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Common pheasant Temporal range: Pleistocene–present PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N ↓
Male ("cock")
Female ("hen") both in England
Conservation status
Least Concern  (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Aves
Order:	Galliformes
Family:	Phasianidae
Genus:	Phasianus
Species:	P. colchicus
Binomial name
Phasianus colchicus Linnaeus, 1758
Geographical distribution of common pheasant   Native   Introduced
Synonyms
Phasianus phasis

The common pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), ring-necked pheasant, or blue-headed pheasant, a bird in the pheasant family (Phasianidae). The genus name comes from Latin phasianus, "pheasant". The species name colchicus is Latin for "of Colchis" (modern day Georgia), a country on the Black Sea where pheasants became known to Europeans. Although Phasianus was previously thought to be closely related to the genus Gallus, the genus of junglefowl and domesticated chickens, recent studies show that they are in different subfamilies, having diverged over 20 million years ago.

It is native to Asia and parts of Europe like the northern foothills of the Caucasus and the Balkans. It has been widely introduced elsewhere as a game bird. In parts of its range, namely in places where none of its relatives occur such as in Europe, where it is naturalised, it is simply known as the "pheasant". Ring-necked pheasant is both the name used for the species as a whole in North America and also the collective name for a number of subspecies and their intergrades that have white neck rings.

It is a well-known gamebird, among those of more than regional importance perhaps the most widespread and ancient one in the whole world. The common pheasant is one of the world's most hunted birds; it has been introduced for that purpose to many regions, and is also common on game farms where it is commercially bred. Ring-necked pheasants in particular are commonly bred and were introduced to many parts of the world; the game farm stock, though no distinct breeds have been developed yet, can be considered semi-domesticated. The ring-necked pheasant is the state bird of South Dakota, one of only two US state birds that is not a species native to the United States.

The green pheasant (P. versicolor) of Japan is sometimes considered a subspecies of the common pheasant. Though the species produce fertile hybrids wherever they coexist, this is simply a typical feature among fowl (Galloanseres), in which postzygotic isolating mechanisms are slight compared to most other birds. The species apparently have somewhat different ecological requirements and at least in its typical habitat, the green pheasant outcompetes the common pheasant. The introduction of the latter to Japan has therefore largely failed.

Description

There are many colour forms of the male common pheasant, ranging in colour from nearly white to almost black in some melanistic examples. These are due to captive breeding and hybridisation between subspecies and with the green pheasant, reinforced by continual releases of stock from varying sources to the wild. For example, the "ring-necked pheasants" common in Europe, North America and Australia do not pertain to any specific taxon, they rather represent a stereotyped hybrid swarm. Body weight can range from 0.5 to 3 kg (1 to 7 lb), with males averaging 1.2 kg (2 lb 10 oz) and females averaging 0.9 kg (2 lb 0 oz). Wingspan ranges from 56–86 cm (22–34 in).

The adult male common pheasant of the nominate subspecies Phasianus colchicus colchicus is 60–89 cm (23+1⁄2–35 in) in length with a long brown streaked black tail, accounting for almost 50 cm (20 in) of the total length. The body plumage is barred bright gold or fiery copper-red and chestnut-brown plumage with iridescent sheen of green and purple; but rump uniform is sometimes blue. The wing coverage is white or cream and black-barred markings are common on the tail. The head is bottle green with a small crest and distinctive red wattle. P. c. colchicus and some other races lack a white neck ring. Behind the face are two ear-tufts, that make the pheasant more alert.

The female (hen) and juveniles are much less showy, with a duller mottled brown plumage all over and measuring 50–63 cm (19+1⁄2–25 in) long including a tail of around 20 cm (8 in). Juvenile birds have the appearance of the female with a shorter tail until young males begin to grow characteristic bright feathers on the breast, head and back at about 10 weeks after hatching.

The green pheasant (P. versicolor) is very similar, and hybridisation often makes the identity of individual birds difficult to determine. Green pheasant males on average have a shorter tail than the common pheasant and have darker plumage that is uniformly bottle-green on the breast and belly; they always lack a neck ring. Green pheasant females are darker, with many black dots on the breast and belly.

In addition, various colour mutations are commonly encountered, mainly melanistic (black) and flavistic (isabelline or fawn) specimens. The former are rather common in some areas and are named Tenebrosus pheasant (P. colchicus var. tenebrosus).

Taxonomy and systematics

This species was first scientifically described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae under its current scientific name. The common pheasant is distinct enough from any other species known to Linnaeus for a laconic rufus, capîte caeruleo – "a red pheasant with blue head" – to serve as entirely sufficient description. Moreover, the bird had been extensively discussed before Linnaeus established binomial nomenclature. His sources are the Ornithologia of Ulisse Aldrovandi, Giovanni Pietro Olina's Uccelliera, John Ray's Synopsis methodica Avium & Piscium, and A Natural History of the Birds by Eleazar Albin. Therein—essentially the bulk of the ornithology textbooks of his day—the species is simply named "the pheasant" in the books' respective languages. Whereas in other species, such as the eastern meadowlark (Sturnella magna), Linnaeus felt it warranted to cite plumage details from his sources, in the common pheasant's case he simply referred to the reason of the bird's fame: principum mensis dicatur. The type locality is given simply as "Africa, Asia".

However, the bird does not occur in Africa, except perhaps in Linnaeus's time in Mediterranean coastal areas where they might have been introduced during the Roman Empire. The type locality was later fixed to the Rioni River in western Georgia – known as Phasis to the Ancient Greeks. These birds, until the modern era, constituted the bulk of the introduced stock in parts of Europe that was not already present; the birds described by Linnaeus's sources, though typically belonging to such early introductions, would certainly have more alleles in common with the transcaucasian population than with others. The scientific name is Latin for "pheasant from Colchis", colchicus referring to the west of modern-day Georgia; the Ancient Greek term corresponding to the English "pheasant" is Phasianos ornis (Φασιανὸς ὂρνις), "bird of the river Phasis". Although Linnaeus included many Galliformes in his genus Phasianius—such as the domestic chicken and its wild ancestor the red junglefowl, nowadays Gallus gallus—today only the common and the green pheasant are placed in this genus. As the latter was not known to Linnaeus in 1758, the common pheasant is naturally the type species of Phasianus.

