. The expeditions included surveyors, scientists, and artists and resulted in an immense body of data covering at least 400,000 square miles (1,000,000 km) on the American West. "These volumes... constitute probably the most important single contemporary source of knowledge on Western geography and history and their value is greatly enhanced by the inclusion of many beautiful plates in color of scenery, native inhabitants, fauna and flora of the Western country." Published by the United States War Department from 1855 to 1860, the surveys contained significant material on natural history, including many illustrations of reptiles, amphibians, birds, and mammals. In addition to describing the route, these surveys also reported on the geology, zoology, botany, paleontology, climatology of the land as well as provided ethnographic descriptions of the Native peoples encountered during the surveys. Importantly, a map of routes for a Pacific railroad, was compiled to accompany the report.

Background

Starting in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, many Americans began a westward migration that would come to greatly influence the development of American history. However, water travel remained the most common and most efficient form of transit available. Soon, the development of the steam engine became an invaluable contribution to this westward expansion. As railroads gained popularity in the eastern United States during the 1830s, Americans felt an increased incentive to expand this new technology to the western frontier.

Beginning in the 1840s, several government sponsored expeditions hoped to find potential railroad routes across the west. However, no consensus route emerged due to the selfish economic motives of rival companies. In addition, cities and states competed for the route and terminus so no consensus was reached. Brigham Young, President of LDS Church, wrote, "We never went through the canyons or worked our way over the dividing ridges without asking where the rails could be laid." On March 3, 1853, Congress appropriated $150,000 and authorized Secretary of War Jefferson Davis “to Ascertain the Most Practical and Economical Route for a Railroad From the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean.” Davis ordered Brevet Captain George B. McClellan and the Corps of Topographical Engineers (TOPOGS), a division in the United States Army established to “discover, open up, and make accessible the American West,” to fulfill this obligation.

The most important concern for the United States Congress involved the location of where to build the railroad. With government involvement, lobbyists attempted to influence the selected locations because of the important social, political, and economic consequences. In addition, a transcontinental railroad would become a very costly endeavor. In fact, “Even the least expensive proposed routes would equal the federal budget for one year.” Despite these obstacles, a developing urgency clearly indicated the need for a transcontinental railroad. On August 16, 1856, Mr. Denver of the House Select Committee on the Pacific Railroad and Telegraph reported that: "the necessity that exists for constructing lines of railroad and telegraphic communication between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of this continent is no longer a question for argument; it is conceded by every one."

The path of the first transcontinental railroad route was one of many proxy fights over the future of slavery in the United States exacerbated by capitulation and Mexican Cession resulting from the Treaty of Cahuenga and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The Compromise of 1850 which admitted California as a slave-free state, defined the geographical boundary of Texas as a slave state, banned the slave trade (but not slavery itself) in Washington DC, enhanced the Fugitive Slave Act, and most relevantly established Utah and New Mexico territories under popular sovereignty — meaning whether any future state from these territories would be free or slave would be decided by the constituency of migration at the time of the petition for statehood. The route of the first transcontinental railroad would determine whether slaves could be legally and efficiently trafficked into these geographically isolated territories. So the route was not just ancillary to free soil policy, but could ultimately affect the balance of power between the north and south in Congress when new states were inevitably admitted into the Union out of these regional territories. Just three years after this compromise, Jefferson Davis strongly influenced the Gadsden Purchase to facilitate his preferred southern route which was not viable over the Colorado Plateau. A year after this purchase, Bleeding Kansas began on account of identical thematic tensions. The Kansas–Nebraska Act was intended to open up new lands to develop and facilitate the construction of the transcontinental railroad, however it effectively repealed the Missouri Compromise of 1820. The map of the Pacific Railroad Surveys would be published in 1855.

The congressional inaction in the survey's aftermath is a reflection of the severity of this proxy fight. Despite the United States having common carrier railroad infrastructure since the 1830's, Congress was politically unable to enact any decision on an initial transcontinental railroad route until the south seceded from the Union in December 1860 in response to the November 6th presidential election. Contrasting national division along party lines on the issue, both major California political parties included a Pacific Railroad as part of their platform. That week and month, Theodore Judah, who himself had been engineering railroads since the 1840's, and California railroads in particular since the 1850's, finally obtained the political opportunity for a central route with Abraham Lincoln party associate and elector Leland Stanford. Slavery operative Jefferson Davis became President of the Confederate States of America. The Pony Express and then the first transcontinental telegraph were also initiated at this time out the urgency of the U.S. Civil War. Congress passed the first of the Pacific Railroad Acts and the major Homestead Act in 1862. The Central Pacific Railroad then broke ground on January 8, 1863. Though the last spike would not be driven into the transcontinental railroad until 1869, the second transatlantic telegraph cable was completed the year the Civil War ended.

