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Pierre Shale
Stratigraphic range: Campanian-Maastrichtian PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N
A broken concretion with fossils inside; Late Cretaceous Pierre Shale near Ekalaka, Montana
Type	Geological formation
Sub-units	From oldest to youngest: Gammon Ferruginous Member Sharon Springs Member Mitten Black Shale Member Red Bird Silty Member A lower unnamed shale member Kara Bentonitic Member Upper unnamed shale member
Underlies	Fox Hills Formation
Overlies	Niobrara Formation
Lithology
Primary	Shale
Location
Coordinates	44°23′42″N 100°24′43″W / 44.395°N 100.412°W / 44.395; -100.412
Region	North America
Country	United States,  Canada
Type section
Named for	Fort Pierre
Named by	Meek & Hayden, 1862
Pierre Shale (the United States)Show map of the United StatesPierre Shale (South Dakota)Show map of South Dakota

The Pierre Shale is a geologic formation or series in the Upper Cretaceous which occurs east of the Rocky Mountains in the Great Plains, from Pembina Valley in Canada to New Mexico.

The Pierre Shale was described by Meek and Hayden in 1862 in the Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences (Philadelphia). They described it as a dark-gray shale, fossiliferous, with veins and seams of gypsum, and concretions of iron oxide. The Pierre Shale is about 3,138 feet (956m) thick at the type locality. It overlies the Niobrara division and underlies the Fox Hills beds. It was named for an occurrence near Fort Pierre on the Missouri River in South Dakota.

The Pierre Shale is of marine origin and was deposited in the Western Interior Seaway. It is correlative with other marine shales that occur farther west, such as the Bearpaw Shale, Mancos Shale and the Lewis Shale. It correlates with the Lea Park Formation in central Alberta. The Pierre is overlain by marginal marine deposits of the Fox Hills Formation.

Most of the formation was deposited in the Campanian Age of the late Cretaceous. However, the discovery of fossils of Baculites baculus in the uppermost beds of the Pierre Shale in the Raton, New Mexico area show that deposition continued here into the early Maastrichtian.

Mineral resources

The Pierre Shale is the host formation for commercial petroleum deposits in the Florence and Canon City fields in Fremont County, Colorado, and the Boulder Oil Field in Boulder County, Colorado. More recently, natural gas has been extracted in the Raton Basin in southern Colorado. The shale formation is usually too impermeable for hydrocarbon extraction, but produces in areas where it is naturally fractured or fractured by artificial means.

Paleofauna

Reptiles

Dinosaurs

Birds reported from the Pierre Shale Formation
Genus	Species	Location	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Brodavis	B. varneri	South Dakota	Sharon Springs Member.		A hesperornithiform.
	B. sp.	Manitoba	Pembina Member.		A hesperornithiform.
Hesperornis	H. bairdi	South Dakota	Sharon Springs Member.		A hesperornithid.
	H. chowi	Manitoba & South Dakota	Pembina, Millwood, & Sharon Springs Members.		A hesperornithid.
	H. lumgairi	Manitoba	Pembina Member.		A hesperornithid.
	H. macdonaldi	Manitoba & South Dakota.	Gammon, Pembina, Millwood(?), & Sharon Springs Members.		A hesperornithid.
	H. mengeli	Manitoba & South Dakota.	Pembina & Sharon Springs Members.		A hesperornithid.
	H. regalis	Manitoba, South Dakota, & Kansas	Gammon, Pembina, & Sharon Springs Members.		A hesperornithid.
	H. sp.	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.		Probably referrable to H. regalis, but indistinguishable from H. crassipes.
Hesperornithidae	Gen. et. sp. indeterminate	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	Multiple isolated synascra.	A hesperornithid.
Hesperornithiformes	Fam., gen. et sp. indet.	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	Multiple vertebrae, phalanges, tibiotarsal fragments and a fibula.
Ichthyornis	I. sp.	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	"MDM B77.03.07 (vertebral centrum), B80.05.14 (femur)".	An ichthyornithe.

Ornithischians reported from the Pierre Shale Formation
Genus	Species	Location	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Claosaurus	C. affinis	South Dakota.		"Pedal phalanx (lost)."	Currently considered dubious.