In the US, common pheasants are widely known as "ring-necked pheasants". More colloquial North American names include "chinks" or, in Montana, "phezzens". In China, meanwhile, the species is properly called zhi ji (雉鸡)—"pheasant-fowl"—essentially implying the same as the English name "common pheasant". Like elsewhere, P. colchicus is such a familiar bird in China that it is usually just referred to as shan ji (山雞), "mountain chicken", a Chinese term for pheasants in general.

As of 2005, it had the smallest known genome of all living amniotes, only 0.97 pg (970 million base pairs), roughly one-third of the human genome's size; however, the black-chinned hummingbird is now currently held to have the smallest.

Subspecies

There are about 30 subspecies in five to eight groups. These can be identified by the male plumage, namely presence or absence of a white neck-ring and/or a white superciliary stripe, the colour of the uppertail (rump) and wing coverts, and the colour of crown, chest, upper back, and flank feathers. As noted above, introduced populations have mixed the alleles of various races by various amounts, differing according to the original stock used for introductions and what natural selection according to climate and habitat has made of that.

An investigation into the genetic relationships of subspecies revealed that the earliest subspecies is likely to have been elegans, suggesting that the common pheasant originated from the forests of southeastern China. Initial divergence is thought to have occurred around 3.4 Mya. The lack of agreement between morphology-based subspecies delimitation and their genetic relationships is thought to be attributed to past isolation followed by more recent population mixing as the pheasant has expanded its range across the western Palaearctic.

Sometimes this species is split into the Central Asian common and the East Asian ring-necked pheasants, roughly separated by the arid and high mountainous regions of Turkestan. However, while the western and eastern populations probably were entirely separate during the Zyryanka glaciation when deserts were more extensive, this separation was not long enough for actual speciation to occur. Today, the largest variety of colour patterns is found where the western and eastern populations mix, as is to be expected. Females usually cannot be identified even to subspecies group with certainty.

Many subspecies are in danger of disappearing due to hybridisation with introduced birds. The last indigenous black-necked pheasant (P. c. colchicus) population in Europe survives in Greece in the delta of the river Nestos, where in 2012 the population was estimated 100–250 individuals.

The subspecies groups, going from west to east, and some notable subspecies are:

