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The Promotion of Standard Chinese, abbreviated as Tuipu (推普), refers to a series of measures and actions implemented by the government of the People's Republic of China in mainland China. These efforts aim to promote the social application of Putonghua, defined as the language with "Beijing pronunciation as the standard pronunciation, Northern dialects as the foundational dialect, and exemplary modern vernacular Chinese writings as the grammatical norm."

Putonghua does not have an officially established legal status in the Constitution of the People's Republic of China.

Initially, the campaign intended to prepare for the complete abolition of Chinese characters in favor of implementing a romanization of Chinese writing system (Pinyin) as part of a broader "script reform." However, the focus shifted to the promotion of simplified Chinese characters and Pinyin instead. Currently, the promotion of Putonghua is overseen by the State Language Commission (SLC).

At present, broadcast and television media on the mainland generally use Putonghua as the standard reporting language. While Putonghua has become mainstream, there have been calls for the preservation of regional dialects. The government acknowledges that dialects are valuable cultural assets but maintains that this recognition does not conflict with the implementation of policies and measures related to Standard Chinese promotion.

History

After the 1911 Xinhai Revolution, the Republic of China began systematically promoting the National Language (Guoyu). In 1913, the Commission on the Unification of Pronunciation introduced the "National Pronunciation" (Guoyin) system, which emphasized "Beijing pronunciation as the primary foundation, with consideration for both northern and southern dialects," and included entering tones. This system later became known as the "Old National Pronunciation."

During this time, debates arose about the standard pronunciation for the National Language. One faction supported Guoyin, advocating for a hybrid approach based on Beijing pronunciation with adjustments for other regional accents. The other faction favored pure Beijing pronunciation as the standard. In 1920, Zhang Shiyi, then Head of the English Department at Nanjing Higher Normal School, published "The Issue of Unifying the National Language", advocating for Beijing pronunciation as the standard. This view gained acceptance.

In 1923, the National Language Unification Preparatory Committee established the Guoyin Dictionary Revision Committee and adopted Beijing pronunciation as the standard, naming it the "New National Pronunciation" (Xin Guoyin). In May 1932, the Ministry of Education of the Republic of China formally published the "Vocabulary of Frequently Used Words in National Pronunciation", which clarified that the standard referred to the modern phonetic system of Beijing rather than strictly adhering to local articulations. This marked the formal establishment of the first standardized system for modern Chinese: the Guoyu system.

After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, Guoyu was renamed "Putonghua" (common language) to emphasize its universal applicability. In 1955, the National Script Reform Conference in Beijing formalized the promotion of Putonghua based on Beijing pronunciation as the standard. On February 6, 1956, the State Council of the People's Republic of China issued the "Directive on Promoting Putonghua", officially defining it as "a language with Beijing pronunciation as the standard, Northern dialects as the basis, and modern vernacular Chinese writings as the grammatical norm."

In 1982, promoting Putonghua was incorporated into the Constitution of the People's Republic of China. In 1994, the Putonghua Proficiency Test was introduced, and on October 31, 2000, the National People's Congress passed the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language.

In December 2021, the General Office of the State Council issued the "Opinions on Comprehensively Strengthening Language and Script Work in the New Era". This document set a goal of achieving an 85% nationwide Putonghua penetration rate by 2025.

Overall Regulations and Policies

Article

The government of the People’s Republic of China bases its efforts to promote Putonghua on constitutional principles and specific legislation such as the "Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language". Article 19 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China explicitly states:

"The State promotes the nationwide use of Putonghua"

The relevant provisions of the "Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language" regarding Putonghua are as follows:

Article 2: "For purposes of this Law, the standard spoken and written Chinese language means Putonghua (a common speech with pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect) and the standardized Chinese characters."

Article 3: "The State popularizes Putonghua and the standardized Chinese characters."

Article 4: "All citizens shall have the right to learn and use the standard spoken and written Chinese language."

Article 10: "Putonghua and the standardized Chinese characters shall be used as the basic language in education and teaching in schools and other institutions of education, except where otherwise provided for in laws. Putonghua and the standardized Chinese characters shall be taught in schools and other institutions of education by means of the Chinese course. The Chinese textbooks used shall be in conformity with the norms of the standard spoken and written Chinese language."

Article 12: "Putonghua shall be used by the broadcasting and TV stations as the basic broadcasting language. Where foreign languages need to be used as the broadcasting languages, the matter shall be subject to approval by the broadcasting and television administration under the State Council."

Article 13: "The standardized Chinese characters shall be used as the basic characters in the service trade. Where both a foreign language and the Chinese language are used in signboards, advertisements, bulletins, signs, etc., as is needed by the trade, the standardized Chinese characters shall be used as far as the Chinese Language is concerned. People working in the service trade are encouraged to use Putonghua when providing services."

