| Pakawan | |
|---|---|
| Geographic distribution | Rio Grande Valley |
| Linguistic classification | Hokan ?
|
| Subdivisions |
|
| Language codes | |
| Glottolog | None |
The Pakawan languages were a small language family spoken in what is today northern Mexico and southern Texas. Some Pakawan languages are today sleeping. While others are engage in revitalizations and thus awakening.
Classification
Five clear Pakawan languages are attested: Coahuilteco, Cotoname, Comecrudo, Garza and Mamulique. The first three were first proposed to be related by John Wesley Powell in 1891, in a grouping then called Coahuiltecan. Goddard (1979) groups the latter three in a Comecrudan family while considering the others language isolates. The current composition and the present name "Pakawan" are due to Manaster Ramer (1996).
The term Coahuiltecan languages today refers to a slightly expanded and less securely established grouping. Most Pakawan languages have at times been included also in the much larger and highly hypothetical Hokan "stock".
Common vocabulary
The following word comparisons are given by Manaster Ramer (1996):
| Core Pakawan | Peripheral Pakawan | tentative reconstruction | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Coahuilteco | Comecrudo | Cotoname | Karankawa | Tónkawa | |
| axtē 'two' |
ale-kueten 'two' |
haíkia 'two' |
#al-, #axte 'two' | ||
| '' |
#ali 'ear' | ||||
| uxualʼ 'heaven' |
apel 'sky, heaven, clouds' |
#apel' 'sky' | |||
| apam 'water' |
áx̣ 'water' |
klai, komkom 'water' |
#axə 'juice, water' | ||
| tciene 'salt' |
dá-än | dem, ketac | #dem 'salt' | ||
| xāi 'to be extinguished, to come to an end' |
kai 'to eat' |
aknámas 'to eat' |
#kai 'to eat up, consume' | ||
| axām 'not' |
kam 'no' |
kóṃ 'not' |
#kam 'no(t)' | ||
| hām 'to eat' |
kam 'to eat' |
hahame, xaxame 'to eat; food' |
#kam 'to eat, drink' | ||
| '' |
#kamkam 'body of water' | ||||
| xasal 'heart' |
kayasel 'heart' |
láhama 'heart' |
#kayasel 'heart' | ||
| pe=kĕwek 'low (of water)' |
xuăxe 'low (of water)' |
#k(a)waka 'low (of water)' | |||
| kemen 'vein' |
kemma 'bow' |
#keme(n) 'sinew, vein' | |||
| pa=kna(x) 'high, big' |
kenex 'good' |
#kenex 'good, big' | |||
| '' |
ō' 'sun' |
klos, dóowal 'sun' |
#ketekawi 'sun, star' | ||
| talōm 'fire' |
klewem, klewen, len |
mánĕx 'fire' |
kwátci, kwoilesem 'fire' |
#klewem 'fire' | |
| '' |
kĕnám | kanín | #knem 'breast' | ||
| kuas | kial | sä'x | #kual 'blood' | ||
| kuan 'to go' |
kio; kie 'to go'; 'to come' |
awóyo! 'go over there!' |
#kuV- 'to go, come' | ||
| k’āu 'husband' |
gnax, na 'man' |
xuaináxe 'man' |
#kwainaxə 'man' | ||
| '' |
kuak 'reed, cane; arrow' |
ka-u, kau 'reed; arrow' |
#kwak 'reed' | ||
| pe=kla 'to suck' |
huäxle 'to suck' |
#kwa(x/k?)la 'to suck' | |||
| kʼāu 'to marry' |
kuau, kwai 'married' |
#k'aw 'to marry' | |||
| '' |
wax 'belly' |
kox 'belly' |
#k'wax 'belly' | ||
| tšum 'night, evening' |
lesum, lesom 'evening' |