Mosasaurs

Mosasaurs reported from the Pierre Shale Formation
Genus	Species	Location	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Clidastes	C. propython	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	MDM M74.10.06 (skull, mandible, vertebral column).	A mosasaurine also known from the Mooreville Chalk.
		Western Kansas.		Vertebrae associated with 'Plesiosaurus' gulo currently lost.	Likely represents the stomach contents of 'Plesiosaurus' gulo.
Globidens	G. dakotensis	South Dakota.	Sharon Springs Member.	FMNH PR 846.	A globidensin.
	G. schurmanni	At the Big Bend of the Missouri River, Buffalo County, South Dakota.	Uppermost DeGrey Formation.	"SDSM 74764, partial anterior skeleton, including cranium, jaws, cervical and trunk vertebrae partially articulated, pectoral girdles, partial anterior paddle, isolated humerus and ulna, and isolated caudal vertebrae".
	G. sp.	Northwestern Logan County, Kansas.	Upper level of the Sharon Springs Member.	A nearly complete right dentary (FHSM VP–13828).	A globidensin.
Hainosaurus	H. pembinensis	Near Morden, Manitoba.	Pembina Member.		Reassigned to the genus Tylosaurus.
Jormungandr	J. walhallaensis	Cavalier County, North Dakota.	Pembina Member.	Partial skull & skeleton.	A mosasaurine.
Latoplatecarpus	L. nichollsae	"19 km northwest of Morden, Manitoba".	Pembina Member.	A skeleton (CMN 52261).	A plioplatecarpine.
Mosasauridae	Subfam., gen. et. sp. indeterminate	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	Fragmentary specimens consisting "mostly of vertebral scraps, ribs and flipper elements".
Platecarpus	P. coryphaeus		Pembina Member.		Now deemed synonymous with P. tympaniticus.
	P. ictericus		Pembina Member.		Now deemed synonymous with P. tympaniticus.
	P. somenensis		Pembina Member.		Found to nest within Latoplatecarpus nichollsae.
	P. tympaniticus		Pembina Member.	Abundant specimens.	A pliopatecarpine and the most abundant mosasaur of the Pierre Shale.
	P. sp.	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	"Isolated skull elements, humeri and pectoral girdles".	Probably referrable to P. tympaniticus based on size, but size alone is deemed insufficient for species identification.
Plioplatecarpinae	Gen. et. sp. indeterminate	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	Poorly preserved and unprepared remains.
Plioplatecarpus	P. nichollsae	"19 km northwest of Morden, Manitoba".	Pembina Member.	A skeleton (CMN 52261).	Reassigned to the genus Latoplatecarpus.
Prognathodon	P. overtoni	South Dakota.	Virgin Creek Member.	KUVP 950 (the holotype for the species) and SDSM 3339.	A mosasaurine also found in the Bearpaw Shale.
Tylosaurinae	Gen. et. sp. indet.	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	Isolated limb and girdle elements (MDM M74.28.05, M75.20.06, M82.13.17, M84.09.18).
Tylosaurus	T. pembinensis	Near Morden, Manitoba.	Pembina Member.		A tylosaurine.
	T. proriger	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	MDM M77.17.07 quadrate, FMNH PR 591 quadrate, pubis, vertebrae.	A tylosaurine.