Subspecies	Range	Description	Image
WESTERN CLADE – Red-rumped pheasants:		The lower back, rump, and upper tail-coverts are of a bronze-red, maroon, or rusty-orange general colour, sometimes glossed with oily green; black bars on the tail generally narrow.
Colchicus group – Black-necked pheasants: colchicus, septentrionalis, talischensis, persicus	Caucasus to W. Turkestan, Turkey (Samsun area) and Greece (Nestos delta)	No neck ring. Wing coverts buff to brown (in persicus greyish white or buffy white), uppertail coverts rusty to chestnut
Chrysomelas/principalis group – White-winged pheasants: principalis, zarudnyi, zerafschanicus, bianchii, chrysomelas, shawii	Central Turkestan and western Tarim Basin	No or vestigial neck ring. Wing coverts white, uppertail coverts and general plumage hue bronze to brown
Mongolicus group – Kyrghyz pheasants: turcestanicus, mongolicus	NE Turkestan and adjacent Xinjiang. Note that, despite its name, mongolicus does not occur in Mongolia.	Broad neck ring. Wing coverts white, uppertail coverts hue rusty to chestnut, general plumage hue copper
Tarimensis group – Tarim pheasants: tarimensis	SE Turkestan around the eastern Tarim Basin	No or vestigial neck ring. Wing coverts buff to brown, uppertail coverts dark khaki to light olive
EASTERN CLADE – Grey-rumped pheasants:		The lower back, rump, and upper tail-coverts are of a light and more or less lavender-blue, greenish- or yellowish-grey, or olive-greenish color; a rusty orange patch on each side of the rump; black tail-bars generally broad.
Elegans group – Yunnan pheasants: elegans, rothschildi	Eastern Tibet, western Sichuan, northwestern and southeastern Yunnan, northwestern Vietnam and northern Myanmar.	White neck collar and orbital lines are absent. A broad band of richly glossed dark green or bluish green colour runs down the underparts, completely separating the brassy-chestnut of the sides of the chest. Crown dark green. Uppertail coverts light bluish grey.
Strauchi/vlangalii group – Western grey-rumped pheasants: suehschanensis, vlangalii, satscheuensis, edzinensis, strauchi, sohokhotensis, alaschanicus, kiangsuensis	Qaidam Basin, eastern Qinghai, northeastern Sichuan, Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Ningxia, Shanxi, Shaanxi, western Hebei. Note that, despite its name, kiangsuensis does not occur in Jiangsu.	The white neck collar and orbital lines are usually either absent (suehschanensis) or rather narrow, often not complete. Brassy-chestnut on chest dominating over glossy green colour (which only in suehschanensis reaches from foreneck to the belly). Crown usually dark green.
Torquatus group – Chinese ring-necked pheasants: hagenbecki, pallasi, karpowi, torquatus, takatsukasae, decollatus	Widespread in eastern China, extending to northernmost Vietnam in the south and to the Strait of Tartary region in the north; with an isolated population in north-western Mongolia. Absent from Hainan. Most pheasants in North America are of this group.	White neck ring varies from broad in the north east (pallasi) to absent in the south west (decollatus). Wing coverts tan to light grey (almost white in some). Chest copper red to light brown red, in decollatus rich purple red with thick black feather margins. Crown varying from dark green without orbital lines (decollatus) to light grey framed with white orbital lines. In hagenbecki chest feathers broadly fringed black.
Formosanus group – Taiwan pheasants: formosanus	Taiwan	White neck ring interrupted at front neck. Flank feathers characteristically whitish or pure white with black apices and often narrow black margins. Feathers at chest broadly fringed black, giving a scaly appearance.
Subspecies:
P. c. pallasi (Manchurian ring-necked pheasant)	Southeastern Siberia (Ussuriland, southern Amurland), adjacent northeastern North Korea (alpine region) to northeastern China (east and south slopes of Greater Khingan Mountains and Lesser Khingan Mountains)	Coloration of plumage dominated by yellow and copper brown tones. Greyish green crown, framed by white orbital lines. White collar very wide and uninterrupted, often broader at the front.
P. c. karpowi (Korean ring-necked pheasant)	Northeastern China (southern Heilongjiang, Jilin, northern Liaoning, northern Hebei) and central and southern Korea and Jeju Island in South Korea. Introduced on Hokkaido, Japan.	Darker and more richly coloured than P. c. pallasi, and white collar narrower.
P. c. elgans (Stone's pheasant)	Eastern Tibet, Western Sichuan, and Northwestern Yunnan provinces, 5,000–10,000 ft. preferred elevation.	Overall plumage dark and contrasting, but check to distinguish this subspecies from suehschanensis which has some range overlap. Scaplulars are scarcely spotted when compared to those of suehschanensis.
P. c. decollatus (Kweichow)	Central China ( Eastern Szechuan, Western Hubei, Northeastern Yunnan and Guizhou).	Appears like torquatus but with no collar
P. c. takatsukasae (Tonkinese)	Southeastern China and Tonkin	Poorly known, best identified by range. Supposedly similar to Torquatus but overall darker.
P. c. rothschildi (Rothschild's)	Yunnan, Tonkin, northern Laos and eastern Myanmar. Prefers elevations of 5,000 to 10,000 ft.	Similar to elegans but lighter. Best identified by range
P. c. torquatus (Chinese)	Eastern China
P. c. formosanus (Taiwanese)	Taiwan	Black belly and pale sides. Range is also diagnostic.
P. c. alaschanicus (Alashan)	North Central China, Southern Mongolia. "Oases near the western foothills of Ala-Shans"	Poorly known, best identified by range.
P. c. hagenbecki (Kobdo)	Kobdo Valley, Mongolia, prefers elevations of 3,000 to 5,000 ft.	Distinctive bright golden flanks as well as small range are diagnostic.
P. c. kiangsuensis (Shansi)	Northeastern China	Extremely similar torquatus, range overlaps, but kiangsuensis skews further north. The barring on the nape in finer in kiangsuensis than in torquatus.
P. c. satscheuensis (Satchu)	Northwestern Gansu	Best identified by range
P. c. strauchi (Strauch's)	Central China, Gansu south to Szechuan. Prefers altitudes near 10,000 ft.	Extremely variable, best identified by range and elimination of other subspecies.
P. c. suehschanensis (Sungpan)	Northwest Szechuan and Eastern Tibet	Similar to elegans
P. c. vlangallii	Quinghai, prefers elevations of 2,000 to 7,000 ft.	Best identified by range
P. c. edzinensis	Ruo Shui basin	Similar plumage to satscheuensis, best identified by range.
P. c. sohokhotensis (Sohokhoto)	Sohokhoto Oasis	Resembles strauchi but paler with "eyebrows" and a collar.
P. c. tarimensis (Tarim basin)	Southeastern Tarim Basin	Olive-green rump
P. c. mongolicus (Mongolian/Kirghiz)	Northern Kyrgyzstan, Eastern Kazakhstan, Xinjiang and Urumchi.	Widespread in its range. Darkly plumaged with contrasting white wing coverts.
P. c turcestanicus (Syr-Daria)	Syr Darya river valley	Small range, darkly plumaged with contrasting white wing coverts, slightly brighter sides than mongolicus.
P. c. bianchii	Southern Uzbekistan, southwestern Tajikistan and extreme northern Afghanistan	Bright white wing coverts, also use range.
P. c. principalis (Prince of Wales)	Southeastern Turkmenistan, extreme northern Iran and Afghanistan	Rare, identification information poorly known other than range, look for the contrasting green and purple-maroon throat.
P. c. shawii (Yarkland)	Xinjiang	Bright white wing coverts
P. c. zerafschanicus (Zerafshan)	Bukhara, Zeravshan and Kashkadarya Valleys of Southern Uzbekistan.	Best identified by range
P. c. zarudnyi (Zarundy's)	Central valleys of the river Amu Darya on the eastern Turkmenistan–Uzbekistan border.	Best identified by range and glossy-green throat.
P. c. colchicus (Caucasian)	Bulgaria and Greece through Turkey to eastern Georgia, eastern Azerbaijan, Dagestan, Armenia and northwestern Iran.	The most widespread of the "black-necked pheasants". Commonly released as a gamebird. Possibly the ancestral population of the "old English blackneck"
P. c. septentrionalis (Northern Caucasian)	Dagestan to north of the Volga Delta	large,  white spots on the back. Golden-orange nape that contrasts against the dark rump.
P. c. talischensis (Talisch)	Transcaucasia and Caspian lowlands of Iran	Fine, even white spots on the back, overall warm orange plumage, little contrast of wing plumage. Range important for ID.
P. c. persicus (Persian)	Southwest Turkmenistan and northcentral Iran	Overall warm orange plumage, wing plumage bright white and contrasting.

Within a maximum clade credibility mDNA gene tree, the most basal group is the elegans-group of the Eastern Clade, diverging from the green pheasant during the Calabrian, and diversifying in Middle Pleistocene around 0.7 million years ago, with the groups of the Western Clade splitting off from those of the Eastern Clade about 0.59 million years ago. While the subspecies of the Western Clade are well geographically separated from each other, the subspecies of the Eastern Clade often show clinal variation and large areas of intergradation. For example, clines connect pallasi-karpowi-torquatus-takatsukasae within the torquatus-group and kiangsuensis-alaschanicus-sohokhotensis-strauchi within the strauchi/vlangalii-group, with the degree of expression of white collar and superciliary stripe in both cases decreasing from north to south. The isolated form hagenbecki is very close to pallasi in phenotype, and has been traditionally treated within the torquatus-group until recently, when it was assigned in one study to the strauchi/vlangalii group. However, the origin of the corresponding feather samples as listed in GenBank is far away from the known distribution of subspecies hagenbecki, and the issue needs further clarification.

