Léopold Sédar Senghor

(Redirected from Sédar Senghor) First president of Senegal, poet, and cultural theorist (1906–2001) "Senghor" redirects here. For the Senegalese surname, see Senghor (surname).

Léopold Sédar Senghor
Senghor in 1978

1st President of Senegal
In office 6 September 1960 – 31 December 1980
Prime Minister	Mamadou Dia Abdou Diouf
Preceded by	Office established
Succeeded by	Abdou Diouf

Personal details
Born	(1906-10-09)9 October 1906 Joal, French West Africa (present-day Senegal)
Died	20 December 2001(2001-12-20) (aged 95) Verson, France
Political party	Socialist Party of Senegal
Spouse(s)	Ginette Éboué (m. 1946; div. 1956) Colette Hubert Senghor (m. 1957⁠–⁠2001); his death
Alma mater	University of Paris
Religion	Roman Catholicism
Signature
Military service
Allegiance	France
Branch/service	French Colonial Army
Years of service	1939–1942
Rank	Private 2e Classe
Unit	59th Colonial Infantry Division
Battles/wars	World War II Battle of France

Léopold Sédar Senghor (/sɒŋˈɡɔːr/; French: [sɑ̃ɡɔʁ]; 9 October 1906 – 20 December 2001) was a Senegalese politician, cultural theorist and poet who served as the first president of Senegal from 1960 to 1980.

Ideologically an African socialist, Senghor was one of the major theoreticians of Négritude. He was a proponent of African culture, black identity, and African empowerment within the framework of French-African ties. He advocated for the extension of full civil and political rights for France's African territories while arguing that French Africans would be better off within a federal French structure than as independent nation-states.

Senghor became the first president of independent Senegal. He fell out with his long-standing associate Mamadou Dia, who was the prime minister of Senegal, arresting him on suspicion of fomenting a coup and imprisoning him for 12 years. Senghor established an authoritarian one-party state in Senegal where all rival political parties were prohibited.

Senghor was the founder of the Senegalese Democratic Bloc party in 1948. He was the first African elected as a member of the Académie française and won the 1985 International Nonino Prize in Italy. Senghor is regarded by many as one of the most important African intellectuals of the 20th century.

Early years: 1906–28

Léopold Sédar Senghor was born on 9 October 1906 in the city of Joal, some 110 kilometres south of Dakar, the capital of Senegal. His father, Basile Diogoye Senghor (pronounced: Basile Jogoy Senghor), was a wealthy peanut merchant belonging to the bourgeois Serer people. Basile Senghor was said to be a man of great means and owned thousands of cattle and vast lands, some of which were given to him by his cousin the king of Sine. Gnilane Ndiémé Bakhoum (1861–1948), Senghor's mother, the third wife of his father, a Muslim with Fula origin who belonged to the Tabor tribe, was born near Djilor to a Christian family. She gave birth to six children, including two sons. Senghor's birth certificate states that he was born on 9 October 1906; however, there is a discrepancy with his certificate of baptism, which states it occurred on 9 August 1906. His Serer middle name Sédar comes from the Serer language, meaning "one that shall not be humiliated" or "the one you cannot humiliate". His surname Senghor is a combination of the Serer words Sène (a Serer surname and the name of the Supreme Deity in Serer religion called Rog Sene) and gor or ghor, the etymology of which is kor in the Serer language, meaning male or man. Tukura Badiar Senghor, the prince of Sine and a figure from whom Léopold Sédar Senghor has been reported to trace descent, was a c. 13th-century Serer noble.

At the age of eight, Senghor began his studies in Senegal in the Ngasobil boarding school of the Fathers of the Holy Spirit. In 1922, he entered a seminary in Dakar. After being told that religious life was not for him, he attended a secular institution. By then, he was already passionate about French literature. He won distinctions in French, Latin, Greek and Algebra. With his Baccalaureate completed, he was awarded a scholarship to continue his studies in France.

"Sixteen years of wandering": 1928–1944

In 1928, Senghor sailed from Senegal for France, beginning, in his words, "sixteen years of wandering." Starting his post-secondary studies at the Sorbonne, he quit and went on to the Lycée Louis-le-Grand to finish his preparatory course for entrance to the École Normale Supérieure, a grande école. Henri Queffélec, Robert Verdier and Georges Pompidou were also studying at this elite institution. After failing the entrance exam, Senghor prepared for his grammar Agrégation. He was granted his agrégation in 1935 at his second attempt.

Academic career

Senghor graduated from the University of Paris, where he received the Agrégation in French Grammar. Subsequently, he was designated professor at the universities of Tours and Paris, where he taught during the period 1935–45.

Senghor started his teaching years at the lycée René-Descartes in Tours; he also taught at the lycée Marcelin-Berthelot in Saint-Maur-des-Fosses near Paris. He also studied linguistics taught by Lilias Homburger at the École pratique des hautes études. He studied with prominent social scientists such as Marcel Cohen, Marcel Mauss and Paul Rivet (director of the Institut d'ethnologie de Paris). Senghor, along with other intellectuals of the African diaspora who had come to study in the colonial capital, coined the term and conceived the notion of "négritude", which was a response to the racism still prevalent in France. It turned the racial slur nègre into a positively connoted celebration of African culture and character. The idea of négritude informed not only Senghor's cultural criticism and literary work, but also became a guiding principle for his political thought in his career as a statesman.