Plesiosaurs

Plesiosaurs reported from the Pierre Shale Formation
Genus	Species	Location	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Alzadasaurus	A. pembertonii	South Dakota.	Sharon Springs Member.	Complete specimen (SDSM 451).	Synonymized with Styxosaurus snowii.
	cf. A. pembertonii	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	A specimen consisting of two femora, one humerus, two epipodials, fragments of the pelvic girdle and 14 vertebrae (MDM P83.02. 18).	Synonymized with Styxosaurus snowii.
Elasmosauridae	Gen. et. sp. indeterminate	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.		Remains undiagnostic at the generic level.
		Logan County, Kansas.	Upper Sharon Springs Member.	KUVP 129744, a specimen associated with 47 gastroliths.	An elasmosaurid too fragmentary to identify below the family level.
Elasmosaurus	E. platyurus	Kansas.	Sharon Springs member.	Multiple specimens, including the holotype.	An elasmosaurid.
	?E. sp.	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	"An incomplete specimen (TMP P84.162.4), consisting of pelvic girdle, distal end of a propodial, an epipodial and 21 vertebrae".
Martinectes	M. bonneri	Wyoming & South Dakota.	Sharon Springs Member and Pembina Member.	2 specimens: an adult (UNSM 50133) and a juvenile (UNSM 55810), and several others.	A polycotylid.
Plesiosauria	Fam., gen. et. sp. indeterminate		Pembina Member.	"Specimens consisting mostly of ribs, caudal vertebrae, broken girdle plates and phalanges".	"Further identification is not possible due to poor preservation and the incomplete nature of the material".
'Plesiosaurus'	'P.' gulo	Western Kansas.		KUVP 1329 (the original specimen consisted of "eleven cervical, thirteen dorsal, and seven or eight other vertebrae" but now only 3 vertebrae remain).	An elasmosaurid associated with the remains of a mosasaur (likely Clidastes), representing the stomach contents of the plesiosaur.
Polycotylidae	Gen. et. sp. indeterminate	Morden area, Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	Many isolated vertebrae and partial skull remains.	A polycotylid.
Serpentisuchops	S. pfisterae	Wyoming.	Upper half of the upper member.	"Specimen GPM5001".	A polycotylid.
Styxosaurus	S. snowii	South Dakota.	Sharon Springs Member.	Complete specimen (SDSM 451).	An elasmosaurid originally reported as Alzadasaurus pembertoni.
	cf. S. snowii	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	A specimen consisting of two femora, one humerus, two epipodials, fragments of the pelvic girdle and 14 vertebrae (MDM P83.02. 18).	An elasmosaurid originally reported as cf. Alzadasaurus pembertoni.
		Kansas.	Sharon Springs Member.	NJSM 15435.	An elasmosaurid tentatively assigned to the genus Styxosaurus.
Trinacromerum	T. bonneri	Wyoming & South Dakota.	Sharon Springs Member and Pembina Member.	2 specimens: an adult (UNSM 50133) and a juvenile (UNSM 55810), and several others.	Now moved to the genus Martinectes.
	T. cf. T. kirki	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	TMP P84.162.3.	A polycotylid.
	T. sp.	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	Many poorly preserved specimens.	A polycotylid.

Pterosaurs

Pterosaurs reported from the Pierre Shale Formation
Genus	Species	Location	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Pteranodon	P. longiceps	Kansas, Wyoming & South Dakota.	Sharon Springs Member.	A skull and multiple postcranial elements.	A pteranodontid.

Turtles

Turtles reported from the Pierre Shale Formation