Ecology

Common pheasants are native to Asia and parts of Europe, their original range extending from the Balkans (where the last truly wild birds survive around Nestos river in Greece), the Black and Caspian Seas to Manchuria, Siberia, Korea, Mainland China, and Taiwan. The birds are found in woodland, farmland, scrub, and wetlands. In its natural habitat the common pheasant lives in grassland near water with small copses of trees. Extensively cleared farmland is marginal habitat that cannot maintain self-sustaining populations for long.

Common pheasants are gregarious birds and outside the breeding season form loose flocks. However, captive bred common pheasants can show strong sexual segregation, in space and time, with sex differences in the use of feeding stations throughout the day. Wherever they are hunted they are always timid once they associate humans with danger, and will quickly retreat for safety after hearing the arrival of hunting parties in the area.

While common pheasants are able short-distance fliers, they prefer to run. If startled however, they can suddenly burst upwards at great speed, with a distinctive "whirring" wing sound and often giving kok kok kok calls to alert conspecifics. Their flight speed is only 43–61 km/h (23–33 kn) when cruising but when chased they can fly up to 90 km/h (49 kn).

Nesting

Common pheasants nest solely on the ground in scrapes, lined with some grass and leaves, frequently under dense cover or a hedge. Occasionally they will nest in a haystack, or old nest left by other bird. They roost in sheltered trees at night. The males are polygynous as is typical for many Phasianidae, and are often accompanied by a harem of several females. Common pheasants produce a clutch of around 8–15 eggs, sometimes as many as 18, but usually 10 to 12; they are pale olive in colour, and laid over a 2–3 week period in April to June. The incubation period is about 22–27 days. The chicks stay near the hen for several weeks, yet leave the nest when only a few hours old. After hatching they grow quickly, flying after 12–14 days, resembling adults by only 15 weeks of age.

They eat a wide variety of animal and vegetable type-food, like fruit, seeds, grain, mast, berries and leaves as well as a wide range of invertebrates, such as leatherjackets, ant eggs, wireworms, caterpillars, grasshoppers and other insects; with small vertebrates like lizards, field voles, small mammals and small birds occasionally taken.

European native

Southern Caucasian pheasants (P. c. colchicus) were common in Greece during the classical period and it is a widespread myth that the Greeks took pheasants to the Balkans when they colonised Colchis in the Caucasus. This colonization happened during the 6th century BC, but pheasant archaeological remains in the Balkans are much older dating to 6th millennium BC. This fact indicates that probably pheasants reached the area naturally. Additionally it seems that they had a continuous range in Turkey from the Sea of Marmara on the edge of the Balkans, across the northern shore of the country till Caucasus. The last remnants of the Balkan population survive in the Kotza-Orman riparian forest of Nestos, in Greece with an estimated population of 100–200 adult birds. In Bulgaria they were lost in the 1970s because they hybridised with introduced eastern subspecies.

Besides the Balkans the species lives in Europe in the area north of Caucasus where the local subspecies P.c.septentrionalis survives pure around the lower reaches of the Samur River. Reintroduction efforts in the rest of the north Caucasian range may include hybrid birds.

As an introduced species

Common pheasants can now be found across the globe due to their readiness to breed in captivity and the fact they can naturalise in many climates, but were known to be introduced in Europe, North America, Japan and New Zealand. Pheasants were hunted in their natural range by Stone Age humans just like the grouse, partridges, junglefowls and perhaps peafowls that inhabited Europe at that time. At least since the Roman Empire, the bird was extensively introduced in many places and has become a naturalized member at least of the European fauna. Introductions in the Southern Hemisphere have mostly failed, except where local Galliformes or their ecological equivalents are rare or absent.

The bird was naturalized in Great Britain around AD 1059, but may have been introduced by the Romano-British centuries earlier. It was the Caucasian subspecies mistakenly known as the 'Old English pheasant' rather than the Chinese ring-necked pheasants (torquatus) that were introduced to Britain. But it became extirpated from most of the isles in the early 17th century. There were further re-introductions of the 'white neck-ringed' variety in the 18th century. It was rediscovered as a game bird in the 1830s after being ignored for many years in an amalgam of forms. Since then it has been reared extensively by gamekeepers and was shot in season from 1 October to 31 January. Pheasants are well adapted to the British climate and breed naturally in the wild without human supervision in copses, heaths and commons.

By 1950 pheasants bred throughout the British Isles, although they were scarce in Ireland. Because around 30,000,000 pheasants are released each year on shooting estates, mainly in the Midlands and South of England, it is widespread in distribution, although most released birds survive less than a year in the wild. The Bohemian was most likely seen in North Norfolk. The Game & Wildlife Conservation Trust is researching the breeding success of reared pheasants and trying to find ways to improve this breeding success to reduce the demand to release as many reared pheasants and increase the wild population. As the original Caucasian stock all but disappeared during the Early Modern era, most 'dark-winged ringless' birds in the UK are actually descended from 'Chinese ring-necked' and 'green pheasant' hybrids, which were commonly used for rewilding.

North America

Common pheasants were introduced in North America in 1773, and have become well established throughout much of the Rocky Mountain states (Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, etc.), the Midwest, the Plains states, as well as Canada and Mexico. In the southwest, they can even be seen south of the Rockies in Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge 161 km (100 mi) south of Albuquerque, New Mexico. It is now most common on the Great Plains. Common pheasants have also been introduced to much of northwest Europe, the Hawaiian Islands, Chile, Uruguay, Peru, Argentina, Brazil, South Africa, New Zealand, and Australia including the island state of Tasmania and small offshore islands such as Rottnest Island off Western Australia.

Most common pheasants bagged in the United States are wild-born feral pheasants. In some states captive-reared and released birds make up much of the population.

