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In several forms of football, a forward pass is the throwing of the ball in the direction in which the offensive team is trying to move, towards the defensive team's goal line. The legal and widespread use of the forward pass distinguishes gridiron football (American football and Canadian football) from rugby football (union and league) from which the gridiron code evolved, in which the play is illegal.

Illegal and experimental forward passes had been attempted as early as 1876, but the first legal forward pass in American football took place in 1906, after a change in the rules. Another rule change on January 18, 1951, established that no center or guard could receive a forward pass, and a tackle may only do so if he announces his intent to the referee beforehand that he will be an eligible receiver, called a tackle-eligible play. The only linemen who can receive a forward pass are the ends (tight ends and wide receivers). The rules regulate who may throw and who may receive a forward pass, and under what circumstances, as well as how the defensive team may try to prevent a pass from being completed. The primary passer is the quarterback, and statistical analysis is used to determine a quarterback's success rate at passing in various situations, as well as a team's overall success at the passing game.

Gridiron football

In gridiron football, a forward pass is usually referred to simply as a pass, and consists of a player throwing the football towards the opponent's goal line. This is permitted only once during a scrimmage down by the offensive team before team possession has changed, provided the pass is thrown from behind the line of scrimmage; a pass is legal as long as some part of the passer's body is behind the line of scrimmage. The person passing the ball must be a member of the offensive team, and the recipient of the forward pass must be an eligible receiver and must touch the passed ball before any ineligible player. An illegal forward pass can incur a yardage penalty and the loss of a down, although it may be legally intercepted by the opponents and advanced.

If an eligible receiver on the passing team legally catches the ball, the pass is completed and the receiver may attempt to advance the ball. If an opposing player legally catches the ball – all defensive players are eligible receivers – it is an interception. That player's team immediately gains possession of the ball and he may attempt to advance the ball toward his opponent's goal. If no player is able to legally catch the ball it is an incomplete pass and the ball becomes dead the moment it touches the ground. It will then be returned to the original line of scrimmage for the next down. If any player interferes with an eligible receiver's ability to catch the ball it is pass interference which draws a penalty of varying degrees, depending upon the particular league's rules.

The moment that a forward pass begins is important to the game. The pass begins the moment the passer's arm begins to move forward. If the passer drops the ball before this moment it is a fumble and therefore a loose ball. In this case anybody can gain possession of the ball before or after it touches the ground. If the passer drops the ball while his arm is moving forward it is a forward pass, regardless of where the ball lands or is first touched. At some levels of play, a video replay may be required for the game's officials to conclusively determine if a play is a fumble or a forward pass.

The quarterback generally either starts a few paces behind the line of scrimmage or drops back a few steps after the ball is snapped. This places him in an area called the "pocket", which is a specific protective region formed by the offensive blockers up front and between the tackles on each side. A quarterback who runs out of this pocket is said to be scrambling. Under NFL and NCAA rules, once the quarterback moves out of the pocket the ball may be legally thrown away to prevent a sack. NFHS (high school) rules do not allow for a passer to intentionally throw an incomplete forward pass to save loss of yardage or conserve time, except for a spike to conserve time after a hand-to-hand snap. If he throws the ball away while still in the pocket then a foul called "intentional grounding" is assessed. In Canadian football the passer must simply throw the ball across the line of scrimmage – whether he is inside or outside of the "pocket"—to avoid the foul of "intentionally grounding".

If a forward pass is caught near a sideline or endline it is a complete pass (or an interception) only if a receiver catches the ball "in bounds". For a pass to be ruled complete in-bounds, either one or two feet must touch the ground within the field boundaries after the ball is first grasped, depending on the league rules. In the NFL the receiver must touch the ground with both feet, but in most other codes – CFL, NCAA and high school – one foot in bounds is sufficient.

Common to all gridiron codes is the notion of control: a receiver must demonstrate control of the ball in order to be ruled in "possession" of it, while still in bounds. If the receiver handles the ball but the official determines that he was still "bobbling" it prior to the end of the play, then the pass will be ruled incomplete. Similarly, if the receiver fails to continue to control the ball after falling to the ground, the pass may be ruled incomplete.