Article 19: "All staff members who need to use Putonghua as their working language shall have the ability to speak Putonghua. The Putonghua level of those who use Putonghua as their working language, such as broadcasters, program hosts and hostesses, actors and actresses of films, TV series and plays, teachers and State functionaries shall reach the respective standards set by the State; those who have not yet reached such standards shall receive different training, as the case may be."

Article 20: "Putonghua and the standardized Chinese characters shall be taught in classes for foreigners who are learning Chinese."

Official Perspective

According to the official stance of the People's Republic of China, the promotion of Putonghua has significantly contributed to economic, educational, and cultural development, as well as to social progress, achieving substantial accomplishments. China aims to achieve the preliminary popularization of Putonghua nationwide.

The State promotes the nationwide use of Putonghua.

In 2020, the Legislative Affairs Commission of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress conducted a constitutional review of local regulations related to the use of ethnic minority languages in education. These regulations included provisions such as:

• "All types and levels of ethnic schools shall use the language and script of their respective ethnic group or a commonly used language of the ethnic group for teaching."
• "With the consent of local education authorities, ethnic schools with the necessary conditions may teach certain courses in Chinese."

The review concluded that such provisions were inconsistent with Article 19, Paragraph 5 of the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China, which mandates the promotion of Putonghua nationwide, as well as with the Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language and the Education Law. The Standing Committee required the drafting bodies to amend these regulations accordingly.

This official position has drawn attention and debate from various quarters. For example, Yang Haiying, a Mongolian scholar based in Japan, criticized the move, claiming it represents a reversal of the ethnic policies that the Chinese government had implemented for the past 75 years since its establishment.

Implementation Measures

Putonghua Proficiency Test

To support the promotion of Putonghua, the government introduced the Putonghua Proficiency Test (Putonghua Shuiping Ceshi, PSC). This test is overseen by the National Putonghua Proficiency Testing Committee and implemented by relevant provincial and municipal organizations.

The test categorizes proficiency into three levels, each with two grades:

• Level 1: Grade A (highest grade), Grade B
• Level 2: Grade A, Grade B
• Level 3: Grade A, Grade B

Participants receive corresponding Putonghua Proficiency Certificates based on their test performance. By 2009, over 30 million individuals in mainland China had taken the test.

Use of Putonghua in Public Service

The Chinese government mandates the use of Putonghua by civil servants, typically requiring a proficiency level of Level 3, Grade A.

Use of Putonghua in Education

For teachers, a minimum proficiency of Level 2, Grade B is generally required. For Chinese language teachers, the standard is higher, requiring Level 2, Grade A.

Use of Putonghua in Service Industries

In service sectors such as commerce, postal services, and telecommunications, relevant regulations also govern the use of Putonghua to ensure consistency in communication.

Media Promotion

Media Promotion Between 2000 and 2014, the National Radio and Television Administration (NRTA) issued multiple directives aimed at limiting and suppressing the use of local dialects in regional broadcast media. This included prohibiting the use of dialects in dubbed films and reducing the airtime for local dialect programs. Outside of a few regions such as Guangdong, Southern Fujian, and Shanghai, the use of local dialects in media was minimal, with strict limitations on broadcast time and range. For example, programs in Shanghainese were restricted to a few radio and television programs, justified by the concern that "the standard of Putonghua was declining, and local dialects were becoming widespread". In July 2009, a spokesperson for NRTA, Zhu Hong, stated that except for regional opera productions, Chinese television dramas should primarily use Putonghua. Dialects and non-standard forms of Putonghua were not to be used, and even the language of prominent characters should adhere to Putonghua. However, in the 2014 TV drama "Deng Xiaoping at History's Crossroads" and the 2021 film "Mao Zedong in Caixi", both Deng Xiaoping and Mao Zedong still spoke in dialects.

In the Guangdong Province's Pearl River Delta Economic Zone, during the 1980s, the government specifically allowed local channels such as Southern TV (now Greater Bay Area TV), Pearl River Channel, Guangzhou Broadcasting Network, and Foshan TV to use Cantonese. This decision was driven by the need to compete with Hong Kong's television programs and to strengthen "political propaganda," rather than an effort to preserve or promote local culture, language, or customs.

Campus Restrictions

In some regions and cities of mainland China, students are penalized with a reduction in "conduct points" for using local dialects on campus, which can affect class rankings.

Putonghua Promotion Activities

Approved by the State Council of the People's Republic of China, the third week of September each year is designated as National Putonghua Promotion Week. In addition, various regions hold Putonghua competitions at irregular intervals.

Promotional Slogans

Various slogans to promote Putonghua are frequently developed across mainland China, with periodic calls for public submissions. However, slogans such as "Don’t speak dialects, don’t use profanity, be a qualified citizen" have sparked concerns. These slogans can lead the younger generation to develop a biased view, equating the use of Putonghua with being "qualified" or "progressive," which undermines the recognition and cultural value of local dialects and mother tongues. The impact of such perceptions is notably more pronounced in regions using Beijing Mandarin and Jin dialects compared to southern areas.