Pheasant hunting is very popular in much of the US, especially in the Great Plains states, where a mix of farmland and native grasslands provides ideal habitat. South Dakota alone has an annual harvest of over 1 million birds a year by over 200,000 hunters.

Negative impacts on other birds

There are a number of negative effects of common pheasants on other game birds, including: nest parasitism, disease, aggression, and competition for resources.  Nest parasitism, or brood parasitism, is common in pheasants because of their propensity to nest near other birds and the fact that nesting requirements are similar to those of other prairie birds and waterfowl that inhabit the same areas.  This phenomenon has been observed in grey partridges; prairie chickens; several types of duck, rail, grouse, turkeys, and others.  Effects of nest parasitism may include abandonment of nests with a high proportion of foreign eggs, lower hatching rates, and lower numbers of eggs laid by the host species. Pheasant eggs also have a shorter incubation time than many of their nestmates, which may result in the individual watching over the nest to abandon her own eggs after the pheasants hatch, thinking that the remaining eggs are not viable.  Pheasants raised in other species' nests often imprint on their caretaker, which may result in them adopting atypical behaviour for their species. This is sometimes the cause of hybridisation of species as pheasants adopt the mating behaviour of their nest's host species.

Pheasants often compete with other native birds for resources. Studies have shown that they can lead to decreased populations of bobwhites and partridges due to habitat and food competition. Insects are a valuable food source for both pheasants and partridges and competition may lead to decreased populations of partridges. Pheasants may also introduce disease, such as blackhead, to native populations. While pheasants tolerate the infection well, other birds such as ruffed grouse, chukar, and grey partridge are highly susceptible. Pheasants also have a tendency to harass or kill other birds. One study noted that in pheasant vs. prairie chicken interactions, the pheasants were victorious 78% of the time.

Management strategies

A variety of management strategies have been suggested for areas that are home to species that are particularly threatened by pheasants, such as the prairie chickens and gray partridge. These strategies include mowing grass to decrease the nesting cover preferred by pheasants, decreasing pheasant roosting habitat, shooting pheasants in organized hunts, trapping and removing them from areas where there are high concentrations of birds of threatened species, and others.

Population change

While pheasant populations are not in any danger, they have been decreasing in the United States over the last 30 years, largely in agricultural areas. This is likely due to changes in farming practices, application of pesticides, habitat fragmentation, and increased predation due to changes in crops grown.  Many crops beneficial for pheasants (such as barley) are not being farmed as much in favor of using the land for more lucrative crops, such as nut trees.  Many of these new crops are detrimental to pheasant survival. Pheasants prefer to nest in areas of significant herbaceous cover, such as perennial grasses, so many agricultural areas are not conducive to nesting anymore. Pheasant hens also experience higher levels of predation in areas without patches of grassland.

In the United Kingdom, about 50 million pheasants reared in captivity are now released each summer, a number which has significantly increased since the 1980s. Most of these birds are shot during the open season (1 October to 1 February), and few survive for a year. The result is a wildly fluctuating population, from 50 million in July to less than 5 million in June.

As gamebirds

Common pheasants are bred to be hunted and are shot in great numbers in Europe, especially the UK, where they are shot on the traditional formal "driven shoot" principles, whereby paying guns have birds driven over them by beaters, and on smaller "rough shoots". The open season in the UK is 1 October – 1 February, under the Game Act 1831 (1 & 2 Will. 4. c. 32). Generally they are shot by hunters employing gun dogs to help find, flush and retrieve shot birds. Retrievers, spaniels and pointing breeds are used to hunt pheasants.

The doggerel "Up gets a guinea, bang goes a penny-halfpenny, and down comes a half a crown" reflects the expensive sport of 19th century driven shoots in Britain, when pheasants were often shot for sport, rather than as food. It was a popular royal pastime in Britain to shoot common pheasants. King George V shot over 1,000 pheasants out of a total bag of 3,937 over a six-day period in December 1913 during a competition with a friend; however, he did not do enough to beat him.

Common pheasants are traditionally a target of small game poachers in the UK. The Roald Dahl novel Danny the Champion of the World featured a poacher (and his son) who lived in the UK and illegally hunted common pheasants.

Pheasant farming is a common practice and is sometimes done intensively. Birds are supplied both to hunting preserves/estates and restaurants, with smaller numbers being available for home cooks.

The carcasses were often hung for a time to improve the meat by slight decomposition, as with most other game. Modern cookery generally uses moist roasting and farm-raised female birds. In the UK and US, game was making somewhat of a comeback in popular cooking and more pheasants than ever were being sold in supermarkets there in 2011. A major reason for this is consumer attitude shift from consumption of red meat to white meat.

