Shafi'i school

(Redirected from Sha'afi) School of Islamic jurisprudence "Shafi" redirects here. For other uses, see Shafi (disambiguation).

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The Shafi'i school or Shafi'i Mazhab (Arabic: ٱلْمَذْهَب ٱلشَّافِعِيّ, romanized: al-madhhab al-shāfiʿī) is one of the four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence within Sunni Islam. It was founded by the Muslim scholar, jurist, and traditionist al-Shafi'i (c. 767–820 CE), "the father of Muslim jurisprudence", in the early 9th century.

The other three schools of Sunnī jurisprudence are Ḥanafī, Mālikī and Ḥanbalī. Like the other schools of fiqh, Shafiʽi recognize the First Four Caliphs as the Islamic prophet Muhammad's rightful successors and relies on the Qurʾān and the "sound" books of Ḥadīths as primary sources of law. The Shafi'i school affirms the authority of both divine law-giving (the Qurʾān and the Sunnah) and human speculation regarding the Law. Where passages of Qurʾān and/or the Ḥadīths are ambiguous, the school seeks guidance of Qiyās (analogical reasoning). The Ijmā' (consensus of scholars or of the community) was "accepted but not stressed". The school rejected the dependence on local traditions as the source of legal precedent and rebuffed the Ahl al-Ra'y (personal opinion) and the Istiḥsān (juristic discretion).

The Shafiʽi school was widely followed in the Middle East until the rise of the Ottomans and the Safavids. Traders and merchants helped to spread Shafiʽi Islam across the Indian Ocean, as far as India and Southeast Asia. The Shafiʽi school is now predominantly found in parts of the Hejaz and the Levant, Lower Egypt, Somalia, Yemen, Malaysia, and Indonesia, and among the Kurdish people, in the North Caucasus and generally all across the Indian Ocean (Horn of Africa and the Swahili Coast in Africa and coastal South Asia and Southeast Asia).

One who ascribes to the Shafi'i school is called a Shafi'i, Shafi'ite or Shafi'ist (Arabic: ٱلشَّافِعِيّ, romanized: al-shāfiʿī, pl. ٱلشَّافِعِيَّة, al-shāfiʿiyya or ٱلشَّوَافِع, al-shawāfiʿ).

A concise guide to Arkan ul Iman and Arkan ul Islam is available: https://archive.org/details/Salah_Guide

Principles

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The fundamental principle of the Shafiʽi thought depends on the idea that "to every act performed by a believer who is subject to the Law there corresponds a statute belonging to the Revealed Law or the Shari'a". This statute is either presented as such in the Qurʾān or the Sunnah or it is possible, by means of analogical reasoning (Qiyas), to infer it from the Qurʾān or the Sunnah.

As-Shafiʽi was the first jurist to insist that Ḥadīth were the decisive source of law (over traditional doctrines of earlier thoughts). In order of priority, the sources of jurisprudence according to the Shafiʽi thought, are:

The Foundation (al asl)

Qurʾān — the sacred scripture of Islam.
Sunnah — defined by Al-Shāfiʿī as "the sayings, the acts, and the tacit acquiescence of Prophet Muhammad as related in solidly established traditions".

The school rejected dependence on local community practice as the source of legal precedent.

Ma'qul al-asl

Qiyas with Legal Proof or Dalil Shari'a — "Analogical reasoning as applied to the deduction of juridical principles from the Qurʾān and the Sunnah."
- Analogy by Cause (Qiyas al-Ma'na/Qiyas al-Illa)
- Analogy by Resemblance (Qiyas al-Shabah)
Ijmā' — consensus of scholars or of the community ("accepted but not stressed").

The concept of Istishab was first introduced by the later Shafiʽi scholars. Al-Shafiʽi also postulated that "penal sanctions lapse in cases where repentance precedes punishment".

Views on FGM

The school does not differentiate male and female circumcision and considers female circumcision (Female Genital Mutilation) alongside male circumcision to be wajib (obligatory). This makes it unique among the four primary Sunni schools of Jurisprudence as the only one to fully require FGM.

Risālah

The groundwork legal text for the Shafiʽi law is al-Shafiʽi's al-Risala ("the Message"), composed in Egypt. It outlines the principles of Shafiʽi legal thought as well as the derived jurisprudence. A first version of the Risālah, al-Risalah al-Qadima, produced by al-Shafiʽi during his stay in Baghdad, is currently lost.

Proximity of Shia and Shafi'i

The early scholars of Shi’i origin shared the same theological views as those of Sunni origin but differed only in their political views.

Here are some key similarities between Shia and Sunni Islam:

Core Beliefs: Both Shia and Sunni Muslims share the fundamental beliefs of Islam, including the belief in one God (Allah), the prophethood of Muhammad, and the importance of the Quran as the holy book.