Early illegal and experimental passes

The forward pass had been attempted at least 30 years before the play was actually made legal. Passes "had been carried out successfully but illegally several times, including the 1876 Yale–Princeton game in which Yale's Walter Camp threw forward to teammate Oliver Thompson as he was being tackled. Princeton's protest, one account said, went for naught when the referee 'tossed a coin to make his decision and allowed the touchdown to stand' ".

The University of North Carolina used the forward pass in an 1895 game against the University of Georgia. However, the play was still illegal at the time. Bob Quincy stakes Carolina's claim in his 1973 book They Made the Bell Tower Chime:

John Heisman, namesake of the Heisman Trophy, wrote 30 years later that, indeed, the Tar Heels had given birth to the forward pass against the Bulldogs (UGA). It was conceived to break a scoreless deadlock and give UNC a 6–0 win. The Carolinians were in a punting situation and a Georgia rush seemed destined to block the ball. The punter, with an impromptu dash to his right, tossed the ball and it was caught by George Stephens, who ran 70 yards for a touchdown.

In a 1905 experimental game at Wichita, Kansas, Washburn University and Fairmount College (what would become Wichita State) used the pass before new rules allowing the play were approved in early 1906. Credit for the first pass goes to Fairmount's Bill Davis, who completed a pass to Art Solter.

1905 had been a bloody year on the gridiron; the Chicago Tribune reported 19 players had been killed and 159 seriously injured that season. There were moves to outlaw the game, but United States President Theodore Roosevelt personally intervened and demanded that the rules of the game be reformed. In a meeting of more than 60 schools in late 1905, the commitment was made to make the game safer. This meeting was the first step toward the establishment of what would become the NCAA and was followed by several sessions to work out "the new rules".

The final meeting of the Rules Committee tasked with reshaping the game was held on April 6, 1906, at which time the forward pass officially became a legal play. The New York Times reported in September 1906 on the rationale for the changes: "The main efforts of the football reformers have been to 'open up the game'—that is to provide for the natural elimination of the so-called mass plays and bring about a game in which speed and real skill shall supersede so far as possible mere brute strength and force of weight." However, the Times also reflected widespread skepticism as to whether the forward pass could be effectively integrated into the game: "There has been no team that has proved that the forward pass is anything but a doubtful, dangerous play to be used only in the last extremity." John Heisman was instrumental in the rules' acceptance.

In Canadian football, the first exhibition game using a forward pass was held on November 5, 1921, at McGill University in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, between the McGill Redmen football team and visiting American college football team the Syracuse Orangemen from Syracuse University. The game was organized by Frank Shaughnessy, the head coach of McGill. McGill player Robert "Boo" Anderson is credited with the first forward pass attempt in Canadian football history.

The forward pass was not officially allowed in Canadian football until 1929.

First legal pass

Most sources credit Saint Louis University's Bradbury Robinson from Bellevue, Ohio with throwing the first legal forward pass. On September 5, 1906, in a game against Carroll College, Robinson's first attempt at a forward pass fell incomplete and resulted in a turnover under the 1906 rules. In the same game, Robinson later completed a 20-yard touchdown pass to Jack Schneider. The 1906 Saint Louis University team, coached by Eddie Cochems, was undefeated at 11–0 and featured the most potent offense in the country, outscoring their opponents 407–11. Football authority and College Football Hall of Fame coach David M. Nelson wrote that "E. B. Cochems is to forward passing what the Wright brothers are to aviation and Thomas Edison is to the electric light."

While Saint Louis University completed the first legal forward pass in the first half of September, this accomplishment was in part because most schools did not begin their football schedule until early October.

In 1952, football coach Amos Alonzo Stagg discounted accounts crediting any particular coach with being the innovator of the forward pass. Stagg noted that he had Walter Eckersall working on pass plays and saw Pomeroy Sinnock of Illinois throw many passes in 1906. Stagg summed up his view as follows: "I have seen statements giving credit to certain people originating the forward pass. The fact is that all coaches were working on it. The first season, 1906, I personally had sixty-four different forward pass patterns." In 1954, Stagg disputed Cochems' claim to have invented the forward pass:

Eddie Cochems, who coached at Louis University in 1906, also claimed to have invented the pass as we know it today ... It isn't so, because after the forward pass was legalized in 1906, most of the schools commenced experimenting with it and nearly all used.

Stagg asserted that, as far back as 1894, before the rules committee even considered the forward pass, one of his players used to throw the ball "like a baseball pitcher".