Five surveys

Five surveys were conducted.

The Northern Pacific survey followed between the 47th parallel north and 49th parallel north from St. Paul, Minnesota to the Puget Sound and was led by the newly appointed governor of the Washington Territory, Isaac Stevens. Accompanying Stevens were Captain George B. McClellan with Lt. Sylvester Mowry out of the Columbia Barracks from the west and Lt. Rufus Saxton with Lt. Richard Arnold out of St. Marysville from the east.
The Central Pacific survey followed between the 37th parallel north and 39th parallel north from St. Louis, Missouri to San Francisco, California. This survey was led by Lt. John W. Gunnison until his death by the Utes in Utah. Lt. Edward Griffin Beckwith then took command. Also participating in this survey was Frederick W. von Egloffstein, George Stoneman and Lt. Gouverneur K. Warren.
There were two Southern Pacific surveys. One along the 35th parallel north from Oklahoma to Los Angeles, California, a route similar to the western part of the later Santa Fe Railroad and to Interstate 40, which was led by Lt. Amiel W. Whipple. The southernmost survey went across Texas to San Diego, California, a route which followed the Butterfield Overland Mail stagecoach trail where Southern Pacific RR completed the second transcontinental railway in 1881. This survey was led by Lt. John Parke and John Pope .
The fifth survey was along the Pacific coast from San Diego to Seattle, Washington conducted by Lt. Robert S. Williamson and Parke.

From surveys to construction

Although the Pacific Railroad Surveys (1853–1855) provided valuable information regarding the possible routes for the transcontinental railroad, they were not compelling enough to lead directly to construction. Three important trends also influenced Congress’ final decision. First, the California Gold Rush and the discovery of silver in Nevada led to a dramatic increase in population in the west. Second, the secession of the South from the Union during the beginnings of the American Civil War discounted southern politicians from interfering with a plan to build a northern or central route. Third, a growing population of railroad specialists allowed Congress several options to consider the most efficient and cost effective route to build a transcontinental railroad.

In particular, railroad engineer Theodore Judah, on 1 January 1857 in Washington DC, published "A practical plan for building The Pacific Railroad", in which he outlined the general plan and argued for the need to do a detailed instrumental survey of a specific selected route for the railroad, not a general reconnaissance of several possible routes that had been done in the Pacific Railroad Surveys. In winter 1859-1860, Judah was in Washington D.C. lobbying for a Pacific Railroad bill; California would hold a Pacific Railroad Convention in Sacramento on the first Monday that February. Judah returned to California by July, lobbied local newspapers for public support, and surveyed routes to at least three passes. After finding in Fall 1860 a practical trans-Sierra route from Sacramento over Donner Pass into the Great Basin of Nevada and after finding investors to incorporate the Central Pacific Railroad in June 1861, Judah was sent in October 1861 to Washington DC to lobby for the Pacific Railway bill to aid in the construction of the first transcontinental railroad along his trans-Sierra route. The route followed much of the Stephens–Townsend–Murphy Party 1844 route and John C. Frémont's 1845-1846 route through the sierra crest made infamous by the Donner Party, rather than the Madeline Pass route mapped by the Pacific Railroad Surveys, or the intermediate Beckwourth Pass on account of political factors not included in the original surveys. The route followed a prior survey for a Donner Pass wagon toll road by Simon G. Elliott. Central Pacific Railroad entrepreneurs and engineers, including Charles Marsh, who made much of their prior fortunes facilitating the mining on the Mother Lode as well as the Comstock Lode, had been involved in the Henness Pass Turnpike Company and would later invest in the Dutch Flat and Donner Lake Wagon Road (DFDLWR) servicing Meadow Lake Mining District speculation in what would be popularly known as the "Dutch Flat Swindle" which politically threatened the timely completion of the railroad.

In 1862, Congress passed the Pacific Railway Act. The newly chartered Union Pacific Railroad Company would build continuous railroad and telegraph lines west from the Eastern shores of the Missouri River at Council Bluffs, Iowa (opposite Omaha, Nebraska) which would meet railroad and telegraph lines build east by the Central Pacific Railroad from the navigable waters of the Sacramento River in Sacramento, California. On May 10, 1869, the two rail lines joined with an honorary Golden Spike at Promontory Summit, Utah, after making a combined 1,774 miles (2,855 km) of railroad track.