Five Pillars of Islam: Both sects practice the Five Pillars of Islam, which include: Shahada: The declaration of faith. Salat: Performing the five daily prayers. Zakat: Giving alms to the poor. Sawm: Fasting during the month of Ramadan. Hajj: Pilgrimage to Mecca, if financially and physically possible.

Quran: Both Shia and Sunni Muslims regard the Quran as the ultimate source of guidance and consider it to be the literal word of God. Prophet Muhammad (S): Both sects hold Prophet Muhammad in the highest regard and follow his teachings and practices (Sunnah). Ethical and Moral Values: Both Shia and Sunni Muslims emphasize similar ethical and moral values, such as honesty, charity, justice, and compassion.

Festivals: Both celebrate major Islamic festivals like Eid al-Fitr (marking the end of Ramadan) and Eid al-Adha (commemorating the willingness of Ibrahim to sacrifice his son). While there are differences in leadership and certain practices, these core similarities highlight the shared foundation of faith and practice in Islam.

"Shafi'i" jurists, believe that "In the Name of God, the Most Merciful, the Most Merciful" is part of all the surahs of the Qur'an, except the Surah At-Tawba. And "Shiia" jurists, agree with the Shafi'i opinion.

Differences from Mālikī and Ḥanafī thoughts

Al-Shāfiʿī fundamentally criticised the concept of judicial conformism (the Istiḥsan).

With Mālikī view

Shafiʽi school argued that various existing local traditions may not reflect the practice of Muhammad (a critique to the Mālikī thought). The local traditions, according to the Shāfiʿī understanding, thus cannot be treated as sources of law.

With Ḥanafī view

The Shafiʽi school rebuffed the Ahl al-Ra'y (personal opinion) and the Istiḥsān (juristic discretion). It insisted that the rules of the jurists could no longer be invoked in legal issues without additional authentications. The school refused to admit doctrines that had no textual basis in either the Qurʾān or Ḥadīths, but were based on the opinions of Islamic scholars (the Imams).
The Shafiʽi thinking believes that the methods may help to "substitute man for God and Prophet Muhammad, the only legitimate legislators" and "true knowledge and correct interpretation of religious obligations would suffer from arbitrary judgments infused with error".

History

Al-Shāfiʿī (c. 767–820 AD) visited most of the great centres of Islamic jurisprudence in the Middle East during the course of his travels and amassed a comprehensive knowledge of the different ways of legal theory. He was a student of Mālik ibn Anas, the founder of the Mālikī school of law, and of Muḥammad Shaybānī, the Baghdad Ḥanafī intellectual.

The Shafiʽi thoughts were initially spread by Al-Shafiʽi students in Cairo and Baghdad. By the 10th century, the holy cities of Mecca and Medina and Syria also became chief centres of Shafiʽi ideas.
The school later exclusively held the judgeships in Syria, Kirman, Bukhara and the Khorasan. It also flourished in northern Mesopotamia and in Daylam. The Ghurids also endorsed the Shafiʽis in the 11th and 12th centuries AD.
Under Salah al-Din, the Shafiʽi school again became the paramount thought in Egypt (the region had come under Shi'a influence prior to this period). It was the "official school" of the Ayyubid dynasty and remained prominent during Mamlūk period also. Baybars, the Mamlūk sultan, later appointed judges from all four madhabs in Egypt.
Traders and merchants helped to spread Shafiʽi Islam across the Indian Ocean, as far India and the Southeast Asia.

Under Ottomans and the Safavids

Rise of the Ottomans in the 16th century resulted in the replacement of Shafiʽi judges by Ḥanafī scholars.
Under the Safavids, Shafiʽi preeminence in Central Asia was replaced by Shi'a Islam.
After the beginning of the Safavid rule, the presence of the Shafi's in Iran was limited to the western regions of the country.

Distribution

The Shafiʽi school is presently predominant in the following parts of the world:

Middle East and North Africa: Parts of Hejaz, the Levant (Palestine, Jordan and a significant number in Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq), Lower Egypt, among Sunnis in Iran and Yemen, and the Kurdish people.
Eurasia: Northern regions of Azerbaijan, Dagestan, Chechen and Ingush regions of the North Caucasus.
On the Indian Ocean
- Africa: Djibouti, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea and the Swahili Coast (Kenya and Tanzania).
- South Asia: Maldives, Sri Lanka and southern India (Kerala, southern Tamil Nadu, western Karnataka).
- Southeast Asia: Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Myanmar, Thailand, Brunei, and the southern Philippines.

The Shafiʽi school is one of the largest school of Sunni madhhabs by number of adherents. The demographic data by each fiqh, for each nation, is unavailable and the relative demographic size are estimates.