On the other hand, Hall of Fame coach Gus Dorais told the United Press that "Eddie Cochems of the Louis University team of 1906–07–08 deserves the full credit." Writing in Collier's more than 20 years earlier, Dorais' Notre Dame teammate Knute Rockne acknowledged Cochems as the early leader in the use of the pass, observing, "One would have thought that so effective a play would have been instantly copied and become the vogue. The East, however, had not learned much or cared much about Midwest and Western football. Indeed, the East scarcely realized that football existed beyond the Alleghanies ..."

Once the 1906 season got underway, many programs began experimenting with the forward pass. On September 26, 1906, Villanova's game against the Carlisle Indians was billed as "the first real game of football under the new rules". In the first play from scrimmage after the opening kicks, Villanova completed a pass that "succeeded in gaining ten yards". Following the Villanova-Carlisle game, The New York Times described the new passing game this way:

The passing was more of the character of that familiar in basket ball than that which has hitherto characterized football. Apparently it is the intention of football coaches to try repeatedly these frequent long and risky passes. Well executed they are undoubtedly highly spectacular, but the risk of dropping the ball is so great as to make the practice extremely hazardous and its desirability doubtful.

Another coach sometimes credited with popularizing the overhead spiral pass in 1906 is former Princeton All-American "Bosey" Reiter. Reiter claimed to have invented the overhead spiral pass while playing professional football as a player-coach for Connie Mack's Philadelphia Athletics of the original National Football League (1902). While playing for the Athletics, Reiter was a teammate of Hawley Pierce, a former star for the Carlisle Indian School. Pierce, a Native American, taught Reiter to throw an underhand spiral pass, but Reiter had short arms and was unable to throw for distance from an underhand delivery. Accordingly, Reiter began working on an overhand spiral pass. Reiter recalled trying to imitate the motion of a baseball catcher throwing to second base. After practice and experimentation, Reiter "discovered he could get greater distance and accuracy throwing that way". In 1906, Reiter was the head coach at Wesleyan University. In the opening game of the 1906 season against Yale, Reiter's quarterback Sammy Moore completed a forward pass to Irvin van Tassell for a thirty-yard gain. The New York Times called it "the prettiest play of the day", as Wesleyan's quarterback "deftly passed the ball past the whole Yale team to his mate Van Tassel". Van Tassel later described the historic play to the United Press:

I was the right halfback, and on this formation played one yard back of our right tackle. The quarterback, Sam Moore, took the ball from center and faded eight or 10 yards back of our line. Our two ends angled down the field toward the sidelines as a decoy, and I slipped through the strong side of our line straight down the center and past the secondary defense. The pass worked perfectly. However, the quarterback coming up fast nailed me as I caught it. This brought the ball well into Yale territory, about the 20-yard line.

The football season opened for most schools during the first week of October, and the impact of the forward pass was immediate:

• On October 3, 1906, the Des Moines Daily News reported "probably the first use" of the "long forward pass" in the University of Missouri's 23–4 win over Kirksville Normal School.
• On October 4, 1906, Princeton opened its season with a 22–0 win over Stevens. Press accounts indicate that Princeton put the forward pass to good use, as "old-time football gave way to the new game".
• On October 4, 1906, the Carlisle Indians beat Susquehanna University 40–0, as "the forward pass was used for a number of good gains".
• On October 4, 1906, Harvard defeated Bowdoin 10–0 "in a hard-fought contest that was featured by a newfangled and daring forward pass that Crimson worked in the closing minutes of play".
• On October 4, 1906, Williams College defeated the Massachusetts Agricultural College, scoring the game's only touchdown on a forward pass by Waters.

Some publications credit Yale All-American Paul Veeder with the "first forward pass in a major game". Veeder threw a 20- to 30-yard completion in leading Yale past Harvard 6–0 before 32,000 fans in New Haven on November 24, 1906. However, that Yale/Harvard game was played three weeks after St. Louis completed 45- and 48-yard passes against Kansas before a crowd of 7,000 at Sportsman's Park.

New style of play

The forward pass was a central feature of Cochems' offensive scheme in 1906 as his St. Louis University team compiled an undefeated 11–0 season in which they outscored opponents by a combined score 407 to 11. The highlight of the campaign was St. Louis' 39–0 win over Iowa. Cochems' team reportedly completed eight passes in ten attempts for four touchdowns. "The average flight distance of the passes was twenty yards." Nelson continues, "the last play demonstrated the dramatic effect that the forward pass was having on football. St. Louis was on Iowa's thirty-five-yard line with a few seconds to play. Timekeeper Walter McCormack walked onto the field to end the game when the ball was thrown twenty-five yards and caught on the dead run for a touchdown."