Natural history studies

Leading naturalists were attached to all the survey parties:

Dr. James G. Cooper served as naturalist for the western division, and Dr. George Suckley for the eastern division of the exploration of the Northern Pacific route.
Botanist Frederick Creutzfeldt accompanied the exploring party of the Central Pacific route but was killed with Captain Gunnison in Utah.
Dr. Adolphus L. Heermann and Dr. Edward Hallowell accompanied the Parke's exploration of the Southern Pacific Route.
Dr. Caleb B. R. Kennerly accompanied the Whipple expedition on the southern route.
Heermann accompanied Lt. Williamson on the expedition up the West Coast from Fort Yuma to San Francisco

Most of these men also served as the medical doctors for their exploring parties, and most were expert in only one or two areas of natural history. With limited time and expertise, their main charge was simply collection and preparation of plants and animals to be shipped back east for further study. They collected everything: plants, mammals, fish, insects, birds, mollusks, snakes, lizards, and turtles, both common and rare. This approach was described by geologist William P. Blake, who accompanied Lt. Parke's expedition:

The collections in this department of science were not restricted to what was new or undescribed, as I considered it quite as interesting to know that the flora of this region were the same as those common to other parts of the country, or that they were different. It was, therefore, established as a rule to collect everything; it being as easy at the conclusion of the survey to reject what was superfluous, as it would be difficult to replace what was wanting.

Plants and animals were preserved as well as could be in the expeditions' camps, and shipped overland back to the Smithsonian Institution and other centers of expertise for evaluation. This trip often required months of rugged travel, and not all the collections survived. Heermann, in a letter of transmittal to Lt. Parke, commented on these difficulties: "Of the reptiles, in which these countries are very rich, I had succeeded in forming quite a handsome collection, but unfortunately the cans in which they were contained became leaky, and possessing neither the means to correct this mishap, nor the alcohol to supply that wasted, they were all lost with the exception of a few specimens which I preserved in bottles."

Several of the expedition naturalists wrote reports on their areas of expertise which were included in the War Department's report to Congress. For example, Heermann wrote the report on birds, and Hallowell wrote the report on reptiles for Lt. Parke's exploration. Other leading naturalists contributed to the War Department's report by describing the collections returned from the exploring parties. These included Professor Asa Gray, Dr. John L. LeConte, William Cooper, Dr. Charles Girard, William G. Binney, and Dr. John S. Newberry. Most important of these was Spencer Fullerton Baird, who was at the time assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Baird not only wrote several sections of the report to Congress, but was responsible for many of the natural history illustrations. For example, the bird skins collected by the exploring parties were shipped to him. He had Smithsonian Institution artists produce engravings of the birds as they would appear in life, which were hand-tinted and included in the final report.