Accent Discrimination

Non-Han Chinese Accents

Since 2016, the Zhuang accent in Putonghua has been widely mocked, ridiculed, and sensationalized by speakers of standard Putonghua. This phenomenon gained significant attention after a particular segment of a Zhuang-language monologue about heartbreak went viral. The phrase "蓝瘦，香菇" (lán shòu, xiāng gū) was used as a humorous misinterpretation of the phrase "难受想哭" (nán shòu xiǎng kū), meaning "I feel bad and want to cry." The phrase, when written phonetically in Mandarin, sounds like "lan shou, xiang gu," which is nonsensical in standard Mandarin but became a viral meme.

The backlash within the Zhuang community, as reported by Guangxi Ethnic News, included criticisms such as:

• "This is an act of vilifying the Zhuang people, and it shows disrespect to an entire ethnic group."
• "The absurd and mocking subtitles catered to the lowbrow tastes of some people."

The misunderstanding arose because of differences between the Zhuang and Mandarin phonetics. Zhuang lacks aspirated consonants, only using the unaspirated "g" instead of "k," so "哭" (kū) sounds like "菇" (gū). Zhuang tones are more level compared to Mandarin, which made the third tone of "想" (xiǎng) sound like the first tone of "香" (xiāng). Furthermore, the Zhuang dialect has a merged sound for the consonants "n" and "l," turning "难" (nán) into "蓝" (lán).

Local Government Measures

Guangxi

Guangxi has historically been a multilingual region, with Cantonese exerting significant influence due to geographical factors. Later, the Guangxi Autonomous Region government implemented administrative measures to promote the use of Mandarin in several southeastern cities. In 1996, Nanning and Wuzhou were among the first cities to remove Nanning Baihua (a Cantonese dialect) announcements from public buses. Additionally, Nanning's TV and radio stations were prohibited from broadcasting in Cantonese, depriving residents of a language environment via media broadcasts. Local authorities in Nanning also promoted the stigmatization of dialects as "vulgar" in schools and workplaces while associating Mandarin with being "civilized." In 2001, Nanning discontinued broadcasts of Guangdong TV's Pearl River Channel, followed by Beihai in 2002.

By the end of 2010, Guangxi Radio's economic broadcast, which had aired Cantonese programs for 18 years, was entirely canceled. In October 2012, the Pearl River Channel was banned from broadcasting in Wuzhou by the National Radio and Television Administration. On December 28 of the same year, Guangdong Southern TV's satellite channel (TVS-2) was abruptly removed from cable television in parts of Guangxi. Today, in the southeastern Cantonese-speaking regions of Guangxi, Cantonese has been marginalized. In Nanning, the provincial capital, Cantonese has become an endangered language, replaced by a "Nanning Mandarin" dialect mixed with Cantonese and Zhuang accents. The most local dialect of Nanning, Pinghua, has become even more marginalized under the dual pressures of Mandarin and Cantonese.

Although Guangxi Radio and Television once positioned its movie and TV channel as a Cantonese channel in 2014 due to a collaboration with Guangdong Radio and Television, the channel aired significantly fewer Cantonese programs compared to Guangdong. Most of the Cantonese programs were rebroadcasts from Guangdong Radio and Television, while Guangxi-produced Cantonese content was limited to local news. This positioning lasted only about three years; after a rebranding in 2017, all Cantonese programs were canceled.

Before the Nanning Metro Line 2 commenced operations in 2017, there were reports suggesting that local dialects, including Yongxun Cantonese (Nanning Baihua), would be incorporated into the line's station announcements. However, proposals to include Chinese dialects and minority languages in the announcements were delayed indefinitely, with authorities citing the lack of explicit approval. As a result, the line's announcements currently include only Mandarin and English.

Guangdong

The promotion of Mandarin in Guangdong reached its peak following the State Council of the People's Republic of China's issuance of the "Directive on Promoting Mandarin" in 1956. In July of the same year, the Guangdong Provincial Department of Education issued a notice, marking the first inclusion of Mandarin instruction in Guangdong's primary and secondary school curriculum.

In the first half of 1982, Ren Zhongyi, then First Secretary of the Guangdong Provincial Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, instructed Guangdong Radio and Television to enhance efforts in promoting Mandarin. This involved organizing language experts to prepare Mandarin promotion broadcasts and launching a radio lecture titled "How Guangdong People Can Learn Mandarin Well." Additionally, two documents were issued in the name of the Guangdong Provincial Committee, mandating that major conferences above the county level must use Mandarin. The substantial human and financial resources dedicated to this effort made Guangdong a leader in Mandarin promotion. After his retirement, Ren Zhongyi further emphasized this in 1999, writing:

Unify Guangdong's language with Mandarin; Shenzhen should set an example for the entire province.

In 1990, the State Language Commission designated Guangdong, Fujian, and Shanghai as key regions in southern China for Mandarin promotion. In 1991, specialized research teams conducted in-depth studies in certain areas of Guangdong and Fujian. Subsequently, on February 2, 1992, the Guangdong Provincial Committee of the Chinese Communist Party and the Guangdong Provincial Government issued the "Decision on Vigorously Promoting Mandarin."