The 1906 Iowa game was refereed by one of the top football officials in the country, West Point's Lt. Horatio B. "Stuffy" Hackett. He had officiated games involving the top Eastern powers that year. Hackett, who would become a member of the football rules committee in December 1907 and officiated games into the 1930s, was quoted the next day in Ed Wray's Globe-Democrat article: "It was the most perfect exhibition ... of the new rules ... that I have seen all season and much better than that of Yale and Harvard. St. Louis' style of pass differs entirely from that in use in the east. ... The St. Louis university players shoot the ball hard and accurately to the man who is to receive it ... The fast throw by St. Louis enables the receiving player to dodge the opposing players, and it struck me as being all but perfect."

Hackett is the only known expert witness to the passing offenses of both Cochems' 1906 squads and that of Stagg, who dismissed any special role for the St. Louis coach in the development of the pass. Hackett was an official in games involving both teams. As Wray recalled almost 40 years later: "Hackett told this writer that in no other game that he handled had he seen the forward pass as used by St. Louis U. nor such bewildering variations of it."

"Cochems said that the poor Iowa showing resulted from its use of the old style play and its failure to effectively use the forward pass", Nelson writes. "Iowa did attempt two basketball-style forward passes."

"During the 1906 season threw a sixty-seven yard pass ... and ... Schneider tossed a sixty-five yarder. Considering the size, shape and weight of the ball, these were extraordinary passes."

In 1907, after the first season of the forward pass, one football writer noted that, "with the single exception of Cochems, football teachers were groping in the dark."

Because St. Louis was geographically isolated from both the dominant teams and the major sports media (newspapers) of the era, all centered in and focused on the East, Cochems' groundbreaking offensive strategy was not picked up by the major teams. Pass-oriented offenses would not be adopted by the Eastern football powers until the next decade.

But that does not mean that other teams in the Midwest did not pick it up. Arthur Schabinger, quarterback for the College of Emporia in Kansas, was reported to have regularly used the forward pass in 1910. Coach H. W. "Bill" Hargiss' "Presbies" are said to have featured the play in a 17–0 victory over Washburn University and in a 107–0 destruction of Pittsburg State University. Coach Pop Warner at Carlisle had quarterback Frank Mount Pleasant, one of the first regular spiral pass quarterbacks in football.

Knute Rockne

Knute Rockne and Gus Dorais worked on the pass while lifeguarding on a Lake Erie beach at Cedar Point in Sandusky, Ohio, during the summer of 1913. That year, Jesse Harper, Notre Dame head coach, also showed how the pass could be used by a smaller team to beat a bigger one, first utilizing it to defeat rival Army. After it was used against a major school on a national stage in this game, the forward pass rapidly gained popularity.

The 1919 and 1920 Notre Dame teams had George Gipp, an ideal handler of the forward pass, who threw for 1,789 yards.

John Mohardt led the 1921 Notre Dame team to a 10–1 record with 781 rushing yards, 995 passing yards, 12 rushing touchdowns, and nine passing touchdowns. Grantland Rice wrote that "Mohardt could throw the ball to within a foot or two of any given space" and noted that the 1921 team was the first at Notre Dame "to build its attack around a forward passing game, rather than use a forward passing game as a mere aid to the running game." Mohardt had both Eddie Anderson and Roger Kiley at end to receive his passes.

Increase in popularity

From 1915 to 1916, Pudge Wyman and end Bert Baston of Minnesota were "one of the greatest forward-passing combinations in the history of the gridiron".

In the 1921 Rose Bowl, California's Brick Muller completed a touchdown against Washington & Jefferson which went 53 yards in the air, a feat previously thought impossible.

In a 1925, 62–13 victory over Cornell, Dartmouth's Andy Oberlander had 477 yards in total offense, including six touchdown passes, a Dartmouth record which still stands.

The 1925 Michigan team was coach Fielding H. Yost's favorite and featured the passing tandem of Benny Friedman and Bennie Oosterbaan.