References

"Pacific Railroad Surveys 1855-1861". Archived from the original on March 8, 2012. Retrieved December 16, 2011.
"Isothermal chart of the region north of the 36th Parallel &c. &c. between the Atlantic & Pacific oceans; compiled under the direction of Isaac I. Stevens, Govnr. of Washington Territory". Library of Congress.
^ "Map of routes for a Pacific railroad, compiled to accompany a report of the Hon. Jefferson Davis, sec. of war". Library of Congress. 1857.
^ Winter, Rebecca Cooper. "Eastward to Promontory". Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum. Retrieved December 16, 2011.
Schubert, Frank N. (August 1980). "IV". VANGUARD OF EXPANSION Army Engineers in the Trans-Mississippi West, 1819-1879. National Park Service. Because the upper West was free soil and the lower West was slave, the choice of a route and its terminals quickly became a national issue, pitting North against South. Thus divided, Congress failed to settle on any route across the continent.
Goodrich, Carter (August 1960). Government Promotion of American Canals and Railroads, 1800–1890. Columbia University Press. p. 179. ISBN 978-0837177731. ast-west railroads were being pushed forward in the hope that they might serve as the "first links" of the transcontinental. The question, according to a Wisconsin paper, was: "Shall the upper West or shall the lower West be the great avenue of trade and commerce?" As the Civil War approached, the bitterest controversy was between those who wished a road to serve the North and those who wished a road to serve the South.
"Pacific railroad surveys. Letter from the Secretary of War, transmitting reports of surveys, &c., of railroad routes to the Pacific Ocean. February 6, 1854. -- Referred to the select committee on the subject of the Pacific railroad, and ordered to be printed". Library of Congress. 1854.
"Platform Adopted by the Democratic State Convention in Sacramento on 6th of September". Daily National Democrat. October 21, 1860. p. 4. LCCN sn84038814. That one of the necessities of the age, in a military and commercial point of view, is speedy communication between the Atlantic and Pacific States, and the Democratic party pledge themselves to such a constitutional enactment as will insure the construction of a railroad to the Pacific Coast at the earliest practicable period. Resolved, That we are in favor of a Homestead Bill the establishment of a daily Overland Mail the building of an Overland Telegraph and Pacific Railroad; and that there is no constitutional objection to Congress extending such aid as will insure the speedy construction of such road.
"Railroad Route Discovered". Nevada City, California: The Nevada Journal. November 9, 1860. p. 2. ISSN 2642-3677. LCCN sn84026884. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1997-11-01. We had the pleasure of a call from T. D. Judah, Esq., Civil Engineer, on Thursday evening last, who had just returned from the reconnaissance of the county between Auburn and the summit of the Sierra Nevada, with reference to its capabilities for a railroad route. Mr. Judah reports having discovered a most excellent route, the grade nowhere exceeding one hundred feet to the mile. The course pursued by Mr. Judah, was from Auburn to Illinoistown, thence to Dutch Flat, and from thence to the summit. We learn from Mr. Judah, that the greatest depression from a uniform grade occurs between Illinoistown and Dutch Flat. This line continues along the unbroken ridge south of Bear River till near Dutch Flat, when it runs up Canon Creek a short distance to near its source, when by a not very considerable cut the banks of Bear River are reached, thence continuing up the stream till the country becomes flattened near the source of Bear River and the South Yuba, the transit is made across the summit near, but much lower than the old Truckee road. The summit at the crossing is 5900 ft. above the level of the sea. The route from Folsom to the summit is but 82 miles in length as measured by the odometer, and presents no obstacles of any moment. The representations of Mr. Judah are so favorable that fifty thousand dollars in stock have been already subscribed by citizens of Dutch Flat and this place, and immediate steps will be taken, we understand to organize a company. A few days since Mr. Judah, in company with Charles Marsh, Esq., proceeded over the Henness route, taking elevations and measuring distances as they went. The distance from this city to Maple's Ranch by odometer is a few rods more than fifty miles. The measurement was made by the longest route traveled. The observations made on the trip we shall publish as soon as put in proper shape. Beyond question the reconnaissance lately made by Mr. Judah has developed one of the most important facts bearing upon the welfare of Central California. It has been believed by a majority of people that the mountains skirting the eastern boundary of California were impassable to the iron horse except to the extreme north or more extreme south. Actual surveys had determined no other points of entrance. It is true, we had attempted to prove years since by ditch surveys and casual observations that a railroad route through the Henness Pass was perfectly practicable. But these attempts of ours had not the warrant of a survey by a competent engineer with proper instruments. The observations of Mr. Judah have set all doubts at rest, and demonstrate that a splendid crossing for a railroad over the mountains exists, on a direct line from our navigable waters to Missouri. Besides saving at least a hundred and fifty miles of road, a route entering the State at the point indicated will best subserve the interests of the bulk of our population. This important fact will figure largely, if we mistake not, in all future discussions in Congress on Pacific Railroad Bills, and we do not hesitate to express a belief that the discovery of Mr. Judah will prove the initiative step which will one day lead a railroad across the mountains on the eastern border of Nevada county.