Genus	Species	Location	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Archelon	A. ischyros	Along the Cheyenne River in Custer County, South Dakota.			A protostegid.
	A. sp.	Colfax County, New Mexico.		3 carapace fragments (NMMNHP-16079 and P-16104).	A protostegid.
Protostega	P. sp.	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	MDM T75.01.06.	A protostegid.
Testudines	Fam., gen. et sp. indet.	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.		Remains only identifiable as "small turtles", probably referrable to Toxochelys latiremis.
Toxochelys	T. latiremis	Kansas & Manitoba.	Pembina Member.

Fish

Bony fish

Bony fish reported from the Pierre Shale Formation
Genus	Species	Presence	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Apsopelix	A. sp. cf. A. anglicus	Hughes County, South Dakota.	Upper DeGrey Formation.	SDSM 77482.	A crossognathid.
Bananogmius	B. evolutus	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	An articulated skull (MDM F75.05.06).	Reassigned to the genus Pentanogmius.
	B. sp.	Near Thornhill, Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	Skull and vertebral column (MMMN V82).	Specimen originally identified as Ananogmius sp.
Cimolichthys	C. nepaholica	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.		An aulopiform.
Cylindracanthus		Hyde County, South Dakota.	Verendrye Formation.	A rostral spine (SDSM 30638).
Enchodus	E. gladiolus		Sharon Springs Member.		An aulopiform.
	E. petrosus	Manitoba.	Pembina Member and Sharon Springs Member.		An aulopiform.
	E. cf. saevus	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	FMNH PF 5391 (a dentary, maxilla and palatine).	Now a junior synonym of E. petrosus.
	E. sp.	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	2 isolated vertebrae and isolated palatal fangs.	An aulopiform.
Ichthyodectes	I. ctenodon	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	Multiple mandibles and some skull and vertebral material.	An ichthyodectid.
Ichthyodectidae	Gen. et. sp. indet.	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	Vertebrae and partial caudal fins.	An ichthyodectid not referrable to Xiphactinus but indistinguishable from other ichthyodectid genera.
Pachyrhizodus	P. caninus	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	A skull and anterior portions of the body (MDM F74.04.06), and a right dentary (FMNH PF 5397).	A pachyrhizodontid.
	P. minimus	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	FMNH PF 5402.	A pachyrhizodontid.
	P. sp.	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	2 isolated vertebral centra (MMMN V73 ).	A pachyrhizodontid.
	P. sp. indet.	Hughes County, South Dakota.	DeGrey Formation.	SDSM 77481.	A pachyrhizodontid.
Pentanogmius	P. evolutus	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	An articulated skull (MDM F75.05.06).	A plethodid, originally reported as Bananogmius evolutus.
Protosphyraena	P. gladius	Hyde County, South Dakota.	DeGrey Formation.	SDSM 66288 (major portion of pectoral fin).	A pachycormid.
	P. sp.	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	A left premaxilla (FMNH PF 5400).	Probably represents P. gladius.
Stratodus	S. apicalis	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.		An aulopiform.
Teleostei	Order, fam., gen. et. sp. indet.	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	Mostly vertebrae, but also caudal fins and skulls in some specimens.
Xiphactinus	X. audax	Manitoba and Lyman County, South Dakota.	Pembina Member and middle part of the Sharon Springs Member.		An ichthyodectid.