Yost disciple Dan McGugin coached Vanderbilt and was one of the first emphasize the forward pass. His 1907 team beat Sewanee on a double pass play Grantland Rice cited as his biggest thrill in his years of watching sports. McGugin's 1927 team was piloted by Bill Spears, who threw for over a thousand yards. According to one writer, Vanderbilt produced "almost certainly the legit top Heisman candidate in Spears, if there had been a Heisman Trophy to award in 1927". McGugin disciple and former quarterback Ray Morrison brought the pass to the southwest when he coached Gerald Mann at Southern Methodist.

First pass in a professional game

The first forward pass in a professional football game may have been thrown in an Ohio League game played on October 25, 1906. The Ohio League, which traced its history to the 1890s, was a direct predecessor of the NFL. According to Robert W. Peterson in his book Pigskin The Early Years of Pro Football, the "passer was George W. (Peggy) Parratt, probably the best quarterback of the era", who played for the Massillon, Ohio Tigers, one of pro football's first franchises. Citing the Professional Football Researchers Association as his source, Peterson writes that "Parratt completed a short pass to end Dan Riley (real name, Dan Policowski)" in a game played at Massillon against a team from West Virginia. Since the Tigers "ran up a 61 to 0 score on the hapless Mountain Staters, the pass played no important part in the result".

According to National Football League history, it legalized the forward pass from anywhere behind the line of scrimmage on February 25, 1933. Before that rule change, a forward pass had to be made from 5 or more yards behind the line of scrimmage.

Forward passes were first permitted in Canadian football in 1929, but the tactic remained a minor part of the game for several years. Jack Jacobs of the Winnipeg Blue Bombers is recognized, not for inventing the forward pass, but for popularizing it in the Western Interprovincial Football Union (one of the forerunner leagues to the modern Canadian Football League) in the early 1950s, thus changing the Canadian game from a more run-dominated game to a more passing-dominant game.

Change in ball shape

Specification of the size of the ball for the American game came in 1912, but it was still essentially a rugby ball. Increased use of the forward pass encouraged adoption of a narrower ball, starting with changes in the 1920s which enhanced rifled throwing and also spiral punting. This had the consequence of all but eliminating the drop kick from the American game.

Rugby football

In the two codes of rugby (union and league), a forward pass is against the rules. Normally this results in a scrum to the opposing team, but on rare occasions a penalty may be awarded if the referee is of the belief that the ball was deliberately thrown forward.

In both codes of rugby the direction of the pass is relative to the player making the pass and not to the actual path relative to the ground. A forward pass occurs when the player passes the ball forward in relation to himself. (This applies only to the movement of the player, not to the direction in which the passer is facing, i.e. if the player is facing backwards and passes toward their team's goal area, it is not forward; and conversely, if the player passes toward the opponent's goal area, it is forward.) In rugby league, the video referee may not make judgements on whether a pass is forward.

The garryowen, as well as the cross-field kick, while not as reliable as the forward pass and more difficult to execute successfully, can provide some of the function that a forward pass does in American and Canadian football.

Other football codes

In some other football codes, such as association football (soccer), Australian rules football and Gaelic football, the kicked forward pass is used so ubiquitously that it is not thought of as a distinct kind of play at all. In association football and its variants, the concept of offside is used to regulate who can be in front of the play or be nearest to the goal. Historically some earlier incarnations of football allowed unlimited forward passing, and present-day Australian rules football and Gaelic football do not have an offside rule.

See also

• Glossary of American football
• History of American football
• Lateral pass
• Rugby league gameplay
• Rugby union gameplay
• Hail Mary pass
• Snap