Military service

In 1939, Senghor was enlisted in the 3rd Colonial Infantry Regiment of the French army with the rank of private (2 Classe) despite his higher education. A year later in June 1940, the invading Germans took him prisoner in la Charité-sur-Loire or Villabon. He was interned in a succession of camps, and finally at Front Stalag 230, in Poitiers. Front Stalag 230 was reserved for colonial troops captured during the war. According to Senghor, German soldiers wanted to execute him and the others on the day they were captured, but they escaped this fate by yelling Vive la France, vive l'Afrique noire! ("Long live France, long live Black Africa!"). A French officer told the soldiers that executing the African prisoners would dishonour the Aryan race and the German Army. In total, Senghor spent two years in different prison camps, where he spent most of his time writing poems and learning enough German to read Goethe's poetry in the original. In 1942, he was released for medical reasons.

He resumed his teaching career while remaining involved in the resistance during the Nazi occupation.

Political career: 1945–1982

Colonial France

Senghor advocated for African integration within the French Empire, arguing that independence for small, weak territories would lead to the perpetuation of oppression, whereas African empowerment within a federal French Empire could transform it for the better.

Once the war was over, Senghor was selected as Dean of the Linguistics Department with the École nationale de la France d'Outre-Mer, a position he would hold until Senegal's independence in 1960. While travelling on a research trip for his poetry, he met the local socialist leader, Lamine Guèye, who suggested that Senghor run for election as a member of the Assemblée nationale française. Senghor accepted and became député for the riding of Sénégal-Mauritanie, when colonies were granted the right to be represented by elected individuals. They took different positions when the train conductors on the Dakar-Niger line went on strike. Guèye voted against the strike, arguing the movement would paralyse the colony, while Senghor supported the workers, which gained him great support among Senegalese.

During the negotiations to write the French Constitution of 1946, Senghor pushed for the extension of French citizenship to all French territories. Four Senegalese communes had citizenship since 1916 – Senghor argued that this should be extended to the rest of France's territory. Senghor argued for a federal model whereby each African territory would govern its own internal affairs, and this federation would be part of a larger French confederation that run foreign affairs, defence and development policies. Senghor opposed indigenous nationalism, arguing that African territories would develop more successfully within a federal model where each territory had its "negro-African personality" along with French experience and resources.

Political changes

In 1947, Senghor left the African Division of the French Section of the Workers International (SFIO), which had given enormous financial support to the social movement. With Mamadou Dia, he founded the Bloc démocratique sénégalais (1948). They won the legislative elections of 1951, and Guèye lost his seat. Senghor was involved in the negotiations and drafting of the Fourth Republic's constitution.

Re-elected deputy in 1951 as an independent overseas member, Senghor was appointed state secretary to the council's president in Edgar Faure's government from 1 March 1955 to 1 February 1956. He became mayor of the city of Thiès, Senegal in November 1956 and then advisory minister in the Michel Debré's government from 23 July 1959 to 19 May 1961. He was also a member of the commission responsible for drafting the Fifth Republic's constitution, general councillor for Senegal, member of the Grand Conseil de l'Afrique Occidentale Francaise and member of the parliamentary assembly of the Council of Europe.

In 1964, Senghor published the first volume of a series of five, titled Liberté. The book contains a variety of speeches, essays and prefaces.

Senegal

Senghor supported federalism for newly independent African states, a type of "French Commonwealth", while retaining a degree of French involvement:

In Africa, when children have grown up, they leave their parents' hut, and build a hut of their own by its side. Believe me, we don't want to leave the French compound. We have grown up in it, and it is good to be alive in it. We simply want to build our own huts.
— Speech by Senghor, 1957

Since federalism was not favoured by the African countries, he decided to form, along with Modibo Keita, the Mali Federation with former French Sudan (present-day Mali). Senghor was president of the Federal Assembly until it failed in 1960.

Afterwards, Senghor became the first President of the Republic of Senegal, elected on 5 September 1960. He is the author of the Senegalese national anthem. The prime minister, Mamadou Dia, was in charge of executing Senegal's long-term development plan, while Senghor was in charge of foreign relations. The two men quickly disagreed. In December 1962, Mamadou Dia was arrested under suspicion of fomenting a coup d'état. He was held in prison for 12 years. Following this, Senghor established an authoritarian presidential regime where all rival political parties were suppressed. Senghor tightly circumscribed press freedom in Senegal and founded the state-run newspaper Le Soleil in 1970.

On 22 March 1967, Senghor survived an assassination attempt. The suspect, Moustapha Lô, pointed his pistol towards the President after he had participated in the sermon of Tabaski, but the gun did not fire. Lô was sentenced to death for treason and executed on 15 June 1967, even though it remained unclear if he had actually wanted to kill Senghor.

Following an announcement at the beginning of December 1980, Senghor resigned his position at the end of the year, before the end of his fifth term. Abdou Diouf replaced him as the head of the country. Under Senghor's presidency, Senegal adopted a multi-party system (limited to three: socialist, communist and liberal). He created a performing education system. Despite the end of official colonialism, the value of Senegalese currency continued to be fixed by France, the language of learning remained French, and Senghor ruled the country with French political advisors.

Francophonie

He supported the creation of la Francophonie and was elected vice-president of the High Council of the Francophonie. In 1982, he was one of the founders of the Association France and developing countries whose objectives were to bring attention to the problems of developing countries, in the wake of the changes affecting the latter.

Global policy

He was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a world constitution. As a result, for the first time in human history, a World Constituent Assembly convened to draft and adopt the Constitution for the Federation of Earth.

Académie française: 1983–2001

Senghor was elected a member of the Académie française on 2 June 1983, at the 16th seat where he succeeded Antoine de Lévis Mirepoix. He was the first African to sit at the Académie. The entrance ceremony in his honour took place on 29 March 1984, in presence of French President François Mitterrand. This was considered a further step towards greater openness in the Académie, after the previous election of a woman, Marguerite Yourcenar. In 1993, the last and fifth book of the Liberté series was published: Liberté 5: le dialogue des cultures.