Cartilaginous fish

Cartilaginous fish reported from the Pierre Shale Formation
Genus	Species	Presence	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Archaeolamna	A. kopingensis	Western Kansas.	Sharon Springs Member.	A partial skeleton with articulated teeth.	An archaeolamnid.
Cretalamna	C. appendiculata	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	Vertebral centra.	A megatoothed shark.
Euselachii	Fam., gen. et sp. indet.	Near Thornhill, Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	"Three vertebral centra, 15 mm in diameter".	Probably represents Squalicorax, but also indistinguishable from juvenile specimens of Cretalamna.
Squalicorax	S. sp. aff. S. kaupi	Manitoba.	Pembina Member.	"MDM S80.01.14 (2 teeth), FMNH PF 5399 (1 tooth)".	An anacoracid.

Marine vertebrates

• Gillicus
• Pseudocorax
• Carcharias

Invertebrates

Annelids

Arthropods

Bivalves

Brachiopods

Cephalopods

Cephalopods reported from the Pierre Shale Formation
Genus	Species	Location	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Baculites	B. baculus	New Mexico.	Upper & uppermost Pierre Shale.		An ammonite.
	B. cf. baculus	Bowman County, North Dakota.	Baculites reesidei Range Zone.	1 broken specimen.	An ammonite.
	B. compressus	At the Big Bend of the Missouri River, Buffalo County, South Dakota.	Uppermost DeGrey Formation.		Specimens associated with Globidens schurmanni.
	B. cf. B. eliasi	Northeastern New Mexico.			An ammonite.
	B. grandis?	Bowman County, North Dakota.		One large, crushed, badly weathered specimen.	An ammonite.
	B. reesidei	Bowman County, North Dakota.	Baculites reesidei Zone.	11 broken specimens.	An ammonite.
	B. sp.	Bowman County, North Dakota.	Upper Baculites reesidei Zone.	10 broken exfoliated specimens.	An ammonite.
	B. sp.	Northeastern New Mexico.			An ammonite.
Belemnitella	B. bulbosa		Upper Pierre Shale.		A belemnite also found in the Fox Hills Formation.
	B.? sp.	Meade County, South Dakota.	Baculites compressus zone.	1 specimen (BHI-7009).	A belemnite.
Didymoceras	D. cochleatum	South Dakota & Wyoming.	Gregory & Red Bird Silty members.	Numerous fragments.	An ammonite.
	D. nebrascense	"Northwestern New Mexico through northeastern Montana".			An ammonite.
	D. sp.	Colfax County, New Mexico.			An ammonite.
Enchoteuthis	E. cobbani	Meade & Pennington counties, South Dakota.	Baculites cuneatus Zone & possibly the underlying B. compressus Zone.	2 specimens.	A coleoid, originally described as Tusoteuthis cobbani.
	E. melanae	Niobrara County, Wyoming.	Baculites obtusus zone, Sharon Springs Member.	Multiple specimens.	A coleoid.
Eutrephoceras	E. dekayi	Colorado, Bowman County, North Dakota and Colfax County, New Mexico.	Probably from the Baculites reesidei Zone.		A nautiloid, one specimen from Colorado showing signs of mosasaur predation.
	E. montanaensis	Northeastern New Mexico.			A nautiloid.
Exiteloceras	E. sp.	Bowman County, North Dakota.		One fragmented body chamber.	A nostoceratid ammonite.
Hoploscaphites	H. brevis	Bowman County, North Dakota.		"Ten almost complete specimens and many fragments of early whorls".	An ammonite.
	H. crassus	Montana & Wyoming.			An ammonite.
	H. criptonodosus	Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and possibly South Dakota.	"Upper part of the Baculites baculus Zone and overlying B. grandis Zone".		An ammonite also found in the Bearpaw Shale.
	H. macer	Montana, Wyoming & Colorado.	"Upper part of the Baculites baculus Zone and lower part of the overlying B. grandis Zone".		An ammonite also found in the Bearpaw Shale.
	H. cf. H. nicolleti	Bowman County, North Dakota.		2 specimens.	An ammonite.
	H. nodosus	Near Raton, New Mexico.	"30-45 m below the top of the Pierre Shale".		An ammonite.
	H. peterseni	Montana & Wyoming.			An ammonite.
	H. plenus	Montana, Wyoming & North Dakota.			An ammonite.
	H. quadrangularis	Bowman County, North Dakota.	Probably from the Baculites reesidei Zone.	One broken shaft with aperture.	An ammonite.
	H. sp.	Bowman County, North Dakota.		One broken specimen.	An ammonite.
	H. sp.	Colfax County, New Mexico.			An ammonite.
Jeletzkytes	J. nodosus	At the Big Bend of the Missouri River, Buffalo County, South Dakota.	Uppermost DeGrey Formation.		Specimens associated with Globidens schurmanni.
Placenticeras	P. intercalere	Bowman County, North Dakota.		"One decorticated specimen badly fractured by calcite crystal growth".	An ammonite.
	P. meeki	Colfax County, New Mexico and Bowman County, North Dakota.	Baculites reesidei Zone.		An ammonite.
	P. newberryi	Colfax County, New Mexico.			An ammonite.
Ponteixites	P. robustus	Eastern Montana.			Now a junior synonym of Rhaeboceras.
Rhaeboceras	R. burkholderi	Dawson County, Montana.	Upper part of the Pierre Shale (Baculites eliasi zone).		An ammonite.
	R. cedarense	Dawson County, Montana.	Baculites baculus/grandis zone.		An ammonite.
	R. robustus	Eastern Montana.			An ammonite.
Scaphites	S. nodosus	Near Raton.	"About 15 m below the top of the Pierre Shale".		An ammonite.
Solenoceras	S. sp.	Bowman County, North Dakota.		3 fragmented specimens.	A nostoceratid ammonite.
Tusoteuthis	T. cobbani	Meade & Pennington counties, South Dakota.	Baculites cuneatus Zone & possibly the underlying B. compressus Zone.	2 specimens.	Moved to the genus Enchoteuthis.
	T. longa	South Dakota.	Baculites compressus Zone.		A coleoid.