References

Notes

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2. "2013 Official Playing Rules of the National Football League" (PDF). www.nfl.com. National Football League. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 9, 2013. Retrieved January 7, 2015.
3. Gregorian, Vahe, "100 years of Forward Passing; SLU Was the Pioneer" Archived August 22, 2011, at the Wayback Machine St. Louis Post-Dispatch, September 4, 2006
4. ^ Nelson, David M. (1994). The Anatomy of a Game: Football, the Rules, and the Men Who Made the Game. University of Delaware Press. ISBN 0-87413-455-2., p. 128
5. "ADDENDA TO "COLLEGE FOOTBALL IN KANSAS"". Kansas State Historical Society. Retrieved November 11, 2012.
6. Jeffrey, Terence (August 30, 2006). "One hundred years of the forward pass". Townhall.com. Archived from the original on February 15, 2009.
7. "New Football Rules: Radical Changes Are Tentatively Adopted". Washington Post. January 28, 1906. p. S1. Archived from the original on August 2, 2009. Retrieved February 19, 2008.
8. "The New Game of Football: Radical changes in this year's rules revolutionizing the sport". The New York Times. September 30, 1906. p. M5. Retrieved December 7, 2021 – via Newspapers.com.
9. "New Football A Chaos, The Experts Declare: Ground Gaining by Carrying the Ball Made Impossible; Onside Kick Is Only Hope" (PDF). The New York Times. September 30, 1906.
10. "The History of McGill Athletics". Channels. Retrieved April 20, 2018.
11. "The Lewiston Daily Sun - Google News Archive Search". news.google.com. Retrieved April 20, 2018.
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13. "CFL.ca - Official Site of the Canadian Football League". Archived from the original on June 25, 2010. Retrieved April 30, 2010.
14. "Courtesy of the National Football Foundation, "This week in college football history", The Phanatic Magazine, August 31, 2007". Archived from the original on April 15, 2014. Retrieved June 14, 2009.
15. Allison Danzig (1956). The History of American Football. Prentice-Hall, Inc. p. 37.
16. ^ "Stagg Disagrees on Origin of Forward Pass Play". Wilmington Sunday Star. January 24, 1954.
17. Casserly, Hank, "Hank Casserly Says", The Capital Times, page 1, September 17, 1952
18. Rockne, Knute K. "Beginning at End", Collier's, October 25, 1930
19. ^ "First Real Football Tests the New Rules: Spectators Divided as to the Success of Experimental Changes". The New York Times. September 27, 1906.
20. ^ "First Forward Pass Coach To Be Honored". North Adams Transcript. November 3, 1955.
21. "Forward Pass Pioneer Dies". Chester Times. November 12, 1957.
22. "Yale Scores Four Times: Centre Plays Yield Three Touchdowns". The New York Times. New Haven. October 4, 1906. p. 11. Retrieved December 7, 2021 – via Newspapers.com.
23. Irwin van Tassel (as told to the United Press) (November 5, 1955). "First Forward Pass Thrown By Wesleyan Team in 1906". Bridgeport Post.
24. "Bosey Reiter Dies". Bridgeport Post. November 13, 1957. p. 44. Retrieved December 7, 2021 – via Newspapers.com.
25. "'Mon' Gets Good Start: Use a Long Forward Pass with Good Effect". Des Moines Daily News. October 3, 1906. ("The game was probably the first use of the long forward pass, as originated by Coach Monlaw, and the general opinion after the game was that this play would be hard to stop.")
26. "Tigers Brilliant Against Stevens: New Rules Seem To Please Princeton Players". The Trenton Times. October 4, 1906.
27. "Indians Swamp Susquehanna". The Trenton Times. October 4, 1906.
28. "Kicking Wins for Harvard". The Trenton Times. October 4, 1906.
29. "Williams Wins With Forward Pass". The Trenton Times. October 4, 1906.
30. John Powers (November 18, 1983). "The 100th Game: Fads, Wars, Even Centuries Change, and Harvard-Yale Is Still the Constant". The Boston Globe. ("1906—The first forward pass in a major game—20 yards from Yale's Paul Veeder to Clarence Alcott—sets stage for only touchdown in 6–0 decision over unbeaten Crimson.")
31. Al Morganti (November 18, 1983). "A Century of the Game: Yale-Harvard Is a Matter of Pride". The Philadelphia Inquirer. ("the first significant use of the forward pass in a major game, a 20-yard gain on a Paul Veeder-to-Clarence Alcoft pass in The Game of 1906")
32. Sally Jenkins (May 13, 2007). "Carlisle Indians Made It A Whole New Ballgame". The Washington Post.(identifying Veeder's 30-yard pass as one of the few significant forward passes thrown in the first season of the forward pass)