Personal life and death

Senghor's first marriage was to Ginette Éboué (1 March 1923 – 1992), daughter of Félix Éboué. They married on 9 September 1946 and divorced in 1955. They had two sons, Francis in 1947 and Guy in 1948. His second wife, Colette Hubert (20 November 1925 – 18 November 2019), who was from France, became Senegal's first First Lady upon independence in 1960. Senghor had three sons between his two marriages.

Senghor spent the last years of his life with his wife in Verson, near the city of Caen in Normandy, where he died on 20 December 2001. His funeral was held on 29 December 2001 in Dakar. Officials attending the ceremony included Raymond Forni, president of the Assemblée nationale and Charles Josselin, state secretary for the minister of foreign affairs, in charge of the Francophonie. Jacques Chirac (who said, upon hearing of Senghor's death: "Poetry has lost one of its masters, Senegal a statesman, Africa a visionary and France a friend") and Lionel Jospin, respectively president of the French Republic and the prime minister, did not attend. Their failure to attend Senghor's funeral made waves as it was deemed a lack of acknowledgement for what the politician had been in his life. The analogy was made with the Senegalese Tirailleurs who, after having contributed to the liberation of France, had to wait more than forty years to receive an equal pension (in terms of buying power) to their French counterparts. The scholar Érik Orsenna wrote in the newspaper Le Monde an editorial entitled "J'ai honte" (I am ashamed).

Legacy

Although a socialist, Senghor avoided the Marxist and anti-Western ideology that had become popular in post-colonial Africa, favouring the maintenance of close ties with France and the Western world. Senghor's tenure as president was characterised by the development of African socialism, which was created as an indigenous alternative to Marxism, drawing heavily from the négritude philosophy. In developing this, he was assisted by Ousmane Tanor Dieng. On 31 December 1980, he retired in favour of his prime minister, Abdou Diouf. Politically, Senghor's stamp can also be identified today. With regards to Senegal in particular, his willful abdication of power to his successor, Abdou Diouf, led to Diouf's peaceful leave from office as well. Senegal's special relationship with France and economic legacy are more highly contested, but Senghor's impact on democracy remains nonetheless. Senghor managed to retain his identity as both a poet and a politician even throughout his busy careers as both, living by his philosophy of achieving equilibrium between competing forces. Whether it was France and Africa, poetics and politics, or other disparate parts of his identity, Senghor balanced the two.

Literarily, Senghor's influence on political thought and poetic form are wide-reaching even through to our modern day. Senghor's poetry endures as the "record of an individual sensibility at a particular moment in history," capturing the spirit of the Négritude movement at its peak, but also marks a definitive place in literary history. Senghor's thoughts were exceedingly radical for this time, arguing that Africans could only progress if they developed a culture distinct and separate from the colonial powers that oppressed them, pushing against popular thought at the time. Senghor was deeply influenced by poets from the US such as Langston Hughes. Seat number 16 of the Académie was vacant after the Senegalese poet's death. He was ultimately replaced by another former president, Valéry Giscard d'Estaing.

Honours and awards

Senghor received several honours in the course of his life. He was made Grand-Croix of the Légion d'honneur, Grand-Croix of the l'Ordre national du Mérite, commander of arts and letters. He also received academic palms and the Grand Cross of the National Order of the Lion. His war exploits earned him the Reconnaissance Franco-alliée Medal of 1939–1945 and the Combattant Cross of 1939–1945. He received honorary doctorates from thirty-seven universities.

Senghor received the Commemorative Medal of the 2500th Anniversary of the founding of the Persian Empire on 14 October 1971.

On 13 November 1978, he was created a Knight of the Collar of the Order of Isabella the Catholic of Spain. Members of the order at the rank of Knight and above enjoy personal nobility and have the privilege of adding a golden heraldic mantle to their coats of arms. Those at the rank of the Collar also receive the official style "His or Her Most Excellent Lord".

That same year, Senghor received an honoris causa from the University of Salamanca.

In 1983, he was awarded the Dr. Leopold Lucas Prize by the University of Tübingen.

The Senghor French Language International University, named after him was officially opened in Alexandria in 1990.

In 1994, he was awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award by the African Studies Association; however, there was controversy about whether he met the standard of contributing "a lifetime record of outstanding scholarship in African studies and service to the Africanist community." Michael Mbabuike, president of the New York African Studies Association (NYASA), said that the award also honours those who have worked "to make the world a better place for mankind."

The airport of Dakar was renamed Aéroport International Léopold Sédar Senghor in 1996, on his 90th birthday.

The Passerelle Solférino in Paris was renamed after him in 2006, on the centenary of his birth.

Acknowledgement

Member of the Académie française
Member of the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques
Member of the Bayerische Akademie der Schönen Künste
Member of the Royal Academy of Morocco
Honorary Fellow of the Sahitya Akademi

Honorary degrees

Summary of Orders received

Senegalese national honours

Ribbon bar	Honour
	Grand Master & Collar of the National Order of the Lion
	Grand Master & Collar of the National Order of Merit

Foreign honours

Ribbon bar	Country	Honour
	Finland	Grand Cross of the Order of the White Rose of Finland
	France	Grand Cross of the National Order of the Legion of Honour
	France	Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit
	France	Commander of the Ordre des Palmes académiques (Officer: 13 October 1947)
	France	Commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
	France	Volunteer combatant's cross
	Iran	Commemorative Medal of the 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire
	Italy	Knight Grand Cross with Collar Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
	Morocco	First Class of the Order of Intellectual Merit
	Portugal	Grand Collar of the Military Order of Saint James of the Sword
	South Korea	Grand Cross of the Grand Order of Mugunghwa
	Spain	Knight of the Collar of the Order of Isabella the Catholic
	Tunisia	Grand Cordon of the Order of the Republic
	Tunisia	Grand Collar of the National Order of Merit of Tunisia
	Vatican	Knight of the Order of Pope Pius IX
	Yugoslavia	Great Star of the Order of the Yugoslav Star

Poetry

His poetry was widely acclaimed, and in 1978 he was awarded the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca. His poem "A l'appel de la race de Saba", published in 1936, was inspired by the entry of Italian troops in Addis Ababa. In 1948, Senghor compiled and edited a volume of Francophone poetry called Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache for which Jean-Paul Sartre wrote an introduction, entitled "Orphée Noir" (Black Orpheus).