Notable Shafiʽis

Al-Muzani (c.791-878)
Al-Ghazali (c.1058-1111)
Yahya ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi (c.1230-1277)
Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (c.1150-1209)
Ibn al-Nafis (c.1213-1288)
Ibn Kathir (c.1300-1373)
Izz al-Din ibn 'Abd al-Salam (c.1182-1262)
Ibn Daqiq al-'Id (c.1228-1302)
Al-Suyuti (c.1445-1505)

In Hadith:

In Tafsir:

In Fiqh:

In Usul al-Fiqh:

In Arabic language studies:

In Theology:

In Philosophy:

In Sufism

In history

Statesmen

Contemporary Shafiʽi scholars

From Middle East and North Africa:

From Southeast Asia:

From South Asia:

References

Notes

1. "The law provides sanctions for any religious practice other than the Sunni Shafiʽi doctrine of Islam and for prosecution of converts from Islam, and bans proselytizing for any religion except Islam."

Citations

^ Hallaq 2009, p. 31.
^ Saeed 2008, p. 17.
^ "Abū ʿAbd Allāh ash-Shāfiʿī". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 8 April 2024.
^ Ramadan 2006, pp. 27–77.
Kamali 2008, p. 77.
^ Shanay, Bulend. "Shafi'iyyah". University of Cumbria.
^ "Shāfiʿī". Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Hasyim 2005, pp. 75–77.
^ Chaumont, Éric (1997). "Al-Shafi". The Encyclopedia Of Islam. Vol. IX. Brill. pp. 182–183.
^ Heffening, W. (1934). "Al-Shafi'i". The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. IV. E. J. Brill. pp. 252–53.
^ Christelow 2000, p. 377.
^ Pouwels 2002, p. 139.
^ "Islamic Jurisprudence & Law". University of North Carolina.
^ "International Religious Freedom Report: Comoros" (PDF). United States Department of State. 2013.
Ahmady, Kameel 2019: From Border to Border. Comprehensive research study on identity and ethnicity in Iran. Mehri publication, London. p 440.
^ Esposito, John L., ed. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. pp. 285–86. ISBN 978-0-19-512558-0.
^ Al-Zarkashi 1393, p. 209.
Brown 2014, p. 39.
"Religious views on female genital mutilation", Misplaced Pages, 2024-10-28, retrieved 2024-11-13
Khadduri 1961, pp. 14–22.
^ Chaumont, Éric (1997). "Al-Shafi'iyya". The Encyclopedia Of Islam. Vol. IX. Brill. pp. 185–86.
Istislah The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, Oxford University Press
Istihsan The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, Oxford University Press
Ridgeon 2003, p. 259–262.
"Istiḥsān". Encyclopædia Britannica.
"Istislah". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 16 October 2014.
"Istihsan". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 11 October 2014.
^ Hallaq 2009a, p. 58–71.
Haddad 2007, p. 121.
Dutton, p. 16.
Naghshbandi, Sayed Navid (2022-08-23). "The First Iranian Shafi'is and Their Role in the Propagation of the Shafi'i School During the Fourth Century AH in Iran". Iranian Journal for the History of Islamic Civilization. 55 (1): 119–146. doi:10.22059/jhic.2022.335807.654309. ISSN 2228-7906.
"Iran". United States Department of State. Retrieved 2023-09-24.
"The arrival of Seljuks at Khorasan and the sufferings of Nishapurian Shafi'is -Ash'aris".
Ahmady, Kameel 2019: From Border to Border. Comprehensive research study on identity and ethnicity in Iran. Mehri publication, London. pg. 440.
"Ahmady, Kameel. Investigation of the Ethnic Identity Challenge in Iran- A Peace-Oriented, EFFLATOUNIA - Multidisciplinary Journal, Vol. 5 No. 2 (2021) pp. 3242-70". EFFLATOUNIA - Multidisciplinary Journal.
"Religious Governance in Syria Amid Territorial Fragmentation".

Bibliography

Primary sources

Al-Zarkashi, Badr al-Din (1393). Al-Bahr Al-Muhit Vol VI.
Khadduri, Majid (1961). 'Islamic Jurisprudence: Shafiʽi's Risala. Johns Hopkins University Press.
Al-Shafiʽi: The Epistle on Legal Theory - Risalah fi usul al-fiqh. Translated by Lowry, Joseph. New York University Press. 2013. ISBN 978-0814769980.