At the end of 2011, Guangdong issued the "Guangdong National Language Regulations", which imposed numerous restrictions on the use of dialects in education, government services, public signage, TV and radio broadcasts, and Chinese characters and pinyin translations. For example, schools were prohibited from teaching dialects. Since then, many cities in Guangdong—especially in western regions such as Zhanjiang and Yangjiang—have been forced to switch radio and television programs to Mandarin. In these cities, Cantonese programs and advertisements have largely disappeared from local TV stations for many years.

Since 2010, authorities have focused on phasing out Cantonese broadcasts on the Guangdong News Channel. Despite significant public resistance, efforts to eliminate Cantonese were implemented gradually. From 2014's "alternating Cantonese and Mandarin" broadcasting arrangements to the "comprehensive reform" in early 2016, the channel adopted a Mandarin-dominant format, disregarding local opposition and enforcing a strict "Mandarin over Cantonese" policy.

In June 2021, the Ministry of Education released a report on the linguistic environment in the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area. The report included specific policy recommendations for education, such as legally affirming the status of Mandarin and simplified Chinese characters, incorporating Mandarin education into evaluation systems, and promoting Mandarin teaching through Guangdong-Hong Kong collaboration. The report also urged the three regions to strengthen language policy planning, enhance national identity through language, leverage linguistic resources, and improve language competence and services. These measures aim to better support regional development and the "One Country, Two Systems" framework.

Guangzhou

In the 1980s, Guangzhou gradually prohibited teachers from using Cantonese as the medium of instruction in schools, mandating the use of Mandarin for all subjects. Additionally, schools were not allowed to offer separate Cantonese courses. This policy led to a significant increase in the number of younger generations who cannot speak, are unwilling to speak, or speak Cantonese incorrectly. This aggressive push for Mandarin resulted in widespread dissatisfaction. Former Guangzhou Mayor Li Ziliu was a staunch advocate for Mandarin promotion and was awarded the "Mandarin Promotion Medal" by the National Language Commission for his efforts.

In public transportation, Guangzhou Metro repeatedly shortened Cantonese announcements for various reasons, and on certain lines, Cantonese announcements were completely eliminated. To this day, the Cantonese announcements in metro carriages remain very brief and are not proportionate to the length of Mandarin announcements. Furthermore, even when Cantonese is used, there are many direct translation errors in the terminology, such as translating "尾班车" (wěi bān chē) (last train) into "末班车" (mò bān chē) instead of using accurate Cantonese expressions.

As for the Guangzhou-Zhuhai Intercity Railway, Cantonese announcements were removed shortly after its opening in April 2011. They were only reinstated on December 31, 2012, when the Zhuhai Station commenced operations.

Shenzhen

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In the early 1980s, Shenzhen established itself as a Special Economic Zone, attracting waves of migrants from various regions. Initially, Cantonese was the dominant lingua franca in Shenzhen, much like in Guangzhou and Hong Kong, with native Guangdong residents—including the Teochew and Hakka communities—using standard Cantonese as the central language. Migrants from other provinces also adopted Cantonese for practical integration into the local environment. As a result, the local Hakka dialect and the native Cantonese-influenced Dongguan-Bao'an dialect became relatively marginalized.

Authorities were not pleased with the dominance of local languages. In 1988, then First Secretary of the Guangdong Provincial Party Committee, Ren Zhongyi, and Guangdong Overseas Chinese Federation Chairman Yi Meihou advocated for strict measures to promote Mandarin. Shenzhen even established the Shenzhen-Hong Kong Language Research Institute, conducting extensive research on the city's linguistic environment and proposing a strategic plan to unify Shenzhen's language under Mandarin. Through aggressive efforts to promote Mandarin, the status of Cantonese as Shenzhen’s primary language was reversed.

Compared to other cities in the Pearl River Delta, Shenzhen’s use of Cantonese is relatively limited. For example:

• Transportation: Public buses in Shenzhen do not include Cantonese announcements, though some routes have recently added them.
• Media: All Shenzhen radio stations broadcast exclusively in Mandarin. Television stations, except for the public channel of Shenzhen TV (which allocates a longer time slot for Cantonese), operate entirely in Mandarin. Additionally, Cantonese dubbing for television advertisements, once a common practice, has not been reinstated.

These changes highlight how Mandarin has become the dominant language in Shenzhen, with Cantonese holding only a marginal presence in certain areas.

Foshan

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In July 2014, Guangdong’s Southern Metropolis Daily reported that Foshan City introduced a plan to "standardize language use" during a mobilization meeting for the "Guangdong Provincial Second-Class City Language and Script Work Evaluation." The plan mandated that Mandarin should be the primary language for official work and meetings in government agencies. Points would be deducted if agencies did not require civil servants to speak Mandarin, while additional points could be earned if Mandarin was consistently used in meetings and official activities.