For his epitaph was a poem he had written, namely:

Quand je serai mort, mes amis, couchez-moi sous Joal-l'Ombreuse.

Sur la colline au bord du Mamanguedy, près l'oreille du sanctuaire des Serpents.

Mais entre le Lion couchez-moi et l'aïeule Tening-Ndyae.

Quand je serai mort mes amis, couchez-moi sous Joal-la-Portugaise.

Des pierres du Fort vous ferez ma tombe, et les canons garderont le silence.

Deux lauriers roses-blanc et rose-embaumeront la Signare.

When I'm dead, my friends, place me below Shadowy Joal,

On the hill, by the bank of the Mamanguedy, near the ear of Serpents' Sanctuary.

But place me between the Lion and ancestral Tening-Ndyae.

When I'm dead, my friends, place me beneath Portuguese Joal.

Of stones from the Fort build my tomb, and cannons will keep quiet.

Two oleanders – white and pink – will perfume the Signare.

Négritude

Main article: Négritude

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Léopold Sédar Senghor with Habib Bourguiba and Mohamed Sayah, Carthage Palace, 1980

With Aimé Césaire and Léon Damas, Senghor created the concept of Négritude, an important intellectual movement that sought to assert and valorise what they believed to be distinctive African characteristics, values, and aesthetics. One of these African characteristics that Senghor theorised was asserted when he wrote "the Negro has reactions that are more lived, in the sense that they are more direct and concrete expressions of the sensation and of the stimulus, and so of the object itself with all its original qualities and power." This was a reaction against the too-strong dominance of French culture in the colonies, and against the perception that Africa did not have a culture developed enough to stand alongside that of Europe. In that respect négritude owes significantly to the pioneering work of Leo Frobenius.

Building upon historical research identifying ancient Egypt with black Africa, Senghor argued that sub-Saharan Africa and Europe are in fact part of the same cultural continuum, reaching from Egypt to classical Greece, through Rome to the European colonial powers of the modern age. Négritude was by no means—as it has in many quarters been perceived—an anti-white racism, but rather emphasised the importance of dialogue and exchange among different cultures (e.g., European, African, Arab, etc.).

A related concept later developed in Mobutu's Zaire is that of authenticité or Authenticity.

Décalage

In colloquial French, the term décalage is used to describe jetlag, lag or a general discrepancy between two things. However, Senghor uses the term to describe the unevenness in the African Diaspora. The complete phrase he uses is "Il s'agit, en réalité, d'un simple décalage—dans le temps et dans l'espace", meaning that between Black Africans and African Americans there exists an inconsistency, both temporally and spatially. The time element points to the advancing or delaying of a schedule or agenda, while the space aspect designates the displacing and shifting of an object. The term points to "a bias that refuses to pass over when one crosses the water". He asks, how can we expect any sort of solidarity or intimacy from two populations that diverged over 500 years ago?

Works of Senghor

Prière aux masques (c. 1935 – published in collected works during the 1940s).
Chants d'ombre (1945)
Hosties noires (1948)
Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache (1948)
La Belle Histoire de Leuk-le-Lièvre (1953)
Éthiopiques (1956)
Nocturnes (1961). (English tr. by Clive Wake and John O. Reed, Nocturnes, London: Heinemann Educational, 1969. African Writers Series 71)
Nation et voie africaine du socialisme (1961)
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin et la politique africaine (1962)
Poèmes (1964).
Lettres de d'hivernage (1973)
Élégies majeures (1979)
La Poésie de l'action: conversation avec Mohamed Aziza (1980)
Ce que je crois (1988)