#lesum 'evening' | |||
| '' |
#lel 'buttock, leg' | ||||
| '' |
katówan | #lot 'arm' | |||
| '' |
#makə 'to give' | ||||
| masõ 'to give up, abandon, desert, leave' |
mel, pa=mesai 'to fall' |
#maɬ- 'to fall' | |||
| māux 'hand' |
mapi 'hand' |
miapa 'wing' |
#mapi 'hand' | ||
| pa=msol, pa=msul 'red' |
msae 'red' |
#msa'ol 'red' | |||
| el-pau 'to kneel down, sink or sit down' |
pawe 'to sit' |
#pawə 'to sit' | |||
| pilʼ 'one' |
pe-kueten 'one' |
#pil' 'one' | |||
| ānua 'moon' |
kan 'moon' |
#q'an 'moon' | |||
| saayēx 'to be wanting' |
#sayex 'to want' | ||||
| sel 'straw' |
suau 'grass, tobacco; to smoke' |
#sel 'grass' | |||
| pa=kahuai, -kawai 'to write, paint; paper' |
thawe 'painted (on body, face)' |
#tkawai 'paint' | |||
| tʼāhaka, tʼāxakan 'what' |
tete 'how, what, why' |
*tit 'what' |
#t'ete- 'what' | ||
| tʼil 'day' |
al 'sun' |
o 'sun' |
#t'al 'sun' | ||
| xop 'far, distant' |
huanpa, xuanpa 'far' |
#xwanpa 'far' | |||
| '' |
yá-ĕx | #ya'ex 'nose' | |||
| yēwal 'to bewitch' |
yamel, yamis 'devil' |
#yameɬ 'evil spirit' | |||
| na- 'my, me' |
na 'I' |
na 'I' |
|||
| mai- '2PS subject prefix' |
emnã 'you (sg.)' |
*men 'you (sg.)' |
|||
| pamawau |
|||||
| la-ak 'goose' |
krak 'goose' |
||||
| kol 'crane' |
karakor 'crane' |
||||
| ketuau 'dog' |
kowá-u 'dog' |
||||
| kiextuén 'rabbit' |
kiáx̣nem 'rabbit' |
||||
| pa=kwessom 'orphan' |
kuwosam 'small, little; boy, girl' |
||||
| malāux 'male sexual organs' |
melkuai 'female sexual organs' |
||||
| xūm 'to die' |
kamau 'to kill' |
wátxuka 'to kill' |
|||
| tzin 'I' |
yen 'I' |
||||
| tzōtz 'chest' |
yeso knem 'to nurse' |
||||
| *tšei 'to hear' |
ye 'to hear' |
||||
| tilʼ 'posterior, anus' |
alel; (al)el 'leg'; 'buttocks, backsides, bottom' |
||||
| tām 'woman's breast' |
dom 'breast' |
||||
| mās 'to look, observe' |
max, ma, mahe 'to see' |
||||
| kuāx(ai) 'to suffer' |
kayau 'ache, sore' |
||||
The following sound changes and correspondences should be noted:
- Vocalization of word-final *l in Cotoname: 'sun', 'straw', red'
- Lenition of *p to /xw/ in Coahuilteco between vowels: #apel', #mapi
- Syncope of
- Apocope of final e (perhaps /ə/) in Comecrudo: 'man', 'low ', 'to kneel'.
- /k/, /kw/ in other languages correspond to /x/, /xw/ in Cotoname, when before /a/ ('man', 'low ', 'to eat', 'to suck', 'to write'), as well as in Coahuilteco, when before any low vowel (__examples).
- /kiV/ in Comecrudo corresponds to /kuV/ in Coahuilteco: 'blood', 'to go'
- s ~ l (perhaps indicating a lateral fricative /ɬ/) in Comecrudo corresponds to s in Coahuilteco: Comecrudo 'blood', 'devil', 'to fall'.
- Initial y in Comecrudo corresponds to /ts/ in Coahuilteco: I, chest, to hear
Lexical comparison
The Comecrudo, Cotoname, Karankawa, Coahuilteco, Solano, and Maratino data below are all from Swanton (1940). The Quinigua data is from Gursky (1964), which in turn is from del Hoyo (1960). Naolan is from Weitlaner (1948), and Tonkawa is from Hoijer (1949).