33. "St. Louis U. Scores 12 Points in First Half of Great Game with Kansas", St. Louis Star-Chronicle, November 3, 1906
34. Nelson, The Anatomy of a Game, p. 129
35. McCormick, Bart E. (editor), The Wisconsin alumni magazine, Volume 28, Number 3, pages 108–109, January 1927
36. American Gymnasia and Athletic Record, Volume IV, No. 5, Whole Number 41, Page 62, January 1908
37. Cornell Alumni News, Volume 36, No. 4, page 44, October 19, 1933
38. "Baseball Fever, Meet The Sports Writers, John Edward (J. Ed) Wray".
39. Interview with Lt. Hackett, St. Louis Globe-Democrat, November 30, 1906
40. Wray's Column, St. Louis Post-Dispatch, January 9, 1946
41. ^ Nelson, David M. (1994). The Anatomy of a Game: Football, the Rules, and the Men Who Made the Game. University of Delaware Press. ISBN 0-87413-455-2., p. 129
42. "Gridiron Gossip". Galveston Daily News. September 29, 1907.
43. Kansas Sports Hall of Fame Archived 2009-05-14 at the Wayback Machine, Arthur Schabinger
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47. Cross, Harry, "Inventing the Forward Pass", November 1, 1913, reprinted in "This Day in Sports" The New York Times, November 1, 2004
48. ^ Schmidt, Raymond (June 18, 2007). Shaping College Football. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 9780815608868.
49. "Leslie's Weekly". google.com. 1921.
50. "Notre Dame Archives: George Gipp". Archived from the original on December 8, 2008. Retrieved May 8, 2008.
51. Keith Marder; Mark Spellen; Jim Donovan (2001). The Notre Dame Football Encyclopedia: The Ultimate Guide to America's Favorite College Team. Citadel Press. p. 148. ISBN 0806521082.
52. Grantland Rice (December 3, 1921). "Where The West Got The Jump: In Addition To Developing Strong Defense and Good Running Game, Has Built Up Forward Pass" (PDF). American Golfer. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 4, 2016. Retrieved May 12, 2016.
53. Joe Rathbun (April 23, 1942). "Sports Notes". The Times Recorder (Zanesville, OH).
54. "Three 'Immortals' To Direct Gophers In 1932 Grid Wars". Burlington Hawk Eye. April 8, 1932. The passing combination. Pudge Wyman to Baston, was the most damaging offensive threat of the team that year and stories of its feats have grown to legends.
55. "Athlete, Officer in Law Enforcement and Administration, Governor of the Virgin Islands: Walter Gordon". www.oac.cdlib.org. p. 75. Retrieved November 4, 2015.
56. "Dartmouth Shoots Down Cornell, 62-13, with Aerials". Chicago Tribune. November 8, 1925.
57. "Vanderbilt Official Athletic Site - Vanderbilt University". Archived from the original on October 15, 2016. Retrieved June 26, 2008.
58. "Grantland Rice Tells Of Greatest Thrill In Years Of Watching Sport". Boston Daily Globe. April 27, 1924. ProQuest 497709192.
59. Mark Purcell (November 1988). "Spears and Vandy excitement in 1927" (PDF). College Football Historical Society. 2 (1). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 11, 2016. Retrieved May 12, 2016.
60. Massillon Tiger Football History Archived 2008-10-11 at the Wayback Machine
61. Peterson, Robert W., Pigskin The Early Years of Pro Football, pages 52–53, 1997
62. "NFL History by Decade (1931–1940)". NFL.com. National Football League. Retrieved June 11, 2008.
63. CFL.ca History, Timeline, 1920 Archived June 25, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
64. See "Introduction: A Brief History of College Football" Archived 2008-12-10 at the Wayback Machine on the College Football Encyclopedia web site.
65. Stamp, Jimmy. "How Did the Pigskin Get Its Shape?". Smithsonian. Retrieved September 12, 2018.
66. ^ "RUGBY LEAGUE LAWS OF THE GAME INTERNATIONAL LEVEL WITH NOTES ON THE LAWS AND NRL TELSTRA PREMIERSHIP INTERPRETATIONS" Archived April 12, 2015, at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 28 April 2015.
67. Alston, Josh (August 31, 2009). "Henry queries benefit of the doubt". Townsville Bulletin. Retrieved July 18, 2012.

Bibliography

• Boyles, Bob and Guido, Paul (2007) 50 Years of College Football: A Modern History of America's Most Colorful Sport. New York: Skyhorse Publishing. ISBN 9781602390904

External links

• Media related to Forward pass at Wikimedia Commons

• American football plays
• Canadian football terminology
• Rugby league terminology
• Rugby union terminology