The plan also stipulated that, except for local opera and programs specifically approved by the broadcasting authorities, more than 80% of content on local radio and television must be in Mandarin. News programs featuring dialect-speaking hosts or interviews would result in point deductions. Additionally, it required that kindergartens and elementary schools use Mandarin as the language of communication on campus, including in teaching and other activities; failing to do so would also result in penalties.

This policy sparked widespread opposition among internet users, who expressed concerns about the suppression of local culture and the diminishing space for Cantonese. Renowned Guangzhou TV host Chen Yang commented on Weibo:

Mandarin and local dialects should coexist harmoniously and flourish together, rather than be locked in a life-or-death struggle. Harmony requires voices, and harmony needs dialogue.

Subsequently, Southern Metropolis Daily removed the related report from its website.

Zhuhai

In the 2000s, Zhuhai City discontinued Cantonese news broadcasts on Zhuhai Television. In 2011, the city also eliminated Cantonese announcements on public buses. However, after widespread complaints from the public through various channels, Cantonese announcements were reinstated in August 2012.

Zhejiang

Hangzhou

The development of Wu Chinese in Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, is facing significant challenges, with some local elementary school students unable to speak it at all. In response, some elementary schools in Hangzhou have introduced Hangzhou dialect interest classes, sparking widespread discussion.

The reasons for offering these classes are threefold:

• Declining Usage: Fewer children are able to speak the Hangzhou dialect.
• Cultural Preservation: As part of cultural integration, the dialect, recognized as an intangible cultural heritage, should be preserved.
• Promotion through Education: Schools see their role as promoting the dialect in an engaging way through these interest classes.

This initiative has been seen as an effort to protect and revitalize the local dialect amid concerns of its decline.

Fujian

Quanzhou

In 2010, Quanzhou replaced its public buses with newer models and simultaneously discontinued the use of Quanzhou Min Chinese for bus stop announcements. This decision sparked dissatisfaction among local residents.

Xinjiang

Since 2014, the authorities in Xinjiang have gradually implemented a series of measures to assimilate local communities, including changing language policies. The previous bilingual education policy has been gradually abandoned. In June 2017, the Education Bureau of Hotan in Xinjiang's southern region released the "Five Regulations on Bilingual Education," which mandated the use of Mandarin and Chinese characters in all preschool education (kindergartens) starting in the autumn. By the first grade of primary school and the first year of middle school, Mandarin would also be pushed, with the goal of fully transitioning to Mandarin-based education by 2020.

At the same time, a large number of Uyghur individuals were placed into "re-education" programs, and their children were sent to newly established boarding schools. In 2017 alone, more than 500,000 children enrolled in kindergartens in Xinjiang, with over 90% being Uyghur and other Muslim minority children. In the southern region, where Uyghurs are most concentrated, the authorities invested $1.2 billion to expand kindergartens, including constructing dormitories. Children were required to speak only Mandarin at school, with penalties for non-compliance.

Additionally, in 2017, Zhu Hailun, Secretary of the Xinjiang Political and Legal Affairs Committee, issued a directive to "re-education camps," emphasizing the learning of Mandarin (referred to as the "national language") as a key focus. The directive mandated the use of Mandarin textbooks, teaching in Mandarin, and rigorous oral and written exams. "Exam scores, especially those in Mandarin tests," were to be recorded in student files and used as a primary criterion for graduation.

Tibet

While promoting Mandarin, the Tibetan government has simultaneously restricted Tibetan language education. In February 2018, the Tibet Autonomous Region Public Security Bureau issued a notice titled "Announcement on Reporting Clues of Criminal Activities of Criminal Organizations," in which the act of "protecting the mother tongue (Tibetan)" was labeled as "reactionary thought." It was also accused of having "close ties and collusion with various illegal organizations," and the public was urged to report such activities to the police.

Inner Mongolia

In early June 2020, the authorities in Inner Mongolia issued an oral directive to Mongolian-language schools, requiring that from the start of the new school year on September 1, primary school Chinese language lessons be taught in Mandarin. On August 26, the Inner Mongolia Department of Education released the "Implementation Plan for Using Nationally Standardized Chinese Textbooks in Schools that Teach Ethnic Languages in the First Grade of Primary and First Grade of Secondary Schools," which stipulated that, starting from the autumn semester of 2020, first-grade primary schools in ethnic language schools would begin using national standard language textbooks. Over the next two years, other subjects such as Moral and Legal Education in primary schools and History in secondary schools would also transition to being taught in Mandarin. This decision sparked widespread concern in Inner Mongolia, with many Mongolian scholars and parents believing that the new policy endangered the survival of the Mongolian language.

Local teachers and parents criticized the government's decision, viewing it as an attempt to eliminate the Mongolian language. They strongly opposed the policy, calling local education bureaus and the Ministry of Education in Beijing to express their dissatisfaction. On August 30, the day before the policy was to take effect, large-scale protests were organized in front of county government buildings, and teachers and students were urged to go on strike. According to reports from Voice of America, the government shut down "Bainu," China's only Mongolian-language social media platform, and summoned netizens who had discussed bilingual education matters in WeChat groups.