Echinoderms

Gastropods

Scaphopods

References

1. ^ Gill, J. R.; Cobban, W. A.; Kier, P. M. (1966). "The Red Bird section of the Upper Cretaceous Pierre Shale in Wyoming". Professional Paper. doi:10.3133/pp393a. ISSN 2330-7102.
2. Canadian Fossil Discovery Centre. "All About Bruce". Archived from the original on 2014-11-06.
3. MacLachlan, M.E. (1976). "Lexicon of rock-stratigraphic units in Union, Colfax, Mora, and eastern Taos Counties, New Mexico" (PDF). New Mexico Geological Society Field Conference Series. 27: 205–215. Retrieved 14 October 2021.
4. Izett, G.A.; Cobban, W.A.; Gill, J.R. (1971). "The Pierre Shale near Kremmling, Colorado, and its correlation to the east and the west". United States Geological Survey Professional Paper. 684-A. doi:10.3133/pp684A.
5. Lexicon of Canadian Geologic Units. "Lea Park Formation". Archived from the original on 2013-02-21. Retrieved 2009-03-23.
6. ^ Sealey, Paul L.; Lucas, Spencer G. (2019). "Baculites Baculus Meek and Hayden, 1861 (Earliest Maastrichtian) from the Uppermost Pierre Shale in the Raton basin of Northeastern New Mexico and its Significance" (PDF). New Mexico Geological Society Field Conference Series. 70: 73–80. Retrieved 4 September 2020.
7. ^ Aotsuka, K. and Sato, T. (2016). Hesperornithiformes (Aves: Ornithurae) from the Upper Cretaceous Pierre Shale, Southern Manitoba, Canada. Cretaceous Research, (advance online publication). doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2016.03.003
8. ^ Nicholls, Elizabeth L. (1988). Marine vertebrates of the Pembina member of the Pierre Shale (Campanian, upper cretaceous) of Manitoba and their significance to the biogeography of the Western Interior Seaway. University of Calgary. ISBN 978-0-315-61682-0.
9. Gregory, Joseph Tracy (1948-01-01). "The type of Claosaurus (?) affinis Wieland [South Dakota]". American Journal of Science. 246 (1): 29–30. Bibcode:1948AmJS..246...29G. doi:10.2475/ajs.246.1.29. ISSN 0002-9599.
10. Weishampel, David B.; Dodson, Peter; Osmólska, Halszka, eds. (2004). "Table 20.1". The Dinosauria (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 442. ISBN 0-520-24209-2.
11. ^ Everhart, Mike (2006-01-01). "The Occurrence of Elasmosaurids (Reptilia: Plesiosauria) in the Niobrara Chalk of Western Kansas". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
12. ^ Everhart, Michael J. (April 2017). "Joseph Savage (1823–1891): Abolitionist, Kansas Pioneer, Horticulturist, Fossil Collector". Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science. 120 (1–2): 45–56. doi:10.1660/062.120.0106. ISSN 0022-8443. S2CID 134980070.
13. ^ Everhart, Mike. "Everhart, M.J. 2008. Rare occurrence of a Globidens sp. (Reptilia; Mosasauridae) dentary in the Sharon Springs Member of the Pierre Shale (Middle Campanian) of Western Kansas. p. 23-29 in Farley G. H. and Choate, J.R. (eds.), Unlocking the Unknown; Fort Hays Studies, Special Issue No. 2, 153 pp". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
14. ^ Martin, James E. (2007), "A new species of the durophagous mosasaur Globidens (Squamata: Mosasauridae) from the Late Cretaceous Pierre Shale Group of central South Dakota, USA", The Geology and Paleontology of the Late Cretaceous Marine Deposits of the Dakotas, Geological Society of America, doi:10.1130/2007.2427(13), ISBN 9780813724270, retrieved 2022-10-04
15. ^ Bullard, Timon S.; Caldwell, Michael W. (2010-03-24). "Redescription and rediagnosis of the tylosaurine mosasaur Hainosaurus pembinensis Nicholls, 1988, as Tylosaurus pembinensis (Nicholls, 1988)". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 30 (2): 416–426. Bibcode:2010JVPal..30..416B. doi:10.1080/02724631003621870. ISSN 0272-4634. S2CID 86297189.
16. ^ Zietlow, Amelia R.; Boyd, Clint A.; Van Vranken, Nathan E. (2023-10-30). "Jormungandr walhallaensis: a new mosasaurine (Squamata: Mosasauroidea) from the Pierre Shale Formation (Pembina Member: Middle Campanian) of North Dakota". Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 464 (464). doi:10.1206/0003-0090.464.1.1. hdl:2246/7332. ISSN 0003-0090.
17. ^ Cuthbertson, Robin S.; Mallon, Jordan C.; Campione, Nicolas E.; Holmes, Robert B. (2007). "A new species of mosasaur (Squamata: Mosasauridae) from the Pierre Shale (lower Campanian) of Manitoba". Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences. 44 (5): 593. Bibcode:2007CaJES..44..593C. doi:10.1139/e07-006. ISSN 0008-4077.
18. KONISHI, TAKUYA; CALDWELL, MICHAEL W. (2011). "Two New Plioplatecarpine (Squamata, Mosasauridae) Genera from the Upper Cretaceous of North America, and a Global Phylogenetic Analysis of Plioplatecarpines". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 31 (4): 754–783. Bibcode:2011JVPal..31..754K. doi:10.1080/02724634.2011.579023. ISSN 0272-4634. JSTOR 25835874. S2CID 85972311.
19. ^ Lucas, Spencer G.; Ikejiri, Takehito; Maisch, Heather; Joyce, Thomas; Gianniny, Gary L. "The Mosasaur Prognathodon from the Upper Cretaceous Lewis Shale near Durango, Colorado and distribution of Prognathodon in North America". Geology of the Chama Basin.
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• Upper Cretaceous Series of North America
• Cretaceous Alberta
• Cretaceous Colorado
• Cretaceous Kansas
• Cretaceous Montana
• Cretaceous geology of Nebraska
• Cretaceous formations of New Mexico
• Cretaceous geology of South Dakota
• Cretaceous geology of Wyoming
• Campanian Stage
• Shale formations of the United States
• Shale formations
• Oil-bearing shales in Canada
• Oil-bearing shales in the United States
• Great Plains