| language | head | hair | eye | ear | nose | tooth | tongue | mouth | hand | foot | breast | meat | blood | bone | person | name |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Comecrudo | eláx | eláx, emól | u-i | alí | yáx̣ | í | expén | xál | mapí | emí, lemí | kném | ewé, kai | kiál | ehûei, klemí, xí | estók | lekaú |
| Cotoname | makuát | makuát | arókwan | yá-ĕx | ayésim | kĕnám | kemás | sä'x | xuaináxe | |||||||
| Karankawa | en-okea | ekia aikui | em-ikus | em-ai aluak | é, dolonakin | a-lean | emi-akwoi | étsma | eham, kékeya | kanín | ahaks, tecoyu, úci, yámawe | |||||
| Tonkawa | taˑkey | xʔaˑk | nemtan-xaˑ | henicxayʔan | yamʔacxan | ne̠ta̠le- | kala | nota- | naˑtan | ʔawas | ʔoˑn | ne̠kame- | tickan | hes-tewe-(toˑ-) 'to name (him)' | ||
| Coahuilteco | māux | tām | ahāuh | kuās, hātz | pīlam | aux | ||||||||||
| Solano | nikaog | |||||||||||||||
| Maratino | migtikui | |||||||||||||||
| Quinigua | kai | |||||||||||||||
| Naolan | mi yuːhu; ma yoho (my) | ma naːme; manáme (of deer) |
| language | dog | fish | louse | tree | leaf | flower | water | fire | stone | earth | salt | road | eat | die | I | you |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Comecrudo | ketuaú, klám | atuís, selaú | ak 'blackish louse' | xaí | sel | awaí, exnó, xaí, pawaí | áx̣ | klewém, len | woyekuél | kamlá | sepén | ál | to, kai | kamaú, plau, pokuét | na, ye-inán, yén | nánã |
| Cotoname | kowá-u | áx̣ | mánĕx | pén | dá-än | haháme | wátĕxo | |||||||||
| Karankawa | kec | áṃ, kiles | akwiní | klai, komkom | húmhe, kwátci, kwoilesem | dem, ketac | aknámas | náyi | áwa | |||||||
| Tonkawa | ʔekˑan | neswalʔan | xaˑsoy-tlc | nahen- | ʔaˑx | mʔelʔan | yatexan | haˑc | mamʔe- | naˑx | ya̠xa- | hewawa- | saˑ- | naˑ-ya | ||
| Coahuilteco | talōm | tāp | hām | xūm, tzam | na, tzin | |||||||||||
| Solano | apam | tciene | namō 'eat it' | na- (?) | ||||||||||||
| Maratino | migtikui | paahtcu 'kill' | ||||||||||||||
| Quinigua | karama | ama, ami; ka | ana | ka, kwa, wa | pixa | ama | ama; ka(ene) | |||||||||
| Naolan | mi; míː | mi koːl; ma koːl (my) | mi, ma (poss.) |
References
King, Kendall A., ed. (2008). Sustaining linguistic diversity: endangered and minority languages and language varieties. Georgetown University round table on languages and linguistics. Washington, D.C: Georgetown University Press. ISBN 978-1-58901-192-2. OCLC 132681435.
- King 2008, p. 23.
- ^ Ramer, Alexis Manaster (1996). "Sapir's Classifications: Coahuiltecan". Anthropological Linguistics. 38 (1): 1–38. ISSN 0003-5483. JSTOR 30028442.
- ^ Swanton, John. 1940. Linguistic material from the tribes of southern Texas and northern Mexico.
- Hoijer, Harry. 1949. An analytical dictionary of the Tonkawa language. University of California publications in linguistics, 5(1). Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Swanton, John R. 1940. Linguistic material from the tribes of Southern Texas and Northeastern Mexico. (Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 127). Washington: Government Printing Office.
- Gursky, Karl-Heinz (October 1964). "The Linguistic Position of the Quinigua Indians". International Journal of American Linguistics. 30 (4). The University of Chicago Press: 325–327. doi:10.1086/464792. JSTOR 1263527. S2CID 143736051.
- del Hoyo, Eugenio. 1960. Vocablos de la Lengua Quinigua de los Indios Borrados del Noreste de México. Anuario del Centro de Estudios Humanisticos, Universidad de Nuevo León 1. 489-515.
- Weitlaner, Roberto J.. 1948. Un Idioma Desconocido del Norte de México. In Actes du XXVIII Congrès International de Américanistes, 205-227. Paris.
- Hoijer, Harry. 1949. An analytical dictionary of the Tonkawa language. University of California publications in linguistics, 5(1). Berkeley: University of California Press.
Further reading
- Manaster Ramer, Alexis. 1996. Sapir's Classifications: Coahuiltecan. Anthropological Linguistics 38/1, 1–38.
- Sapir, Edward. 1920. The Hokan and Coahuiltecan languages. International Journal of American Linguistics, 1 (4), 280–290.
- Swanton, John R. (1915). Linguistic position of the tribes of southern Texas and northeastern Mexico. American Anthropologist, 17, 17–40.
| Hokan languages | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Shastan | |||||||
| Palaihnihan | |||||||
| Pomoan | |||||||
| Yuman |
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| Pakawan | |||||||
| Tequistlatecan | |||||||
| Other | |||||||
| Italics indicate extinct languages | |||||||
| Indigenous language families and isolates of North America | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Language families and isolates |
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| Proposed groupings | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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