In response, the Inner Mongolia Department of Education clarified that the claim of eliminating Mongolian-language teaching was not true. They explained that the change was simply the introduction of Mandarin in the first grade for Chinese language lessons. Other subjects, except for the three to be adjusted, would continue to use the same textbooks, the language of instruction would remain unchanged, Mongolian language and mother tongue classes would remain the same, and the existing bilingual education system would not be altered. Local language teaching would continue as it had in the past.

Cities promoting Mandarin

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The promotion of Mandarin is centered around cities, gradually extending to suburban and rural areas. Initially, cities with frequent population movement within dialect regions serve as pilot areas. Almost every dialect region has one or two "actively promoting Mandarin cities." These efforts are later replicated in other cities within the same dialect region, and eventually expanded to rural areas. The approach generally requires full adoption of Mandarin in education, media, and business. Once citizens form a habit of using Mandarin and an urban Mandarin atmosphere is established, some relaxation of the policy may occur. In cities with large-scale immigration, while not the focus of Mandarin promotion, the need to adapt to Mandarin becomes a practical requirement for the immigrant population.

The following cities have made significant efforts to promote Mandarin. Beginning in 1995, Mandarin was integrated into education and broadcasting, and by around 2000, Mandarin had become the primary language of communication in these cities:

• Zhongyuan Mandarin: Baoji
• Lan-Yin Mandarin: Yinchuan
• Ji-Lu Mandarin: Shijiazhuang
• Jiao-Liao Mandarin: Qingdao
• Jiang-Huai Mandarin: Hefei
• Southwest Mandarin: Wuhan
• Jin Chinese: Zhangjiakou
• Wu Chinese: Ningbo, Suzhou, Shanghai
• Min Chinese: Fuzhou, Xiamen
• Gan Chinese: Nanchang
• Hakka Chinese: Huizhou
• Xiang Chinese: Changsha
• Cantonese: Nanning

The following cities experienced a significant change in their linguistic environment due to large-scale immigration, where Mandarin gradually became the dominant language, although these cities did not undergo a forceful promotion of Mandarin:

• Wu Chinese: Suzhou (around 2007, Mandarin began to dominate), Hangzhou (around 2010, Mandarin began to dominate)
• Hakka Chinese: Shenzhen (around 2000, Mandarin began to dominate)

The following cities have long-term Mandarin promotion evaluations:

• Jiang-Huai Mandarin: Hefei
• Wu Chinese: Ningbo
• Hakka Chinese: Huizhou, Meizhou
• Cantonese: Nanning

Promoting Mandarin does not mean eliminating dialects. In many cities, while Mandarin is being promoted, there are also policies in place to preserve local dialects. For example, the government of Suzhou has strengthened interest classes in the Suzhou dialect and organized competitions in three languages (Mandarin, Wu Chinese, and English), which has helped alleviate dialect loss to some extent.

The Relationship Between Mandarin and Local Languages

The relationship between promoting Mandarin and preserving local languages has been a subject of debate. Many argue that the promotion of Mandarin may lead to the disappearance of local languages. Some believe that protecting dialects is a form of local protectionism, which could hinder the promotion of Mandarin. However, others argue that protecting dialects and promoting Mandarin are complementary and not contradictory.

On the other hand, some proponents of Mandarin argue that promoting Mandarin should involve completely "eliminating dialects." They view dialects as outdated, especially those without the official Mandarin accent, considering them as "pseudo-foreign languages" that hinder communication among the people of the country. These individuals argue that dialects rarely have any use in large-scale social settings and are considered "social cancers" or "superfluous." They believe that the gradual replacement of dialects by Mandarin is an inevitable part of historical development.

Evaluation

Positive Evaluation

1. Promoting and popularizing Mandarin, the national language, is beneficial in overcoming language barriers and promoting social interaction. It plays an important role in the economic, political, and cultural development of socialism.
2. With the development of the reform and opening-up policy and the socialist market economy, the demand for Mandarin has become increasingly urgent. Promoting Mandarin and creating a favorable language environment helps facilitate communication, the flow of goods, and the establishment of a unified market.
3. China is a multi-ethnic and multi-dialect country. The promotion of Mandarin enhances communication between different ethnic groups and regions, helps maintain national unity, and strengthens the cohesion of the Chinese nation.
4. Language and writing are important carriers of culture. Language proficiency is a fundamental element of cultural literacy, and promoting Mandarin is a key part of quality education in schools across China.
5. Information technology is one of the indicators of a nation's scientific and technological development. Language is the primary carrier of information, and the standardization of language and writing is a prerequisite for improving Chinese language information processing. Promoting Mandarin and implementing the Pinyin system contribute to the development and application of Chinese language information processing.