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Sheldon Gellar. Senegal: an African nation between Islam and the West, Westview Press, 1995. 0813310202, 9780813310206
Mbow, Abdoulaye (30 April 2011). "Retour sur la tentative d'assassinat de Senghor et le meurtre de Demba Diop en 1967 : Quand la peine de mort était encore une réalité au Sénégal". L'OFFice (in French). Archived from the original on 8 July 2011. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
"President Leopold Senghor to Retire". Liberian Inaugural 3 December 1980: 8.
Stephan Haggard, Steven Benjamin Webb, World Bank. Voting for reform: democracy, political liberalization, and economic adjustment. World Bank Publications, 1994. ISBN 0-19-520987-7, ISBN 978-0-19-520987-7.
Hakim Adi, Marika Sherwood, Pan-African History: Political Figures from Africa and the Diaspora Since 1787, Routledge, 2003. ISBN 0-203-41780-1, ISBN 978-0-203-41780-5.
Amerasinghe, Terence P. (2009). Emerging World Law, Volume 1. Institute for Economic Democracy. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-933567-16-7.
"Letters from Thane Read asking Helen Keller to sign the World Constitution for world peace. 1961". Helen Keller Archive. American Foundation for the Blind. Retrieved 1 July 2023.
"Letter from World Constitution Coordinating Committee to Helen, enclosing current materials". Helen Keller Archive. American Foundation for the Blind. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
"Preparing earth constitution | Global Strategies & Solutions | The Encyclopedia of World Problems". The Encyclopedia of World Problems | Union of International Associations (UIA). Retrieved 15 July 2023.
"Ginette Charlotte Andrée Yvonne Eboué épouse Senghor - les Français Libres".
^ "Léopold Senghor". The Daily Telegraph. 21 December 2001. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
"Au Sénégal, dernier hommage à Colette Senghor, épouse et muse de l'ancien président". 28 November 2019.
"Africa mourns Senegal's Senghor". BBC News. 22 December 2001. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
"J'ai honte, par Erik Orsenna". www.sangonet.com. Retrieved 7 February 2024.
Vaillant, Janet G (2002). "Homage to Léopold Sédar Senghor: 1906-2001". Research in African Literatures. 33 (4): 17–24. JSTOR 3820495. Retrieved 6 December 2020.
Vaillant, Janet G. (2002). "Homage to Léopold Sédar Senghor: 1906-2001". Research in African Literatures. 33 (4): 17–24. JSTOR 3820495. Retrieved 6 December 2020.
^ "Grand State Banquet". Archived from the original on 5 March 2016.
article 13, Reglamento de la Orden Isabella la Católica (1998)
^ Boletín Oficial del Estado.
Peter L. Berger, Dialog zwischen religiosen Traditionen in einem Zeitalter der Relativitat, Mohr-Siebeck, 2011. ISBN 978-3-16-150792-2.
"Distinguished Africanist Award 2009" Archived 11 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine African Studies Association.
Bensaid, Alexandra, and Andrew Whitehead (1995), "Literature: Award to Senghor Triggers Debate" IPS-Inter Press Service, 18 April 1995, accessed via the commercial service Lexis/Nexis, 30 December 2008.
"Découvrez des lieux uniques, vivez une expérience inoubliable". www.aeroportdakar.com. Retrieved 7 February 2024.
George, Rosemary Marangoly (2013), Indian English and the Fiction of National Literature, Cambridge University Press, p. 144, ISBN 978-1-107-04000-7 Quote: Poet, President of Senegal, and theorist of “Négritude” Leopold Sangor was elected the first Honorary Fellow of the Sahitya Akademi in 1974. This group was to complement the category of “Fellows of the Akademi” whose number was at no time to exceed twenty-one in total and who were to be living Indian writers of undisputed excellence — “the immortals of literature.”
Government of the French Republic (15 October 1947). "Ministère de l'Éducation Nationale". gallica.bnf.fr. Retrieved 10 September 2023.
"Sengor u Ohridu i Strugi". Slobodna Dalmacija (9462): 1. 1 September 1975.

External links

Biography and guide to collected works: African Studies Centre, Leiden
Histoire des Signares de Gorée du 17ie au 19ie siécle. Poèmes de Léopold Sédar Senghor
Biographie par l'Assemblée nationale
Biographie par l'Academie française
President Dia by William Mbaye (2012, english version) – Youtube – Political documentary – 1957 to 1963 in Senegal (55')
Sangonet
Préface par Léopold Sédar Senghor à l'ouvrage collectif sur Le Nouvel Ordre Économique Mondiale édité par Hans Köchler (1980) (facsimilé)
Semaine spéciale Senghor à l'occasion du centenaire de sa naissance
Texte sur le site de Sudlangues Mamadou Cissé, "De l'assimilation à l'appropriation: essai de glottopolitique senghorienne»
Page on the French National Assembly website
« Racisme? Non, mais Alliance Spirituelle »

v t e Presidents of Senegal
Léopold Sédar Senghor Abdou Diouf Abdoulaye Wade Macky Sall Bassirou Diomaye Faye

v t e Chairpersons of the Organisation of African Unity and the African Union
Organisation of African Unity	Selassie Nasser Nkrumah Ankrah Selassie Mobutu Boumédiène Ahidjo Kaunda Daddah Hassan II Gowon Barre Amin Ramgoolam Bongo Nimeiry Tolbert Senghor Stevens Moi Mengistu Nyerere Diouf Nguesso Kaunda Traoré Mubarak Museveni Babangida Diouf Mubarak Ben Ali Meles Biya Mugabe Compaoré Bouteflika Eyadéma Chiluba Mwanawasa
African Union	Mbeki Chissano Obasanjo Nguesso Kufuor Kikwete Gaddafi Mutharika Obiang Boni Hailemariam Abdel Aziz Mugabe Déby Condé Kagame Sisi Ramaphosa Tshisekedi Sall Assoumani Ghazouani

Serer topics

Peoples

Religion

Key topics	Ciiɗ Classical Ndut teachings Creation myth Criticism Festivals Jaaniiw Junjung Lamane Pangool Religion Sadax Saltigue Symbolism Women Xooy
Supreme deities	Kokh Kox Koox Kopé Tiatie Cac Roog (main)
Other deities	Kumba Njaay Takhar Tiurakh
Sacred sites	Fatick Sine River Sine-Saloum Somb Point of Sangomar Tattaguine Tukar Yaboyabo

History

Demographics

By region	Gambia Mauritania Senegal Serer country
Languages	Cangin Lehar/Laalaa Ndut Noon Palor Safen Serer

Culture

Royalty

Kings (Maad) and Lamanes (ancient kings / landowners)	Lamane Jegan Joof Maad a Sinig Kumba Ndoffene Famak Joof Maad a Sinig Kumba Ndoffene Famak Joof Maad a Sinig Kumba Ndoffene Fa Ndeb Joof Maad a Sinig Mahecor Joof Maad a Sinig Maysa Wali Jaxateh Manneh Maad a Sinig Ama Joof Gnilane Faye Joof Maad Ndaah Njemeh Joof Maad Semou Njekeh Joof
Queens & Queen Mothers	Lingeer Fatim Beye Lingeer Ndoye Demba Lingeer Ngoné Dièye Lingeer Selbeh Ndoffene Joof Serer maternal clans
Dynasties and royal houses	Faye family Guelowar Joof family Joos Maternal Dynasty The Royal House of Boureh Gnilane Joof The Royal House of Jogo Siga Joof The Royal House of Semou Njekeh Joof
Families and royal titles	Buumi Faye family Joof family Lamane Lingeer Loul Maad Maad Saloum Maad a Sinig Ngum family Njie family Sarr family Sene family Teigne Thilas