Scholarly sources

Hallaq, Wael B. (2009). An Introduction to Islamic Law. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521678735.
Saeed, Abdullah (2008). The Qur'an: An Introduction. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415421256.
Ramadan, Hisham M. (2006). Understanding Islamic Law: From Classical to Contemporary. Rowman Altamira. ISBN 978-0-7591-0991-9.
Kamali, Mohammad Hashim (2008). Shari'ah Law: An Introduction. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 978-1851685653.
Hasyim, Syafiq (2005). Understanding Women in Islam: An Indonesian Perspective. Equinox. ISBN 978-9793780191.
Hallaq, Wael B. (2009a). Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521861472.
Brown, Jonathan A. C. (2014). Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 978-1780744209.
Ridgeon, Lloyd (2003). Major World Religions: From Their Origins to the Present. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415297967.
Dutton, Yasin. The Origins of Islamic Law: The Qurʼan, the Muwaṭṭaʼ and Madinan ʻAmal.
Haddad, Gibril F. (2007). The Four Imams and Their Schools. Muslim Academic Trust, London.
Pouwels, Randall L. (2002). Horn and Crescent: Cultural Change and Traditional Islam. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521523097.
Christelow, Allan (2000). Levtzion, Nehemia; Pouwels, Randall (eds.). "Islamic Law in Africa," in The History of Islam in Africa. Ohio University Press. ISBN 978-0821412978.

External links

Shafi'iyyah (University of Cumbria)

[https://archive.org/details/Salah_Guide Al Falah (A concise guide to Arkan ul Iman and Arkan ul Islam as pdf)]

v t e Shafi'i school
by century (AH / AD)
2nd/8th	Al-Shafi'i (founder of the school; 767–820) Al-Muzani (791/92–878)
3rd/9th	Al-Humaydi (d. 834) Harith al-Muhasibi (781–857) Bukhari (810–870) Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj (d. 875) Ibn Majah (824–887) Al-Nasai (d. 915) Ibn Khuzaymah (837–923) Ibn al-Mundhir (855–930) Abu Hasan al-Ash'ari (874–936) Fakr ad-Din
4th/10th	Al-Daraqutni (918–995) Abu Talib al-Makki (d. 996) Al-Hakim Nishapuri (933–1014) Ibn Furak (d. 1015) Abd al-Jabbar ibn Ahmad (935–1025) Abu Mansur al-Baghdadi (d. 1037) Abu Nuaym (d. 1038) Abu Ishaq al-Shirazi (1003–1083) Al-Lalaka'i
5th/11th	Al-Tha'labi (d. 1035) Al-Mawardi (972–1058) Al-Bayhaqi (994–1066) Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi (1002–1071) Al-Qushayri (986–1072) Al-Juwayni (1028–1085) Al-Baghawi (d. 1122) Ahmad Ghazali (d. 1123/26)
6th/12th	Al-Ghazali (1058–1111) Al-Shahrastani (1086–1153) Ibn `Asakir (1105–c. 1176) Abu Tahir al-Silafi (1079–1180) Ahmed al-Rifa`i (1119–1183) Shahab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash Suhrawardi (1154–1191) Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (1150–1209) Sayf al-Din al-Amidi (1156–1233) Ibn Abi'l-Dam (1187–1244) Ibn al-Salah (1181–1245)
7th/13th	Ibn Abil-Hadid (d. 1258) Izz al-Din ibn Abd al-Salam (d. 1262) Ahmad al-Badawi (1200–1276) Al-Nawawi (1230–1277) Ibn Khallikan (1211–1282) Ibn Daqiq al-Id (1228–1302) Al-Baydawi (d. 1319) Safi-ad-din Ardabili (1252/53–1334) Yusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Mizzi (1256–1341) Yusuf bin Ahmad al-Kawneyn
8th/14th	Safi al-Din al-Hindi (d. 1315/16) Al-Dhahabi (1274–1348) Taqi al-Din al-Subki (1284–1355) Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri (1302–1367) Taj al-Din al-Subki (1327–1370) Ibn Kathir (d. 1373) Taftazani (1322–1390) Badr Ad-Din az-Zarkashi (1344–1392) Zain al-Din al-Iraqi (1325–1403) Ali ibn Abu Bakr al-Haythami (1335–1404) Ibn Nuhaas (d. 1411) Ibn al-Jazari (1350–1429)
9th/15th	Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani (1372–1449) Al-Mahalli (d. 1460) Al-Sakhawi (1428–1497) Al-Suyuti (1445–1505) Al-Qastallani (1448–1517) Zakariyya al-Ansari (1420–1520) Ali ibn Ahmad al-Samhudi (1466–1533)
10th/16th	Al-Sha`rani (1492/93–1565) Ibn Hajar al-Haytami (1503–1566) Al-Khaṭib ash-Shirbiniy (d. 1570)
11th/17th	Abdullah ibn Alawi al-Haddad (1634–1720)
13th/19th	Ibrahim al-Bajuri (1784–1860) Abd Al-Rahman bin Ahmad al-Zayla`i (1820–1882) Ahmad Zayni Dahlan (1816–1886) Shaykh Sufi (1828–1904) Uways al-Barawi (1847–1909) Ahmad Khatib al-Minangkabawi (1860–1916)
14th/20th	Yusuf al-Nabhani (1849–1932) Abdallah al-Qutbi (1879–1952) Said Nursî (1877–1960) Abd al-Malik Karim Amrullah (1908–1981) Muhammad Hamidullah (1908–2002) Ahmed Kuftaro (1915–2004) Abdullah al-Harari (1906–2008)
15th/21st	Wahbah al-Zuhayli (1932–2015) Taha Jabir Alalwani (1935–2016) Cherussery Zainuddeen Musliyar (1937–2016) Hasyim Muzadi (1944–2017) Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif (1935–2022) Abdul Azeez Madani (1950–2022) Kanthapuram A. P. Abu Bakr Musliyar (b. 1931) Naqib al-Attas (b. 1931) Mohammad Salim Al-Awa (b. 1942) K. Ali Kutty Musliyar (b. 1945) Ali Gomaa (b. 1952) Nuh Ha Mim Keller (b. 1954) Zaid Shakir (b. 1956) Gibril Haddad (b. 1960) Umar bin Hafiz (b. 1963) Ibrahim Khalil al-Bukhari (b. 1964) Muhammad bin Yahya al-Ninowy (b. 1970) Ali al-Jifri (b. 1971) Afifi al-Akiti (b. 1976) Awn Al-Qaddoumi (b. 1982) Muhammad Jifri Muthukkoya Thangal
Scholars of other Sunni Islamic schools of jurisprudence Hanafi Hanbali Maliki Zahiri

