| Espiritu Santo | |
|---|---|
| Santo | |
| Geographic distribution | Espiritu Santo Island in northern Vanuatu |
| Linguistic classification | Austronesian
|
| Language codes | |
| Glottolog | espi1234 |
The Espiritu Santo languages (alternatively Santo languages) are a group of North Vanuatu languages spoken on Espiritu Santo Island in northern Vanuatu. Tryon (2010) considers the Espiritu Santo languages to be a coherent group.
Languages
Two lists of Espiritu Santo languages from Tryon (2010) and François (2015) are provided below.
Tryon (2010)
Tryon (2010) recognizes 33 living languages and 2 extinct languages. They are:
| Language | Speakers | Area | Villages |
|---|---|---|---|
| Valpei (Tavanlav) | 300 | North-West Santo | Wunpuko, Valpei, Petani, Matalip, Pwar, Molpoe, Hakua, Maroa, Pwat, Pwatmwel (Onmwertev), Mwalovuko, Wunapak |
| Nokuku (Vevatot) | 250 | North-West Santo | Olpoe, Nokuku, Lajmoli, Vunon, Penaoru, Petawota |
| 'Oa | 300 | North-West Santo | Tasmate, Sulesal, Vasalea |
| Vunapu | 250? | North-West Santo | Vunapu, Pesena |
| Piamatsina | 250? | North-West Santo | Piamatsina, Piamaeto, Peavot |
| Tolomako (Big Bay) | 900 | North-West Santo | Jureviu, Tuturu, Tavunamalo, Peavot, Vasi, Pialulup, Matantas |
| Kula | 350 | West Santo | Wusi, Kerepua, Elia 1 |
| Bura | 300 | West Santo | Linduri, Putonro, Saktui, Maram, Patiare, Mapten, Nukupospos |
| Kene | 300 | West Santo | Vuimele, Navura, Papaisale, Arumalate, Latavoa, Pilipili, Lepurpuri, Potlavaisevu |
| Akei | 4000 | West Santo | Toramaori, Lalaolo, Tovotovo, Kerevinumbu, Tasiriki, Ukoro, Malovira, Tasmalum |
| Daruru | 100? | West Santo | Pelmol |
| Retlatur | 100 | South Santo | Tanovusivusi |
| Ale | 500 | South Santo | Fimele, Wailapa |
| Aje | 10 | South Santo | Patunmevu, Nambaka, Wunamoli |
| Ande | 500 | South Santo | Tanmet, Lotunai, Ipayato, Tasmalum, Morouas |
| Araki | 10 | South Santo | Araki Island |
| Movono | 370 | South Santo | Tangoa Island |
| Farsav | 400 | South Santo | Nambel, Tanovoli, Narango, Funafosi, Nambauk |
| Tiale / Merei | 400 | Central Santo | Tavuimoli, Nazaraka, Mataipevu, Patuitano, Morokari, Angoru, Tombet, Navele, Vusvogo |
| Kiai | 450 | Central Santo | Wailapa, Fortsenale, Namoru |
| Ko / Mores (Farmores) | 200? | Central Santo | Tanmet, Lemben, Tsarailan, Namafun, Patmarifu, Sarete, Mavunlif |
| Moiso | 100 | Central Santo | Moriuli |
| Toksiki / Soisoru | 200 | Central Santo | Morkriv, Pilnuri, Bengie |
| Tamambo | 4000 | East Santo | Malo |
| Aore | extinct | East Santo | Aore |
| Biliru | 3 | East Santo | Tambotalo, Belnatsa, Beleru, Belembut, Lambue |
| Farafi | 300? | East Santo | Butmas, Tur, Maniok, Shark Bay, Naturuk |
| Ngen | 250 | East Santo | Vanafo (Tanafo), Mon Exil, Palon, Shark Bay |
| Ati (Meris / Miris) | 85 | East Santo | Fumbak, Naturuk, Nambauk |
| Se | 20 | East Santo | Vanafo, Butmas |
| Atin (Farnanatin) | 120 | East Santo | Nambauk (Patunfarambu), Fumatal |
| Farnanto | 100 | East Santo | Nambauk, Tanmet, Tafua |
| Mavea (Lonavu) | 500 | East Santo | Mavea, Aissi, Tutuba |
| Nethalp | extinct | East Santo | Lorediakarkar |
| Nekep | 4000 | East Santo | Hog Harbour, Port Olry, Kole 1 |
François (2015)
The following list of 38 Espiritu Santo languages is from Alexandre François (2015:18-21).
Lynch (2019)
John Lynch (2019) proposes the following classification scheme for the Espiritu Santo languages, with the development of bilabial consonants to linguolabials as the primary marker of the "Nuclear Santo" group:
- Espiritu Santo
- West Santo Group
- Nuclear Santo Group
- South Santo Group
- East Santo Group
- Shark Bay: Shark Bay I, Shark Bay II, Lorediakarkar
- Southeast Santo: Butmas-Tur, Polonombauk, Tambotalo
- Outlier: Sakao
References
- ^ Tryon, Darrell. 2010. The languages of Espiritu Santo, Vanuatu. In John Bowden and Nikolaus P. Himmelmann and Malcolm Ross (eds.), A journey through Austronesian and Papuan linguistic and cultural space: papers in honour of Andrew K. Pawley, 283-290. Canberra: Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University.
- Lynch, John (December 2019). "The Bilabial-to-Linguolabial Shift in Southern Oceanic: A Subgrouping Diagnostic?". Oceanic Linguistics. 58 (2): 292–323. doi:10.1353/ol.2019.0010. Retrieved January 16, 2022.
- François, Alexandre; Franjieh, Michael; Lacrampe, Sébastien; Schnell, Stefan (2015), "The exceptional linguistic density of Vanuatu" (PDF), in François, Alexandre; Lacrampe, Sébastien; Franjieh, Michael; Schnell, Stefan (eds.), The Languages of Vanuatu: Unity and Diversity, Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia, Canberra: Asia Pacific Linguistics Open Access, pp. 1–21, ISBN 9781922185235.
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