Related people

v t e Laureates of the Struga Poetry Evenings Golden Wreath
Robert Rozhdestvensky (1966) Bulat Okudzhava (1967) László Nagy (1968) Mak Dizdar (1969) Miodrag Pavlović (1970) W. H. Auden (1971) Pablo Neruda (1972) Eugenio Montale (1973) Fazıl Hüsnü Dağlarca (1974) Léopold Sédar Senghor (1975) Eugène Guillevic (1976) Artur Lundkvist (1977) Rafael Alberti (1978) Miroslav Krleža (1979) Hans Magnus Enzensberger (1980) Blaže Koneski (1981) Nichita Stănescu (1982) Sachchidananda Vatsyayan 'Ajneya' (1983) Andrei Voznesensky (1984) Yiannis Ritsos (1985) Allen Ginsberg (1986) Tadeusz Różewicz (1987) Desanka Maksimović (1988) Thomas Shapcott (1989) Justo Jorge Padrón (1990) Joseph Brodsky (1991) Ferenc Juhász (1992) Gennadiy Aygi (1993) Ted Hughes (1994) Yehuda Amichai (1995) Makoto Ooka (1996) Adunis (1997) Liu Banjiu (1998) Yves Bonnefoy (1999) Edoardo Sanguineti (2000) Seamus Heaney (2001) Slavko Mihalić (2002) Tomas Tranströmer (2003) Vasco Graça Moura (2004) William S. Merwin (2005) Nancy Morejón (2006) Mahmoud Darwish (2007) Fatos Arapi (2008) Tomaž Šalamun (2009) Lyubomir Levchev (2010) Mateja Matevski (2011) Mongane Wally Serote (2012) José Emilio Pacheco (2013) Ko Un (2014) Bei Dao (2015) Margaret Atwood (2016) Charles Simic (2017) Adam Zagajewski (2018) Ana Blandiana (2019) Amir Or (2020) Carol Ann Duffy (2021) Shuntarō Tanikawa (2022) Vlada Urošević (2023) Jean-Pierre Siméon (2024)

Laureates of the Struga Poetry Evenings Golden Wreath

Robert Rozhdestvensky (1966)
Bulat Okudzhava (1967)
László Nagy (1968)
Mak Dizdar (1969)
Miodrag Pavlović (1970)
W. H. Auden (1971)
Pablo Neruda (1972)
Eugenio Montale (1973)
Fazıl Hüsnü Dağlarca (1974)
Léopold Sédar Senghor (1975)
Eugène Guillevic (1976)
Artur Lundkvist (1977)
Rafael Alberti (1978)
Miroslav Krleža (1979)
Hans Magnus Enzensberger (1980)
Blaže Koneski (1981)
Nichita Stănescu (1982)
Sachchidananda Vatsyayan 'Ajneya' (1983)
Andrei Voznesensky (1984)
Yiannis Ritsos (1985)
Allen Ginsberg (1986)
Tadeusz Różewicz (1987)
Desanka Maksimović (1988)
Thomas Shapcott (1989)
Justo Jorge Padrón (1990)
Joseph Brodsky (1991)
Ferenc Juhász (1992)
Gennadiy Aygi (1993)
Ted Hughes (1994)
Yehuda Amichai (1995)
Makoto Ooka (1996)
Adunis (1997)
Liu Banjiu (1998)
Yves Bonnefoy (1999)
Edoardo Sanguineti (2000)
Seamus Heaney (2001)
Slavko Mihalić (2002)
Tomas Tranströmer (2003)
Vasco Graça Moura (2004)
William S. Merwin (2005)
Nancy Morejón (2006)
Mahmoud Darwish (2007)
Fatos Arapi (2008)
Tomaž Šalamun (2009)
Lyubomir Levchev (2010)
Mateja Matevski (2011)
Mongane Wally Serote (2012)
José Emilio Pacheco (2013)
Ko Un (2014)
Bei Dao (2015)
Margaret Atwood (2016)
Charles Simic (2017)
Adam Zagajewski (2018)
Ana Blandiana (2019)
Amir Or (2020)
Carol Ann Duffy (2021)
Shuntarō Tanikawa (2022)
Vlada Urošević (2023)
Jean-Pierre Siméon (2024)

v t e Académie française seat 16
Jean Sirmond (1634) Jean de Montereul (1649) François Tallemant l'Aîné (1651) Simon de la Loubère (1693) Claude Sallier (1729) Jean-Gilles du Coëtlosquet (1761) Anne-Pierre, marquis de Montesquiou-Fézensac (1784) Antoine-Vincent Arnault (1803) Armand-Emmanuel de Vignerot du Plessis, duc de Richelieu (1816) Bon-Joseph Dacier (1822) Pierre François Tissot (1833) Félix Dupanloup (1854) Gaston Audiffret-Pasquier (1878) Alexandre Ribot (1906) Henri-Robert (1923) Charles Maurras (1938) Antoine de Lévis-Mirepoix (1953) Léopold Sédar Senghor (1983) Valéry Giscard d'Estaing (2003)