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Ash'arism (al-Ash'ari)	Al-Bayhaqi Al-Baqillani Al-Juwayni Al-Qushayri Al-Shahrastani Al-Ghazali Al-Taftazani Al-Maziri Ibn Furak Ibn Abi Zayd al-Qayrawani Zakariyya al-Ansari Abu Mansur al-Baghdadi Abu Ishaq al-Isfara'ini Ibn Aqil Ibn Tumart Abdul Qadir Gilani Abu al-Walid al-Baji Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi Ibn al-Jawzi Qadi Ayyad Ahmad al-Rifa'i Fakhr al-Din al-Razi Sayf al-Din al-Amidi Izz al-Din ibn 'Abd al-Salam Taqi al-Din al-Subki Shihab al-Din al-Qarafi Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati Al-Baydawi Ibn Khaldun Ibn Arafa Abd al-Rahman al-Tha'alibi Ibn Hajar al-Haytami Al-Sha'rani Jalal al-Din al-Dawani Al-Maqqari al-Tilmisani Abd al-Rahman al-Fasi Ibn Ashir Al-Bahūtī Muhammad Mayyara Abu Ali al-Hassan al-Yusi 'Illish Ibrahim al-Bajuri Abdullah ibn Alawi al-Haddad Ahmad al-Dardir Muhammad Arafa al-Desouki Ahmad Zayni Dahlan
Early Sunni	Abū Ḥanīfah al-Nu'mān ibn Thābit (Hanafiyah) Malik ibn Anas (Maliki) Al-Shafi'i (Shafi‘i)
Maturidism (Al-Maturidi)	Al-Hakim al-Samarqandi Al-Sarakhsi Al-Bazdawi Abu al-Yusr al-Bazdawi Abu al-Mu'in al-Nasafi Abu Ishaq al-Saffar al-Bukhari Abu al-Layth al-Samarqandi 'Ala' al-Din al-Bukhari Al-Sharif al-Jurjani Akmal al-Din al-Babarti Jamal al-Din al-Ghaznawi Nur al-Din al-Sabuni Najm al-Din 'Umar al-Nasafi Siraj al-Din al-Ushi Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi Khidr Bey Ibn Kemal Ali Qushji Ali al-Qari Al-Maydani Ahmad Sirhindi Anwar Shah Kashmiri Shah Waliullah Dehlawi Shah Abdul Aziz Khalil Ahmad Saharanpuri Muhammad Zakariya Kandhlawi Rahmatullah Kairanawi Murtada al-Zabidi Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi Muhammad Abu Zahra Kanthapuram A. P. Aboobacker Musliyar Rumi
Mu'attila	Al-Ja'd ibn Dirham Mu'jbira Abū Muḥrīz Jahm ibn Ṣafwān ar-Rāsibī as-Samarqāndī at-Tirmidhī Jahmīyya Abū Abdirrahmān Bishr ibn Ghiyāth ibn Abī Karīma al-Marīsī al-Baghdādī
Mu'jassimā	Abu’l-Hassan Muqātil ibn Sulaymān ibn Bashīr al-Azdī al-Balkhī (Muqātilīyya) Abū Muḥāmmad (Abū’l-Hākem) Heshām ibn Sālem al-Jawālikī al-Juzjanī al-Kūfī Jawālikīyya Rum Abdals Ibn Karram (Karramiyya)
Murji'ah	Abū Marwān Gaylān ibn Mūslīm ad-Dimashqī an-Nabati al-Qībtī (Murjī-Qadariyah)