Negative Evaluation

In mainland China, Mandarin holds the statutory status of standard Chinese, and its promotion is supported by the government, giving it a natural advantage. However, China is home to a rich variety of Natural languages, some of which are still actively developing. The promotion of Mandarin inevitably conflicts with existing regional languages. While the Constitution of the People's Republic of China guarantees the position of Mandarin, it also protects the languages of ethnic minorities. However, the Constitution does not explicitly provide legal recognition or rights protection for other regional languages, leading to a conflict between promoting Mandarin and protecting Chinese dialects.

The extinction of local languages hinders the preservation of cultural diversity in local communities. Under the influence of promoting Mandarin, a significant number of younger generations now consider Mandarin their mother tongue and are less proficient in, or even unable to speak, their local languages. In many regions, there have been extreme cases where the promotion of Mandarin as the "universal language" suppresses the use of local languages.

Article 27 of the United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights stipulates that linguistic minorities have the right to "use their own language," yet as of 2013, the National People's Congress of China had not ratified this convention.

The Popularity of Standard Mandarin in Other Chinese-speaking Regions

Taiwan (Republic of China)

In Taiwan, the government under the Kuomintang's long-term rule strongly promoted Mandarin through the "National Language Movement," sometimes employing strict measures (such as the "Broadcasting Act", which limited the proportion of local language usage in media). This led Mandarin to become the primary language for the majority of Taiwanese people. It is estimated that approximately 90% of the population speaks Mandarin, and in many urban areas, Mandarin is used in over 40% of communication. Although the National Language Movement has been abolished and policies now focus on promoting local languages (including Taiwanese Hokkien, Hakka, and indigenous languages), Mandarin has continued to replace local languages, especially among younger generations of Hakka, indigenous, and Mainland Chinese descendants. This has caused a decline in the use of Taiwan's indigenous languages, with some experts predicting that Taiwanese Hokkien, once the dominant language of Han Chinese in Taiwan, could become extinct by the 21st century.

Hong Kong

Most schools in Hong Kong use Cantonese for teaching Chinese, known as "mother tongue teaching". Other subjects are typically taught in Cantonese or English (refer to EMI schools). After the signing of the Sino-British Joint Declaration in the 1980s, there was a growing trend of learning Mandarin. Many students and citizens paid for private Mandarin courses offered by institutions, and many visited research societies and language centers to inquire about learning Mandarin. A significant number of these learners were working professionals who wanted to study a new language during their free time, as well as students wanting to enrich themselves during their summer break. The Hong Kong Mandarin Study Society, a non-profit organization, was established in the 1970s with the goal of promoting Mandarin. Some large commercial enterprises, especially those with business ties to mainland China, even started offering internal Mandarin courses for their employees.

In September 1981, the Education Department, the predecessor of the current Education Bureau, launched a Mandarin trial program based on the recommendations of the Curriculum Development Council and societal needs. The first phase began with Primary 4 students and gradually expanded to Primary 6. The second phase of the program started in September 1984 for Secondary 1 students, and in 1986, Mandarin was officially introduced as a school subject. However, participation in the program was not mandatory for all schools, and schools were allowed to decide whether to implement the program. At the time, the program faced issues with a lack of qualified teachers, so the Education Department offered Mandarin courses for teachers to improve their skills. In the early 1980s, Mandarin was taught mainly using Zhuyin (Bopomofo) and then later with Hanyu Pinyin. Both phonetic systems were popular in Hong Kong, but since most Hong Kong residents were familiar with the English alphabet, Hanyu Pinyin gradually became more dominant. However, there was still debate in society about which system should be used. Some believed that Zhuyin should be taught to young children to avoid interference with learning English, and that Hanyu Pinyin should be introduced after students had mastered English.

In 1985, the number of people learning Mandarin increased by 20% to 30% compared to the previous year. Surveys at the time indicated that the main reasons for learning Mandarin were China's opening up policies and an increase in the number of people traveling to China, as knowing Mandarin would facilitate business, accommodation, and communication in China. Some groups, such as the Hong Kong Chinese Cultural Promotion Center, even organized Mandarin summer camps in Beijing, which included sightseeing and Mandarin classes.

After Handover of Hong Kong in 1997, the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) government promoted Mandarin education vigorously. Mandarin became a mandatory subject in schools from Primary 1 to Secondary 3, with Secondary 4 and above offering it as an elective subject. In 2007, the Standing Committee on Language Education and Research (SCOLAR) allocated HKD 200 million to implement the "Putonghua as the Medium of Instruction for Chinese Language" program in Hong Kong's primary and secondary schools, with an expected 160 schools participating. The chairman of the council, Michael Tien Puk-sun, stated that if schools had enough qualified teachers and expert support, teaching Chinese with Mandarin would help students improve their writing skills. However, some questioned the effectiveness of the "Mandarin for Chinese" teaching method. Some primary school principals argued that learning Chinese through Mandarin, instead of using the most familiar mother tongue (Cantonese), was less effective and that it was driven more by economic and political factors than by the best interests of the students' holistic development.