See also

• Hunting and shooting in the United Kingdom
• Fisherian Runaway

References

1. BirdLife International (2016). "Phasianus colchicus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T45100023A85926819. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T45100023A85926819.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
2. Jobling, James A (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. pp. 113, 302. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
3. Kimball, Rebecca T.; Hosner, Peter A.; Braun, Edward L. (1 May 2021). "A phylogenomic supermatrix of Galliformes (Landfowl) reveals biased branch lengths". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 158: 107091. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2021.107091. ISSN 1055-7903. PMID 33545275. S2CID 231963063.
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9. ^ Scott, p. 85
10. ^ British Book of Birds, p. 69
11. The Observer's Book of Birds, p. 214
12. Aldrovandi 1600, pp. 45–59
13. Olina 1622, p. 49, plate 48
14. Ray 1713, p. 56
15. Albin 1731, pp. 24–26
16. Linnaeus 1758
17. URB 2007
18. "pheasant". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
19. Proper 1990, pp. 21–22
20. e.g. Lin-Liu et al. 2006
21. Gregory, T.R. (2005). "Birds – Animal Genome Size Database". Genomesize.com. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 25 April 2011.
22. ^ Madge, McGowan & Kirwan 2002
23. ^ Liu, S.; Liu, Y.; Jelen, E.; Alibadian, M.; Yao, Ch.-T.; Li, X.; Kayvanfar, N.; Wang; Vahidi, F.; Han, J.; Sundev, G.; Zhang, Zh.; Schweizer, M. (21 December 2019). "Regionally divergent drivers of historical diversification in the late Quaternary in a widely distributed generalist species, the common pheasant Phasianus colchicus". bioRxiv. doi:10.1101/2019.12.21.881813. Retrieved 4 March 2020.
24. Liu, Ying; Zhan, Xiangjiang; Wang, Ning; Chang, Jiang; Zhang, Zhengwang (2010). "Effect of geological vicariance on mitochondrial DNA differentiation in Common Pheasant populations of the Loess Plateau and eastern China". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 55 (2): 409–417. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2009.12.026. PMID 20060052. Retrieved 28 December 2020.
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26. Ray & Adams 2001
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31. "GenBank Data MT842672-MT842678". www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/MT842672.1. 5 May 2021.
32. Henninger 1906
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38. Gürler, A. T., Bölükbaş, C. S., Pekmezci, G. Z., Umur, S. & M. Açıcı1 2012: Samsun’da Sülünlerde (Phasianus colchicus) Nekropsi ve Dışkı Bakısında Saptanan Helmintler. Turkiye Parazitol Derg 36: 222–227.
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47. Terry, John (20 August 2011). "Oregon pioneer Owen Nickerson Denny was about more than his birds". OregonLive.com. Retrieved 11 March 2012.
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51. e.g. Ohio: OOS 2004
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54. ^ Hallett, Diana L.; Edwards, William R.; Burger, George V. (1988). Pheasants : symptoms of wildlife problems on agricultural lands. North Central Section of the Wildlife Society. OCLC 19288751.
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56. Potts, G. R. (June 1970). "Recent Changes in the Farmland Fauna with Special Reference to the Decline of the Grey Partridge". Bird Study. 17 (2): 145–166. doi:10.1080/00063657009476266. ISSN 0006-3657.
57. Lund, Everett E.; Chute, Anne M. (January 1972). "The Ring-Necked Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus torquatus) as a Host for Heterakis gallinarum and Histomonas meleagridis". American Midland Naturalist. 87 (1): 1–7. doi:10.2307/2423877. ISSN 0003-0031. JSTOR 2423877.
58. Vance, D.Russel; Westemeier, Ronald L. (1979). Interactions of Pheasants and Prairie Chickens in Illinois. OCLC 870462218.
59. Westemeier, R. L. (1983). Perdix III: gray partridge/ring-necked pheasant workshop. Madison, WI: Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. pp. 117–122.
60. ^ Coates, Peter S.; Brussee, Brianne E.; Howe, Kristy B.; Fleskes, Joseph P.; Dwight, Ian A.; Connelly, Daniel P.; Meshriy, Matt G.; Gardner, Scott C. (15 March 2017). "Long-term and widespread changes in agricultural practices influence ring-necked pheasant abundance in California". Ecology and Evolution. 7 (8): 2546–2559. doi:10.1002/ece3.2675. ISSN 2045-7758. PMC 5395463. PMID 28428846.
61. Dwight, Ian A.; Vogt, Jessica H.; Coates, Peter S.; Fleskes, Joseph P.; Connelly, Daniel P.; Gardner, Scott C. (2020). "Linking nest microhabitat selection to nest survival within declining pheasant populations in the Central Valley of California". Wildlife Research. 47 (5): 391. doi:10.1071/wr18199. ISSN 1035-3712. S2CID 220834643.
62. Schmitz, Richard A.; Clark, William R. (January 1999). "Survival of Ring-Necked Pheasant Hens during Spring in Relation to Landscape Features". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 63 (1): 147. doi:10.2307/3802495. ISSN 0022-541X. JSTOR 3802495.
63. Dalton, Jane (31 October 2020). "Game-bird shooting will need licences, ministers announce – days before legal battle". The Independent. Retrieved 28 November 2020.
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External links

• Ring-necked Pheasant - Phasianus colchicus - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
• Ring-necked Pheasant Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
• Ring-necked Pheasant at enature.com
• Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) pheasant page
• "Ring-necked pheasant media". Internet Bird Collection.
• Ring-necked pheasant photo gallery at VIREO (Drexel University)
• Interactive range map of Phasianus colchicus at IUCN Red List maps