Mu'tazila (Wasil ibn 'Ata')	Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm ibn Sayyār ibn Hāni’ an-Nazzām (Nazzāmīyya) Abū Bakr Abdurrahmān ibn Kaysān al-Asāmm Abū Mūsā Isā ibn Subeyh (Sabīh) al-Murdār al-Bāsrī (Murdārīyya) Hīshām ibn Amr al-Fuwātī ash-Shaybānī (Hīshāmīyya) Abū Sahl Abbād ibn Sulaimān (Salmān) as-Sāymarī Abū Alī Muḥāmmad ibn Abdi’l-Wahhāb ibn Sallām al-Jubbā'ī (Jubbāīyya) Abū’l-Hūsayn Abdūrrāhīm ibn Muḥāmmad ibn Uthmān al-Hayyāt (Hayyātīyya) Ja'far ibn Harb Ja'far ibn Mūbassīr Abū Uthmān Amr ibn Bhār ibn Māhbūb al-Jāhiz al-Kinānī (Jāhizīyya) Al-Qadi 'Abd al-Jabbar Abu al-Husayn al-Basri Al-Zamakhshari Amr ibn Ubayd Ibn Abi'l-Hadid Sahib ibn Abbad Abū Amr Ḍirār ibn Amr al-Gatafānī al-Kūfī (Ḍirārīyya)
Najjārīyya	Abū ʿAbdillāh al-Husayn ibn Muḥāmmad ibn ʿAbdillāh an-Najjār ar-Rāzī Abū Amr (Abū Yahyā) Hāfs al-Fard Muḥāmmad ibn ʿĪsā (Burgūsīyya) Abū ʿAbdallāh Ibnū’z-Zā‘farānī (Zā‘farānīyya) Mustadrakīyya
Salafi Theologians	Ibn Taymiyyah Ibnul Qayyim Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab Wahhabism Al-Shawkani Rashid Rida Ibn Baz Al-Uthaymin Muqbil bin Hadi al-Wadi'i Al-Albani Saleh Al-Fawzan Rabee al-Madkhali Madkhalism Syed Nazeer Husain Ahl-i Hadith Siddiq Hasan Khan Zubair Ali Zai Safar Al-Hawali Sahwa movement Salman al-Ouda Osama bin Laden Salafi Jihadism Ahmad ibn Umar al-Hazimi Hazimism Yasir Qadhi Post-Salafism
Twelver Shi'ism	Twelve Imams Ali Hasan ibn Ali Husayn ibn Ali Ali al-Sajjad Muhammad al-Baqir Ja'far al-Sadiq Musa al-Kazim Ali al-Rida Muhammad al-Jawad Ali al-Hadi Hasan al-Askari Muhammad al-Mahdi Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid Sharif al-Murtaza Shaykh Tusi Nasir al-Din al-Tusi Allamah Al-Hilli Mohammad-Baqer Majlesi Zurarah ibn A'yan Hisham ibn Hakam Agha Zia ol Din Araghi Ja'far Sobhani Ruhollah Khomeini Wilayat al-faqih
Isma'ili Shi'ism	Al-Qadi al-Nu'man Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani Al-Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Naysaburi Abu'l-Fawaris Ahmad ibn Ya'qub Tayyibi Ismā'īlī doctrine Dhu'ayb ibn Musa Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam Idris Imad al-Din Ali ibn Muhammad ibn al-Walid
Zaydi Shi'ism	Abu'l-Jarud al-Hamdani Ahmad ibn Isa ibn Zayd Al-Qasim al-Rassi Al-Hadi ila'l-Haqq Yahya Al-Mansur al-Qasim