Académie française seat 16

Jean Sirmond (1634)
Jean de Montereul (1649)
François Tallemant l'Aîné (1651)
Simon de la Loubère (1693)
Claude Sallier (1729)
Jean-Gilles du Coëtlosquet (1761)
Anne-Pierre, marquis de Montesquiou-Fézensac (1784)
Antoine-Vincent Arnault (1803)
Armand-Emmanuel de Vignerot du Plessis, duc de Richelieu (1816)
Bon-Joseph Dacier (1822)
Pierre François Tissot (1833)
Félix Dupanloup (1854)
Gaston Audiffret-Pasquier (1878)
Alexandre Ribot (1906)
Henri-Robert (1923)
Charles Maurras (1938)
Antoine de Lévis-Mirepoix (1953)
Léopold Sédar Senghor (1983)
Valéry Giscard d'Estaing (2003)

v t e Sahitya Akademi Fellowship
1968–1980	Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1968) D. R. Bendre, Tarasankar Bandyopadhyay, Sumitranandan Pant, C. Rajagopalachari (1969) Vaikom Muhammad Basheer, Firaq Gorakhpuri, Vishnu Sakharam Khandekar, Viswanatha Satyanarayana (1970) Kaka Kalelkar, Gopinath Kaviraj, Gurbaksh Singh, Kalindi Charan Panigrahi (1971) Masti Venkatesha Iyengar, Mangharam Udharam Malkani, Nilmoni Phukan, Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi, Sukumar Sen, V. R. Trivedi (1973) T. P. Meenakshisundaram (1975) Atmaram Ravaji Deshpande, Jainendra Kumar, Kuppali Venkatappa Puttappa 'Kuvempu', V. Raghavan, Mahadevi Varma (1979)
1981–2000	Umashankar Joshi, K. R. Srinivasa Iyengar, K. Shivaram Karanth (1985) Mulk Raj Anand, Vinayaka Krishna Gokak, Laxmanshastri Balaji Joshi, Amritlal Nagar, Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai, Annada Shankar Ray (1989) Nagarjun, Balamani Amma, Ashapurna Devi, Qurratulain Hyder, Vishnu Bhikaji Kolte, Kanhu Charan Mohanty, P. T. Narasimhachar, R. K. Narayan, Harbhajan Singh (1994) Jayakanthan, Vinda Karandikar, Vidya Niwas Mishra, Subhash Mukhopadhyay, Raja Rao, Sachidananda Routray, Krishna Sobti (1996) Syed Abdul Malik, K. S. Narasimhaswamy, Gunturu Seshendra Sarma, Rajendra Shah, Ram Vilas Sharma, N. Khelchandra Singh (1999) Ramchandra Narayan Dandekar, Rehman Rahi (2000)
2001–present	Ram Nath Shastri (2001) Kaifi Azmi, Govind Chandra Pande, Nilamani Phookan, Bhisham Sahni (2002) Kovilan, U. R. Ananthamurthy, Vijaydan Detha, Bhadriraju Krishnamurti, Amrita Pritam, Shankha Ghosh, Nirmal Verma (2004) Manoj Das, Vishnu Prabhakar (2006) Anita Desai, Kartar Singh Duggal, Ravindra Kelekar (2007) Gopi Chand Narang, Ramakanta Rath (2009) Chandranath Mishra Amar, Kunwar Narayan, Bholabhai Patel, Kedarnath Singh, Khushwant Singh (2010) Raghuveer Chaudhari, Arjan Hasid, Sitakant Mahapatra, M. T. Vasudevan Nair, Asit Rai, Satya Vrat Shastri (2013) Santeshivara Lingannaiah Bhyrappa, C. Narayana Reddy (2014) Nirendranath Chakravarty, Gurdial Singh (2016)
Honorary Fellows	Léopold Sédar Senghor (1974) Edward C. Dimock, Jr., Daniel H. H. Ingalls Sr., Kamil Zvelebil, Ji Xianlin (1996) Vassilis Vitsaxis, Eugene Chelyshev (2002) Ronald E. Asher (2007) Abhimanyu Unnuth (2013)
Premchand Fellowship	Intizar Hussain (2005), Kishwar Naheed (2016)
Ananda Coomaraswamy Fellowship	Senake Bandaranayake, Chie Nakane, Azad N. Shamatov (1996)

World Constitutional Convention call signatories

Constitution for the Federation of Earth

Countries

Head of governments

Presidents	Edgar Faure Francisco Orlich Bolmarcich José Figueres Ferrer Julius Nyerere Léopold Sédar Senghor Muhammad Ayub Khan Otilio Ulate Blanco
Vice-presidents	Jaramogi Oginga Odinga
Prime Ministers	Clement Attlee Milton Margai Tetsu Katayama
Governors	Culbert Olson Hiroo Ōhara
Mayors	E.C. Quaye Setsuo Yamada Shinzo Hamai

Politicians

International

Cornelis Berkhouwer

National

Religious leaders

Nobel laureates

Physics	Alfred Kastler C. F. Powell Hideki Yukawa Max Born
Chemistry	Frederick Sanger (twice) Otto Hahn
Physiology or Medicine	Albert Szent-Györgyi Dickinson W. Richards Hermann Joseph Muller Macfarlane Burnet
Literature	Bertrand Russell Salvatore Quasimodo
Peace	John Boyd Orr Joseph Rotblat
Multiple	Linus Pauling (Chemistry & Peace)

Scientists

Human rights activists

Martin Luther King Jr.