Links to related articles

v t e Phasianidae Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Galliformes Subfamily Phasianinae Tribe Lerwini Lerwa Snow partridge (L. lerwa) Tribe Ithaginini Ithaginis Blood pheasant (I. cruentus) Tribe Lophophorini Tragopan Blyth's tragopan (T. blythii) Cabot's tragopan (T. caboti) Western tragopan (T. melanocephalus) Satyr tragopan (T. satyra) Temminck's tragopan (T. temminckii) Tetraophasis Verreaux's monal-partridge (T. obscurus) Szechenyi's monal-partridge (T. szechenyii) Lophophorus Himalayan monal (L. impejanus) Sclater's monal (L. sclateri) Chinese monal (L. lhuysii) Tribe Pucrasiini Pucrasia Koklass pheasant (P. macrolopha) Tribe Meleagridini Meleagris Wild turkey (M. gallopavo) Ocellated turkey (M. ocellata) † Californian turkey (M. californica) Tribe Tetraonini Grouse Canachites Spruce grouse (C. canadensis) Franklin's grouse (C. canadensis franklinii) Falcipennis Siberian grouse (F. falcipennis) Dendragapus Dusky grouse (D. obscurus) Sooty grouse (D. fuliginosus) Lagopus Willow ptarmigan (L. lagopus) Red grouse (L. l. scotica) Rock ptarmigan (L. muta) White-tailed ptarmigan (L. leucura) Tetrao Western capercaillie (T. urogallus) Cantabrian capercaillie (T. u. cantabricus) Black-billed capercaillie (T. urogalloides) Lyrurus Black grouse (L. tetrix) Caucasian grouse (L. mlokosiewiczi) Tetrastes Hazel grouse (T. bonasia) Chinese grouse (T. sewerzowi) Bonasa Ruffed grouse (B. umbellus) Centrocercus Greater sage-grouse (C. urophasianus) Gunnison grouse (C. minimus) Tympanuchus Sharp-tailed grouse (T. phasianellus) Columbian sharp-tailed grouse (T. p. columbianus) Greater prairie chicken (T. cupido) Heath hen (extinct) Attwater's prairie chicken (T. c. attwateri) Lesser prairie chicken (T. pallidicinctus) Tribe Rhizotherini Rhizothera Long-billed partridge (R. longirostris) Dulit partridge (R. dulitensis) Tribe Phasianini Perdix Grey partridge (P. perdix) Daurian partridge (P. dauurica) Tibetan partridge (P. hodgsoniae) Syrmaticus Elliot's pheasant (S. ellioti) Mrs. Hume's pheasant (S. humiae) Mikado pheasant (S. mikado) Copper pheasant (S. soemmerringi) Reeve's pheasant (S. reevesi) Chrysolophus Lady Amherst's pheasant (C. amherstiae) Golden pheasant (C. pictus) Phasianus Common pheasant (P. colchicus) Green pheasant (P. versicolor) Catreus Cheer pheasant (Catreus wallichi) Crossoptilon Blue eared pheasant (C. auritum) White eared pheasant (C. crossoptilon) Tibetan eared pheasant (C. harmani) Brown eared pheasant (C.mantchuricum) Lophura Bulwer's pheasant (L. bulweri) Siamese fireback (L. diardi) Edward's pheasant (L. edwardsi) Crestless fireback (L. erythrophthalma) Vietnamese pheasant (L. hatinhensis) Crested fireback (L. ignita) Imperial pheasant (L. imperialis) Salvadori's pheasant (L. inornata) Hoogerwerf's pheasant (L. i. hoogerwerfi) Kalij pheasant (L. leucomelanos) Silver pheasant (L. nycthemera) Swinhoe's pheasant (L. swinhoii) Subfamily Rollulinae Xenoperdix Rubeho forest partridge (X. obscuratus) Udzungwa forest partridge (X. udzungwensis) Caloperdix Ferruginous partridge (C. oculeus) Rollulus Crested partridge (R. rouloul) Melanoperdix Black partridge (M. niger) Arborophila Hill partridge (A. torqueola) Sichuan partridge (A. rufipectus) Chestnut-breasted partridge (A. mandellii) White-necklaced partridge (A. gingica) Rufous-throated partridge (A. rufogularis) Red-billed partridge (A.a rubrirostris) Siamese partridge (A. diversa) Chestnut-headed partridge (A. cambodiana) Hainan partridge (A. ardens) Taiwan partridge (A. crudigularis) White-cheeked partridge (A. atrogularis) Bar-backed partridge (A. brunneopectus) Orange-necked partridge (A. davidi) Red-breasted partridge (A. hyperythra) Malayan partridge (A. campbelli) Roll's partridge (A. rolli) Sumatran partridge (A. sumatrana) Chestnut-bellied partridge (A. javanica) Grey-breasted partridge (A. orientalis) Subfamily Pavoninae Tribe Pavonini Rheinardia Vietnamese crested argus (R. ocellata) Malayan crested argus (R. nigrescens) Argusianus Great argus (A. argus) Afropavo Congo peafowl (A. congensis) Pavo Indian peafowl (P. cristatus) Green peafowl (P. muticus) Tropicoperdix Chestnut-necklaced partridge (T. charltonii) Green-legged partridge (T. chloropus) Tribe Polyplectronini Haematortyx Crimson-headed partridge (H. sanguiniceps) Galloperdix Red spurfowl (G. spadicea) Painted spurfowl (G. lunulata) Sri Lanka spurfowl (G. bicalcarata) Polyplectron Grey peacock-pheasant (P. bicalcaratum) Bronze-tailed peacock-pheasant (P. chalcurum) Palawan peacock-pheasant (P. emphanum) Germain's peacock-pheasant (P. germaini) Mountain peacock-pheasant (P. inopinatum) Hainan peacock-pheasant (P. katsumatae) Malayan peacock-pheasant (P. malacense) Bornean peacock-pheasant (P. schleiermacheri) Tribe Gallini Bambusicola Mountain bamboo partridge (B. fytchii) Chinese bamboo partridge (B. thoracicus) Taiwan bamboo partridge (B. sonorivox) Gallus Red junglefowl (G. gallus) Sri Lankan junglefowl (G. lafayetii) Grey junglefowl (G. sonneratii) Green junglefowl (G. varius) Peliperdix Latham's francolin (P. lathami) Ortygornis Crested francolin (O. sephaena) Grey francolin (O. pondicerianus) Swamp francolin (O. gularis) Francolinus Black francolin (F. francolinus) Painted francolin (F. pictus) Chinese francolin (F. pintadeanus) Campocolinus Coqui francolin (C. coqui) White-throated francolin, (C. albogularis) Schlegel's francolin (C. schlegelii) Scleroptila Ring-necked francolin (S. streptophora) Red-winged francolin (S. levaillantii) Finsch's francolin (S. finschi) Moorland francolin (S. psilolaema) Grey-winged francolin (S. afra) Orange River francolin (S. gutturalis) Shelley's francolin (S. shelleyi) Tribe Coturnicini Tetraogallus Caucasian snowcock (T. caucasicus) Caspian snowcock (T. caspius) Himalayan snowcock (T. himalayensis) Tibetan snowcock (T. tibetanus) Altai snowcock (T. altaicus) Ammoperdix See-see