Key books

Sunni books	Asas al-Taqdis Al-Baz al-Ashhab Al-Farq bayn al-Firaq Al-Milal wa al-Nihal Al-Irshad Al-Aqidah al-Tahawiyyah Al-Sawad al-A'zam Kitab al-Tawhid Tabsirat al-Adilla Masnavi Fihi Ma Fihi Divan-i Shams-i Tabrizi The Moderation in Belief
Shia books	Eʿteqādātal-Emāmīya Al-Amali Al-Khisal Awail Al Maqalat Tashih al-I'tiqad Tajrid al-I'tiqad
Independent	Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity Kitab al-Majmu of Alawis Malfūzāt of Ahmadiyya Umm al-kitab of Musta'li Isma'ilism

Islamic schools and branches

Sunni Islam

Ahl al-Hadith (Atharism)	Kullabiyya Ibn Kullab Hanbalis Ahmad ibn Hanbal Al-Qadi Abu Ya'la Khwaja Abdullah Ansari Zahiris Dawud al-Zahiri Salafism Ahl-i Hadith Syed Nazeer Husain / Siddiq Hasan Khan Wahhabism Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab Ibn Baz Al-Uthaymin Al-Albani Other Salafi trends Jihadism Madkhalism Sahwa Salafi Modernism Muhammad bin Dawud Maqrizi
Ahl ar-Ra'y (Ilm al-Kalam)	Ash'arism Malikis Shafi'is Abdullah al-Harari – Al-Ahbash Maturidism Hanafis Fazl-e-Haq Khairabadi / Ahmed Raza Khan – Barelvi Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi / Rashid Ahmad Gangohi – Deobandi Necmettin Erbakan – Millî Görüş

Shia Islam

Zaydism	Zayd ibn Ali Jarudiyya Batriyya Imamate Alid dynasties of northern Iran Hasan al-Utrush Yahya ibn Umar Imams of Yemen Extinct Zaydi Shi'a sects Dukayniyya Khalafiyya

Imami
Mahdiist
Shi'ite
Sects in
Islam

Imami Twelver	Theology of Twelvers Ja'fari Akhbari Usuli Shaykhism Qizilbash Sheikh Haydar / Shah Ismail / Pir Sultan / Kul Nesîmî – Safavid Islam Ghulat al-Khaṣībī / ibn Nusayr – Alawites Astarabadi (Naimi) / Imadaddin Nasimi – Hurufism / Bektashism Baktāshism Demir Bābā – Alians Bābā Rexheb – Hārābātīs
Imami Isma'ilism	Fathite Abdallah al-Aftah Batiniyyah Hamdan Qarmat – Sevener Qarmatians Hamza / Baha al-Din al-Muqtana / ad-Darazi – Druzes Fatimids Musta'li Tayyibi Alavi Dawoodi Sulaymani Hafizi Nasir Khusraw al-Qubadiani – Badakhshan Alevism Nizari Hassan-i Sabbah – Assassins Aga Khans – Nizaris / Khojas Pir Sadardin – Satpanth
Kaysanites Shia	Mukhtār Abū ʿAmra Kaysān Abd Allah ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah – Hashimiyya Hārbīyya ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Hārb ibn al-Kindi Janāhiyya Abdallah ibn Mu'awiya Hārithīyya Riyāhīyya Sam‘ānīyya Bayān ibn Sam‘ān Rezāmīyya Abu Muslim Sunpadh Muḥammirah Khurramites Babak Mazyar al-Muqanna Ishaq al-Turk Khashabiyya Shia
Other Mahdiists	An-Nafs Az-Zakiyyah Hurufiyya Maḥmūd Pasīkhānī – Nuktawiyya Shayki Nuqta-yi Ula – Bábīyya Tawussite Shia ʿAjlan ibn Nawus Waqifite Shia

Muhakkima
(Arbitration)

Kharijites	Ajardi Abd al-Karīm ibn Adjrād Maymunīyyah Sa'labīyyah Azariqa Nafi ibn al-Azraq al-Hānafī al-Handhalī Bayhasīyyah Abu Bayhas al-Hāytham ibn Jābir Najdat Najdah ibn 'Amir al-Hānafī Sufri Abu Qurra Abū Yazīd Mukhallad ibn Kayrād al-Nukkari
Ibadism	'Abdullāh ibn Ibāḍ al-Tamimi Jābir ibn Zayd Abu Qudama Yazid ibn Fandin al-Ifrani Abd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi Wahbiyyah Azzabas

Murji'ah
(Hasan ibn
Muḥāmmad
ibn al-
Hanafiyyah)