A book published by the Education University of Hong Kong (EdUHK), titled Questions and Answers on Teaching Chinese with Mandarin, found that many parents believed that learning Chinese through Mandarin would improve writing skills, but this may have been a psychological effect. At Pei Dao Primary School, it was found that students who learned Chinese with Mandarin had lower average grades compared to students who learned in Cantonese, with a difference of 1.49 points in the first semester and 2.36 points in the second semester.

Teachers who taught Mandarin admitted that language learning should prioritize understanding. In a Cantonese-speaking environment, using a second language (Mandarin) to learn Chinese could confuse students and hinder their comprehension. They also pointed out that Mandarin is not equivalent to written Chinese. For example, the phenomenon of "erhua" (the "r" sound) in Mandarin creates significant differences in meaning, as in the terms "zao dian" (breakfast) and "zao dian er" (earlier), though the "r" sound is rarely written in formal written Chinese.

In Hong Kong, locals who speak Cantonese as their mother tongue generally do not use Mandarin in daily communication, typically only using it when interacting with people from mainland China or Taiwan. Some new immigrants from mainland China actively learn Cantonese to better integrate into Hong Kong's life and communicate in Cantonese. Most Chinese documents in Hong Kong are written in vernacular Chinese, which can be read in either Mandarin or Cantonese. However, many articles in the community, especially on the internet, in newspapers, and in magazines, feature Cantonese expressions or Cantonese characters (Written Cantonese), creating a unique Hong Kong local culture. In Hong Kong music, many pop songs are available in both Mandarin and Cantonese versions, with Mandarin songs often recorded in Taiwan or using the Taiwanese Mandarin version. While there are many Cantonese-language TV programs, the subtitles are still in written vernacular Chinese.

Macau

During the Portuguese colonial period, the official language in Macau was Portuguese, but it was not widely spoken among the general population (only by Macanese people and government officials). Portuguese was not as widely used globally as English, so Cantonese remained the primary language spoken by the people of Macau. Like Hong Kong, English was also used as a second language. After Handover of Macau in 1999, the Chinese government began promoting Mandarin in Macau. However, like Hong Kong, where Cantonese remains the dominant language, Cantonese characters are still frequently used in daily life in Macau.

Singapore

After its independence, Singapore adopted English as its primary language, but actively promoted Standard Chinese, primarily targeting the majority Chinese population. Despite this, the influence of English remained strong. After 30 years of the "Speak Mandarin Campaign," the number of people using dialects (the most common Chinese dialects in Singapore are Hokkien and Teochew) significantly decreased, but many of these people switched to speaking English instead. Given Singapore's multilingual environment, which includes Malay, Tamil, and other languages, the government promoted English as a unifying language.

Malaysia

In Malaysia, the Chinese population, the second-largest ethnic group, primarily speaks Mandarin. However, many still commonly communicate in dialects such as Hokkien (Quanzhang and Teochew), Hakka, Cantonese, or Min Dong. The influence of Taiwanese Hokkien programs and Hong Kong Cantonese shows has led to some dialectal features being incorporated into the Mandarin accent. However, changes in family and social structures, national language policies (where Malay is the official and national language, and English is an accepted language), and competition between languages have led to significant shifts in the choice of communication languages.

Other Similar National Language Promotion Movements

Similar national language promotion movements, akin to the promotion of Putonghua, have also occurred in countries and regions outside the Greater China area.

France

France's movement to eliminate regional languages (Patois, including dialects and minority languages) lasted for over two centuries, ending only in 1960. In the Brittany region, elementary schools even displayed slogans such as "No spitting on the ground, no speaking Breton." The forced nature of the French language promotion and inappropriate slogans in schools led the Occitans to feel shame about their ancestral languages and culture (Vergonha). Apart from the relatively strong Alsatian language due to German influence, most regional languages in France have declined.

Japan

After the Meiji Restoration, Japan implemented measures such as "standard language promotion" and "dialect elimination movements," replacing local dialects and minority languages with standard Japanese across the Japanese islands. For instance, the Japanese authorities banned the use of the Ryukyu language. The Ryukyu language (Okinawan) is now endangered. In Hokkaido, the implementation of pure Japanese education led to the Ainu language, which had no relation to other languages, being reduced to only ten speakers by 2007, with the younger generation not identifying with Ainu people. However, since Ainu folklorist and former member of parliament Kayano Shigeru initiated the Ainu language revitalization movement, the number of people willing to learn Ainu has been increasing, and the social status of the Ainu language has also improved.

Italy

In Italy, the movement to promote standardized Italian based on Tuscan did not involve banning local dialects, resulting in a phenomenon of dual-language use. For example, in Venice, standard Italian was used as the upper-level language, while Venetian was used as the lower-level language.

See also

• Standard Chinese
• Language revitalization
• Linguistic imperialism
• Dialect card
• Language shift
• Protection of the varieties of Chinese

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