partridge (A. griseogularis) Sand partridge (A. heyi) Synoicus Brown quail (S. ypsilophorus) Snow Mountain quail (S. monorthonyx) Blue quail (S. adansonii) King quail (S. chinensis) Margaroperdix Madagascar partridge (M. madagarensis) Coturnix Rain quail (C. coromandelica) Harlequin quail (C. delegorguei) Common quail (C. coturnix) Japanese quail (C. japonica) Stubble quail (C. pectoralis) Alectoris Arabian partridge (A. melanocephala) Przevalski's partridge (A. magna) Rock partridge (A. graeca) Chukar partridge (A. chukar) Philby's partridge (A. philbyi) Barbary partridge (A. barbara) Red-legged partridge (A. rufa) Perdicula Jungle bush quail (P. asiatica) Rock bush quail (P. argoondah) Painted bush quail (P. erythrorhyncha) Manipur bush quail (P. manipurensis) Ophrysia Himalayan quail (O. superciliosa) (possibly extinct) Pternistis Hartlaub's spurfowl (P. hartlaubi) Mount Cameroon spurfowl (P. camerunensis) Handsome spurfowl (P. nobilis) Chestnut-naped spurfowl (P. castaneicollis) Black-fronted spurfowl (P. atrifrons) Erckel's spurfowl (P. erckelii) Djibouti spurfowl (P. ochropectus) Swierstra's spurfowl (P. swierstrai) Ahanta spurfowl (P. ahantensis) Grey-striped spurfowl (P. griseostriatus) Jackson's spurfowl (P. jacksoni) Red-billed spurfowl (P. adspersus) Cape spurfowl (P. capensis) Natal spurfowl (P. natalensis) Hildebrandt's spurfowl (P. hildebrandti) Double-spurred spurfowl (P. bicalcaratus) Scaly spurfowl (P. squamatus) Heuglin's spurfowl (P. icterorhynchus) Clapperton's spurfowl (P. clappertoni) Harwood's spurfowl (P. harwoodi) Swainson's spurfowl (P. swainsonii) Yellow-necked spurfowl (P. leucoscepus) Grey-breasted spurfowl (P. rufopictus) Red-necked spurfowl (P. afer) 185 living species in 32 genera v t e Game animals and shooting in the United Kingdom Game birds Common pheasant Grey partridge Red-legged partridge Red grouse Rock ptarmigan Black grouse Eurasian woodcock Common snipe Quarry species Mallard Teal Wood pigeon Golden plover Canada goose Greylag goose Pink-footed goose Eurasian wigeon Tufted duck Northern shoveler Northern pintail Gadwall Common pochard Common goldeneye Common moorhen Eurasian coot Deer Red deer Roe deer European fallow deer Sika deer Reeves's muntjac Water deer Other quarry European hare Red fox European rabbit Opponents League Against Cruel Sports Animal Aid Law Game Act 1831 Protection of Wild Mammals (Scotland) Act 2002 Hunting Act 2004 See also British Association for Shooting and Conservation Hunting and shooting in the United Kingdom Game & Wildlife Conservation Trust Countryside Alliance Driven grouse shooting Glorious Twelfth Gamekeepers in the United Kingdom Deer stalking Deer forest Rarely shot because of declining numbers. v t e Game animals and shooting in North America Game birds Bobwhite quail Chukar Hungarian partridge Prairie chicken Mourning dove Ring-necked pheasant Ptarmigan Ruffed grouse Sharp-tailed grouse Snipe (common snipe) Spruce grouse Turkey Woodcock Waterfowl Black duck Canada goose Canvasback Gadwall Greater scaup Lesser scaup Mallard Northern pintail Redhead Ross's goose Snow goose Wood duck Big game Bighorn sheep Black bear Razorback Brown bear Bison (buffalo) Caribou Cougar (mountain lion) Elk Moose White-tailed deer Wolf Mountain goat Mule deer Pronghorn Muskox Dall sheep Polar bear Whales Other quarry American alligator Badger Bobcat Coyote Fox squirrel Gray fox Gray squirrel Opossum Rabbit Raccoon Red fox Snowshoe hare See also Bear hunting Big-game hunting Bison hunting Deer hunting Fox hunting Waterfowl hunting Whaling Fishing Wolf hunting Upland hunting v t e Poultry Species Chicken Duck Goose Guineafowl Domestic pigeon Japanese quail Muscovy duck Puna ibis Turkey Breeds Chicken breeds Duck breeds Turkey breeds Goose breeds Pigeon breeds Diseases Fowlpox Malaria Scaly leg White striping Poultry farming Antibiotics Battery cage Blinders Cannibalism in poultry Chicken eyeglasses Chick culling Chick sexing Chicken coop Chicken harvester Debeaking Forced molting Free range Free-range eggs Furnished cages Hatchery Hock burns Organic egg production Pastured poultry Poultry litter In the United States Yarding v t e Human use of birds Activities Aviculture Birdwatching Bird hide Big year Bird conservation Fletching In sport Cockfighting Falconry Pigeon racing Vinkensport In science Model organism Ornithology In mythology and religion Augury Sacred ibis Sky burial In hunting Cormorant fishing Driven grouse shooting Plume hunting Wildfowling Products Chicken Down Egg Feather Guano Poultry In the arts In art Bird-and-flower painting Feather tights In heraldry Avalerion Crow/Raven Eagle Gallic rooster Martlet Turul In poetry The Conference of the Birds Ode to a Nightingale To a Skylark Crow In prose A History of British Birds The Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck The Ugly Duckling Jonathan Livingston Seagull In theatre and ballet The Birds Swan Lake The Firebird In film The Birds Kes The Big Year Animated films Chicken films Horror films In music In fashion Aigrette Feather boa Feather cloak In dance Cendrawasih Chicken dance Species Golden eagle Penguin Pigeon/Dove Raven of the Tower of London People Illustrators John James Audubon (The Birds of America) Thomas Bewick John Gould Lars Jonsson John Gerrard Keulemans Edward Lear Richard Lewington Roger Tory Peterson Henry Constantine Richter Joseph Smit Archibald Thorburn Joseph Wolf Conservationists Niels Krabbe Peter Scott Organisations BirdLife International Royal Society for the Protection of Birds Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust Related Human–dinosaur coexistence Category:Birds and humans Zoomusicology

• IUCN Red List least concern species
• Phasianus
• Poultry
• Birds of Asia
• Birds described in 1758
• Symbols of South Dakota
• Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
• Extant Pleistocene first appearances