Karrāmīyya	Abū ʿAbdillāh Muḥāmmad ibn Karrām ibn Arrāk ibn Huzāba ibn al-Barā’ as-Sijjī ʿĀbidīyya (ʿUthmān al-ʿĀbid) Dhīmmīyya Hakāiqīyya Haisamīyya (Abū ʿAbdallāh Muhammad ibn al-Haisam) Hīdīyya (Hīd ibn Saif) Ishāqīyya (Abū Yaʿqūb Ishāq ibn Mahmashādh) Maʿīyya Muhājirīyya (Ibrāhīm ibn Muhājir) Nūnīyya Razīnīyya Sauwāqīyya Sūramīyya Tarā'ifīyya (Ahmad ibn ʿAbdūs at-Tarā'ifī) Tūnīyya (Abū Bakr ibn ʿAbdallāh) Wāhidīyya Zarībīyya
Other sects	Gaylānīyya Gaylān ibn Marwān Yūnusīyya Yūnus ibn Awn an-Namīrī Gassānīyya Gassān al-Kūfī Tūmanīyya Abū Muāz at-Tūmanī Sawbānīyya Abū Sawbān al-Murjī Sālehīyya Sāleh ibn Umar Shamrīyya Abū Shamr Ubaydīyya Ubayd al-Mūktaib Ziyādīyya Muhammad ibn Ziyād al-Kūfī
Other Murjīs	Al-Harith ibn Surayj Sa'id ibn Jubayr Hammād ibn Abū Sūlaimān Muhārīb ibn Dithār Sābit Kutna Awn ibn Abdullāh Mūsā ibn Abū Kasīr Umar ibn Zar Salm ibn Sālem Hālaf ibn Ayyūb Ibrāhim ibn Yousūf Nusayr ibn Yahyā Ahmad ibn Hārb Amr ibn Murrah

Mu'shabbiha

Tamsīl

Jawārībīyya
- Dāwūd al-Jawāribî
Hāshwīyya
Hulmānīyya
- Abū Hulmān al-Fārisī ad-Dimashqī
- Kalandars
- Bārāq Bābā

Tajsīm

Khaṭṭābiyya
- Abu al-Khattab
Bāzīghiyya
- Bāzīgh ibn Mūsā
Muʿāmmarīyya
- Muʿāmmar ibn Ahmar
ʿIjlīyya/Umayrīyya
- Umayr ibn Bayān al-ʿIjlī
Mufaḍḍaliyya
- al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi
Ghurābīyya
Mānsūrīyya
- Abū Mānsūr al-ʿIjlī
Mughīrīyya
- Abū Abdillāh Mugīre ibn Sāīd al-ʿIjlī el-Bajalī
Mukhāmmīsa
Namiriya
‘Ulyanīyya/'Alyaīyya
Saba'īyya
- Abdullah ibn Saba'

Qadariyah
(Ma'bad
al-Juhani)

Alevism	Qutb ad-Dīn Haydar – Malamatiyya / Qalandariyya Baba Ishak – Babai revolt Balım Sultan – Bektashi Order Galip Hassan Kuscuoglu – Galibi Order
Muʿtazila (Rationalism)	Mā’marīyya Abū Amr (Abū Mu‘tamīr) Muāmmar ibn Abbād as-Sūlamī Bishriyya Abū Sahl Bīshr ibn al-Mu‘tamīr al-Hilālī al-Baghdādī Abū Abdi’l-Lāh Ahmad ibn Abī Du'ad Faraj ibn Carīr ibn Mâlik al-Iyādī Bahshamiyya Abū Hāshīm Abdu’s-Salām ibn Muḥāmmad ibn Abdi’l-Wahhāb al-Jubbā'ī Huzaylīyya Abū’l-Huzayl Muḥāmmad ibn al-Huzayl ibn Abdillāh al-Allāf al-Abdī al-Bāsrī Abū Ma‘n Sūmāma ibn Ashras an-Nūmayrī al-Bāsrī al-Baghdādī Ikhshīdiyya Nazzāmīyya Ali al-Aswarī Abū Bakr Muḥāmmad ibn Abdillāh ibn Shabīb al-Basrī Hābītīyya Ahmad ibn Hābīt Sumamīyya Sumāma ibn Ashras Kā‘bīyya Abū’l-Kāsīm Abdullāh ibn Ahmad ibn Māhmūd al-Balhī al-Kā‘bī
Quranism	Ahle Qur'an Kala Kato Tolu-e-Islam Muhammad Iqbal Ghulam Ahmed Pervez United Submitters International Rashad Khalifa Edip Yüksel

Independent
Muslim
beliefs

Messianism	Ahmadiyya Mirza Ghulam Qadiani Lahori Kabbalist Dönmes Sabbatai Zevi – Sabbatean Mahdavīyya Muhammad Jaunpuri / Bandagi Mian Syed Khundmir – Zikris Nation of Islam Wallace Fard Muhammad's doctrine Nur movement Said Nursî / Fethullah Gülen – Hizmet
Modernism	Modernist Salafism Muhammad Abduh Muhammad Asad Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani Rashid Rida Other Islamic modernists
Taṣawwuf	Tariqah Ahmed Raza Khan – Barelvi Hilmi Tunahan – Süleymancı Ahmad al-Rifa'i – Rifa`i Other orders Tawassul
Other beliefs	Sadaqah Sunnah Taqwa Tawakkul Tewafuq Thawab

Other scholars of Sunni schools of jurisprudence:
Hanafi
Hanbali
Maliki
Shafi'i
Zahiri

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