"Central Pacific Railroad of California". Nevada City, California: The Nevada Journal. December 21, 1860. p. 1. ISSN 2642-3677. LCCN sn84026884. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1997-11-01. The object of this communication is to direct attention to some newly discovered facts with reference to the route of the Pacific Railroad throughout the State of California. Confident of the existence of a practicable line across the Sierra Nevada mountains, nearer and more direct than the proposed line via Madeline Pass and head waters of the Sacramento, I have devoted the past few months to an exploration of several routes and passes through Central California, resulting in the discovery of a practicable route from the city of Sacramento, upon the divide between Bear river and the North Fork of the American, via Illinoistown, Dutch Flat, and Summit Valley to the Truckee river; which gives nearly a direct line to Washoe, with maximum grades of one hundred feet per mile. The distance from Sacramento to Summit is one hundred and two miles ; to the State line, about one hundred and fifteen miles: to Truckee City, one hundred and forty-six miles: and to Virginia City, one hundred and sixty-two miles. The elevation of the Pass is 6,600 feet. Respectfully, &e. THEODORE D. JUDAH
"Map showing the location of Sacramento Valley Railroad, Cal. Sacramento, Septr., 1854; T.D. Judah, Chief Engineer". Library of Congress. 1854.
Hinkley, Helen (1969). Rails from the West a Biography of Theodore D. Judah. Golden West Books. p. 113. ISBN 9781019380277. OCLC 13415. Archived from the original on 2017-01-20. In December South Carolina seceded and on Christmas day the Richmond Examiner called for Maryland to join Virginia in seizing the capital. After the first break secession came fast: Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas. South Carolina guns had fired on the Union flag and had driven off Star of the West when it attempted to reinforce Fort Sumter without arousing much indignation in Washington. Judah knew that now there would be no reluctance to consider a railroad bill in Congress for fear that a discussion of whether the railroad should take a southern or a central route would make a wider breach between the North and South. By the time Judah returned from Dutch Flat to Sacramento in March, that breach was already as wide as it could ever be. Southern Congressmen had left their seats and Southern Senators, many of them giving impassioned farewell addresses, had left the Senate to take over positions of importance in the new Confederacy.
^ "Pacific railroad. Memorial of the Central Pacific Railroad Company of California. December 9, 1861. -- Referred to the Select Committee on the Pacific Railroad, and ordered to be printed, with report of Chief Engineer". Library of Congress. 1861.
^ Elliott, S. G. (1860). "Map of central California showing the different rail road lines completed & projected". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on January 1, 1000. The original proposed CPRR route ran through Nevada City and Blue Tent uphill along San Juan Ridge to the speculative Excelsior mining district between Henness Pass and Donner Pass, the latter of which is aptly labeled "starvation camp" in reference to the ill-fated Donner Party. The proposed route appears to tunnel through the pacific crest in the vicinity of the gap between White Rock Creek and Upper Independence Creek. CPRR engineers and investors were involved in Henness Pass Turnpike Company and the Dutch Flat and Donner Lake Wagon Road (DFDLWR). "Truckee Pass" and "Big Truckee Lake" were later renamed Donner Pass and Donner Lake. Likewise, "Lake Bigler" which had been named by John Calhoun Johnson in honor of California's third governor—a Free Soil Democrat who became an ardent Confederate sympathizer—was renamed Lake Tahoe. "Meadow Lake" appears to depict Lake Van Norden which is a large vernal pool deceptively adjacent to the Serene Lakes at the top of the North Fork of the American River, rather than the dammed reservoir at the former Excelsior/Summit City settlement which currently carries this name. "Eureka South" was later renamed Graniteville. Other sierra crest landmarks that have contemporary names include Round Top which is labeled on the map as "Highest Summit," Caples Lake which is labeled "Clear Lake," Kyburz which is labeled "Slippery Ford," Woodfords which is labeled "Cary's Mill." The latter locale is shown east of the juncture between Johnson's Cut-off, the Mormon Trail, and Major John Ebbett's route over the sierra via Ebbetts Pass and Pacific Grade Summit of which surveyor G.H. Goddard referred to as a promising route for a transcontinental railway circa 1853. The "Old Johnson Route" is shown crossing the Carson Range at Spooner Summit. "Proposed Route" apparently attempts to connect Boca with Franktown through a col below Rose Knob Peak and Relay Peak; it is currently a high-elevation pack trail. This 1860 map was made to gain interest from prospective investors, and shows they were trying to secure capital before they had even settled on the actual Donner Pass route which also bypassed Nevada City. The elevation profile at the bottom is extrapolated to Henness Pass. The proposed rail line is even labeled "Central Pacific Railroad" despite the fact that this company would not even be chartered by U.S. Congress until 1862. This is consistent with the view that the impetus of building the CPRR was newfound political feasibility indicated by the tumultuous presidential election conventions in the spring of 1860 and the seemingly inevitable election results the following November, rather than a sudden breakthrough engineering "discovery" for a Donner Pass railroad route in an otherwise well-explored mountain range. While the terrain surrounding Donner Lake and Independence Lake presented dueling challenges, spanning the South Yuba River gorge near Relief Hill would have been formidable on account of height, rather than length in the 1860's. It would have outmatched the Union Pacific's Dale Creek Crossing or its Omaha Bridge.