Humanitarians

André and Magda Trocmé (Righteous Among the Nations)
Brock Chisholm

Veterans

Hugh B. Hester

Varied Fields

Arthur Ernest Bishop (inventor)
David Alfaro Siqueiros (Social realist)
E. M. L. Odjidja (teacher)
Edward J. Sparling (educator)
Erich Kahler (scholar)
Gregorio Bermann (humanist)
Gerard Piel (science editor)
Henri Laugier (scholar)
Hugh J. Schonfield (scholar & pacifist)
Kaoru Ōta (union leader)
Kay Boyle (writer)
Lloyd Morain (humanist)
Mark Van Doren (writer & scholar)
Maurício Campos de Medeiros (teacher)
Oscar Niemeyer (architect)
Ōuchi Hyōei (economist)
Rameshwari Nehru (social worker)
Satish Gujral (artist)
Shigeri Yamataka (feminist)
Sophia Wadia (theosophist)
Stanley Slotkin (businessman)
Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)
Tamaki Uemura (YWCA executive)
Tano Jōdai (teacher & pacifist)
Toyohiko Kagawa (pacifist)

Other

Source: , ,
Category

v t e Coups d'état in Africa since 1960
1960s	Republic of the Congo (1960) Ethiopia (1960) Rwanda (1961) French Algeria (1961) Somalia (1961) Senegal (1962) Algeria (1962) Dahomey (1963) Togo (1963) Gabon (1964) Algeria (1965) Dahomey (1965) Burundi (1965) Democratic Republic of the Congo (1965) Central African Republic (1965–66) Burundi (July 1966) Burundi (November 1966) Ghana (1966) Upper Volta (1966) Nigeria (January 1966) Nigeria (July 1966) Republic of the Congo (1966) Dahomey (1967) Ghana (1967) Togo (1967) Algeria (1967) Sierra Leone (1968) Mali (1968) Republic of the Congo (1968) Dahomey (1969) Sudan (1969) Libya (September 1969) Somalia (1969) Libya (December 1969)
1970s	Lesotho (1970) Uganda (1971) Morocco (1971) Sudan (1971) Dahomey (1972) Ghana (1972) Morocco (1972) Republic of the Congo (1972) Rwanda (1973) Upper Volta (1974) Uganda (1974) Niger (1974) Ethiopia (1974) Comoros (1975) Sudan (1975) Libya (1975) Nigeria (1975) Chad (1975) Comoros (1976) Burundi (1976) Nigeria (1976) Sudan (1976) Benin (1977) Seychelles (1977) Sudan (1977) Uganda (June 1977) Angola (1977) Somalia (1978) Comoros (1978) Ghana (1978) Mauritania (1978) Mauritania (1979) Ghana (1979) Equatorial Guinea (1979) Central African Republic (1979)
1980s	Mauritania (1980) Liberia (1980) Guinea-Bissau (1980) Upper Volta (1980) Mauritania (1981) Gambia (1981) Central African Republic (1981) Ghana (1981) Seychelles (1981) Central African Republic (1982) Kenya (1982) Upper Volta (1982) Upper Volta (February 1983) Upper Volta (August 1983) Nigeria (1983) Mauritania (1984) Cameroon (1984) Guinea (1984) Uganda (1985) Nigeria (1985) Sudan (1985) Guinea (1985) Liberia (1985) Lesotho (1986) Togo (1986) Burkina Faso (1987) Burundi (1987) Republic of the Congo (1987) Tunisia (1987) Transkei (1987) Benin (1988) São Tomé and Príncipe (1988) Burkina Faso (1989) Ethiopia (1989) Chad (1989) Sudan (1989)
1990s	Sudan (1990) Nigeria (1990) Zambia (1990) Chad (1990) Ciskei (1990) Venda (1990) Mali (1991) Lesotho (1991) Sudan (1992) Sierra Leone (1992) Algeria (1992) Sierra Leone (December 1992) Burundi (1993) Libya (1993) Nigeria (1993) Bophuthatswana (1994) Gambia (1994) Lesotho (1994) Liberia (1994) Comoros (1995) São Tomé and Príncipe (1995) Sierra Leone (1996) Guinea (1996) Burundi (1996) Niger (1996) Sierra Leone (August 1996) Zambia (1997) Sierra Leone (1997) Guinea-Bissau (1998) Republic of the Congo (1998) Niger (1999) Côte d'Ivoire (1999)
2000s	Côte d'Ivoire (2001) Burundi (2001) Central African Republic (2001) Côte d'Ivoire (2002) Central African Republic (2002) Central African Republic (2003) Mauritania (2003) Guinea-Bissau (2003) São Tomé and Príncipe (2003) Burkina Faso (2003) Chad (2004) Sudan (2004) Equatorial Guinea (2004) Democratic Republic of the Congo (2004) Togo (2005) Mauritania (2005) Chad (2006) Madagascar (2006) Guinea (2008) Mauritania (2008) Sudan (2008) Madagascar (2009)
2010s	Madagascar (2010) Niger (2010) Niger (2011) Guinea-Bissau (2011) Mali (March 2012) Guinea-Bissau (2012) Mali (April 2012) Sudan (2012) Eritrea (2013) Chad (2013) Egypt (2013) Libya (October 2013) Central African Republic (2013) Libya (2014) Lesotho (2014) The Gambia (2014) Burundi (2015) Burkina Faso (2015) Burkina Faso (2016) Libya (2016) Zimbabwe (2017) Gabon (2019) Sudan (2019) Ethiopia (2019)
2020s	Mali (2020) Central African Republic (2021) Niger (2021) Mali (2021) Tunisia (2021) Guinea (2021) Sudan (September 2021) Sudan (October 2021) Burkina Faso (January 2022) Guinea-Bissau (2022) Burkina Faso (September 2022) São Tomé and Príncipe (2022) Gambia (2022) Sudan (2023) Niger (2023) Gabon (2023) Burkina Faso (2023) Sierra Leone (2023) Guinea-Bissau (2023) Nigeria (2024) Democratic Republic of the Congo (2024)
: successful coup : self-coup no sign: attempted coup

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