"Railroad map of the central part of California, and part of Nevada. 1865". Library of Congress. 1865.
"Map of the central portion of the United States showing the lines of the proposed Pacific railroads". Library of Congress. 1862.
Judah, T. D. (1 January 1857). "A practical plan for building The Pacific Railroad". Virtual museum of the City of San Francisco. H. Porkinhorn, Washington DC. Retrieved 21 October 2019.
"The Pacific Railroad". Nevada National Democrat. January 14, 1860. p. 2. LCCN sn86058101. The Washington correspondent of the San Francisco Bulletin says the President in the course of an interview with Mr. Judah of California expressed himself warmly in favor of the Pacific Railroad, and said that no man cast of the Rocky Mountains desired its construction more heartily than he did.
"The Nevada Journal". January 20, 1860. p. 1. LCCN sn84026884.
"Pacific Railroad Bill in Congress". Daily National Democrat. July 22, 1860. p. 3. LCCN sn84038814.
"Pacific Rail Road". The Nevada Journal. October 12, 1860. p. 2. LCCN sn84026884. We have received the subjoined letter from T. E. Judah, Esq. We shall commence soon and publish the documents, which are of an interesting nature. No other paper having paid attention to this matter, the record of the proceedings of the Railroad Committee will, we trust, be found valuable
"Gold Hill and Lincoln Railroad". Daily National Democrat. October 21, 1860. p. 3. LCCN sn84038814. T. D. Judah, in a communication to the Bee, and referring to the California Central Railroad from Folsom to Lincoln, says so far from any prospect of its being discontinued or abandoned, there is little doubt but that road, the California Central Railroad, will be in operation to Lincoln by December or January next...
^ Rodgers, J. David; Spinks, Charles R. (May 5, 2019). "Theodore Judah and the blazing of the first transcontinental railroad over the Sierra Nevada" (PDF). mst.edu. Sacramento, CA: ASCE Golden Spike 150th Anniversary History Symposium. Retrieved 21 October 2019.
"Pacific Railroad". The Nevada Democrat. December 6, 1860. p. 2. LCCN sn84026881. A letter appears in the Placerville Democrat, which states that Mr. Judah, the Engineer, has recently made examinations of the Georgetown, Lake and Henness Passes, and will leave for Washington on the next steamer with a view of laying the information he has obtained before Congress.
"Railroad Movement". Daily National Democrat. December 5, 1860. p. 2. LCCN sn84038814. A letter published in the Placerville Democrat, states that Mr Judah, the engineer, has recently made examinations of the Georgetown, Lake and Henness Passes, and will leave for Washington on the next steamer with a view of laying the information he has obtained before Congress.
"Map of wagon routes in Utah Territory". Library of Congress. 1859.
Rogers, J. David; Spinks, Charles R. (May 5–6, 2019). "Theodore Judah And The Blazing Of The First Transcontinental Railroad Over The Sierra Nevada" (PDF). American Society of Civil Engineers — Golden Spike 150th Anniversary History Symposium: 15.
McLaughlin, Mark (Jul 28, 2004). "The Big Four and the 'Dutch Flat swindle'". Sierra Sun. Retrieved 21 May 2024.
"THE PEOPLE OF SAN FRANCISCO ASK TO BE DEFENDED AGAINST THE DUTCH FLAT SWINDLE". No. 16:5386. Daily Alta California. December 2, 1864.
French v. Teschemaker, 24 Cal. 518 (Supreme Court of California 1864).
People ex rel. Central P. R. Co. v. Coon, 25 Cal. 635 (Supreme Court of California 1864).
People ex rel. Central P. R. Co. v. Board of Supervisors, 27 Cal. 655 (Supreme Court of California 1865).
12 Stat. 489 §8
Executive Order of Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, Fixing the Point of Commencement of the Pacific Railroad at Council Bluffs, Iowa, March 7, 1864 38th Congress, 1st Session SENATE Ex. Doc. No. 27
12 Stat. 489 §9
"Ceremony at "Wedding of the Rails," May 10, 1869 at Promontory Point, Utah". World Digital Library. 1869-05-10. Retrieved 2013-07-20.
^ "Reports of explorations and surveys, to ascertain the most practicable and economical route for a railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean v.10". library.si.edu. Washington, D.C.: War Department. 1859. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
^ "Reports of explorations and surveys, to ascertain the most practicable and economical route for a railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean v.2". library.si.edu. War Department. 1855. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
"Reports of explorations and surveys, to ascertain the most practicable and economical route for a railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean v.3". library.si.edu. Washington, D.C.: War Department. 1856. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
"Reports of explorations and surveys, to ascertain the most practicable and economical route for a railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean v.12:pt.2". library.si.edu. Washington, D.C.: War Department. 1860. Retrieved 2020-12-10.

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