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Uyghur Khaganate𐱃𐰆𐰴𐰕:𐰆𐰍𐰕:𐰉𐰆𐰑𐰣 Toquz Oɣuz budun
744–840
Tamga of the Yaglakar clan
SIND800UYGHUR KHAGANATEGURJARA- PRATIHARASRASHTRA- KUTASPALA EMPIRECHAM- PANAN- ZHAOTURK SHAHISTANG DYNASTYSILLAKhitansJurchensTungusKARLUK YABGHUTatarsCHENLADVARA- VATISRIVIJAYAKyrgyzsPaleo-SiberiansSamoyedsKimeksTangutsShatuosABBASID CALIPHATEKHAZAR KHAGANATEBYZANTINE EMPIREOGHUZ- YABGUSTIBETAN EMPIRETerritory of the Uyghur Khaganate (745–850), and main contemporary polities in continental Asia
Status	Khaganate (Nomadic empire)
Capital	Ötüken Ordu-Baliq (later)
Common languages	Old Uyghur Middle Chinese
Religion	Manichaeism (official) Tengrism Buddhism Nestorian Christianity
Government	Monarchy
Khagan
• 744–747	Qutlugh Bilge Köl (first)
• 841–847	Enian Qaghan (last)
History
• Established	744
• Disestablished	840
Area
800	3,100,000 km (1,200,000 sq mi)
Preceded by Succeeded by Second Turkic Khaganate Kara-Khanid Khanate Gansu Uyghur Kingdom Kingdom of Qocho Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate

The Uyghur Khaganate (also Uyghur Empire or Uighur Khaganate, self defined as Toquz-Oghuz country; Old Turkic: 𐱃𐰆𐰴𐰕:𐰆𐰍𐰕:𐰉𐰆𐰑𐰣, romanized: Toquz Oɣuz budun, lit. 'Nine clan people', Tang-era names, with modern Hanyu Pinyin: Chinese: 回鶻; pinyin: Huíhú or Chinese: 回紇; pinyin: Huíhé) was a Turkic empire that existed for about a century between the mid 8th and 9th centuries. It was a tribal confederation under the Orkhon Uyghur (回鶻) nobility, referred to by the Chinese as the Jiu Xing ("Nine Clans"), a calque of the name Toquz Oghuz or Toquz Tughluq.

History

Rise

In the mid-5th century, Uyghurs constituted a tribe of the Tiele, which was also under the Turkic Khaganate.

In 657, the Western Turkic Khaganate was defeated by the Tang dynasty, after which the Uyghurs defected to the Tang. Prior to this the Uyghurs had already shown an inclination towards alliances with the Tang when they fought with them against the Tibetan Empire and Turks in 627.

In 742, the Uyghurs, Karluks, and Basmyls rebelled against the Second Turkic Khaganate.

In 744, the Basmyls captured the Turk capital of Ötüken and killed the reigning Özmiş Khagan. Later that year, a Uyghur-Karluk alliance formed against the Basmyls and defeated them. Their khagan was killed, and the Basmyls ceased to exist as a people. Hostilities between the Uyghurs and Karluks then forced the Karluks to migrate west into Zhetysu and conflict with the Türgesh, whom they defeated and conquered in 766.

The Uyghur khagan's personal name was Qullığ Boyla (Chinese: 骨力裴羅). He took the title Kutlug Bilge Kol Khagan (Glorious, wise, mighty khagan), claiming to be the supreme ruler of all the tribes. He built his capital at Ordu-Baliq. According to Chinese sources, the territory of the Uyghur Empire then reached "on its eastern extremity, the territory of Shiwei, on the west the Altai Mountains, on the south it controlled the Gobi Desert, so it covered the entire territory of the ancient Xiongnu".

In 745, the Uyghurs killed the last khagan of the Göktürks, Kulun Beg (白眉可汗 鶻隴匐), and sent his head to the Tang.

Tribal composition

Tang Huiyao, vol. 98, listed nine Toquz Oghuz surname tribes (姓部 xìngbù); another list of tribes (部落 bùluò) was recorded in the Old Book of Tang and the New Book of Tang. According to Japanese scholars Hashimoto, Katayama, and Senga, each name in the lists in the Books of Tang recorded each subtribal surname of each chief, while the other list in Tang Huiyao recorded the names of the Toquz Oghuz tribes proper. Walter Bruno Henning (1938) linked nine names recorded in the Saka language "Staël-Holstein Scroll" with those recorded by Han Chinese authors.

Notes

1. Tang Huiyao manuscript has 骨崙屋骨恐; Ulrich Theobald (2012) amended 恐 (kong) to 思 (si) & proposed that 屋骨思 transcribed Oğuz

Golden Age

In 747, Qutlugh Bilge Köl Kaghan died, leaving his youngest son, Bayanchur Khan to reign as Khagan El etmish bilge "State settled, wise". After building a number of trading outposts with the Tang, Bayanchur Khan used the profits to construct the capital, Ordu-Baliq, and another city further up the Selenga River, Bai Baliq. The new khagan then embarked on a series of campaigns to bring all the steppe peoples under his banner. During this time the Empire expanded rapidly and brought the Sekiz Oghuz, Kyrgyz, Karluks, Turgesh, Toquz Tatars, Chiks and the remnants of the Basmyls under Uyghur rule.

In 751, the Tang Empire suffered a strategic defeat against the Arabs at the Battle of Talas. After that, the Tang retreated from Central Asia, allowing the Uyghur to emerge as the new dominant power.

In 755 An Lushan instigated a rebellion against the Tang dynasty and Emperor Suzong of Tang turned to Bayanchur Khan for assistance in 756. The khagan of the Uyghur Khaganate agreed and ordered his eldest son to provide military service to the Tang emperor. Approximately 4,000 Uyghur horsemen assisted Tang armies in retaking Chang'an and Luoyang in 757. After the battle at Luoyang the Uyghurs looted the city for three days and only stopped after large quantities of silk were extracted. For their aid, the Tang sent 20,000 rolls of silk and bestowed them with honorary titles. In addition the horse trade was fixed at 40 rolls of silk for every horse and Uyghurs were given "guest" status while staying in Tang China. The Tang and Uyghurs conducted an exchange marriage. Bayanchur Khan married Princess Ninguo while a Uyghur princess was married to a Tang prince. The Uyghur Khaganate exchanged princesses in marriage with Tang dynasty China in 756 to seal the alliance against An Lushan. The Uyghur Khagan Bayanchur Khan had his daughter Uyghur Princess Pijia (毗伽公主) married to Tang dynasty Chinese Prince Li Chengcai (李承采), Prince of Dunhuang (敦煌王李承采), son of Li Shouli, Prince of Bin. while the Tang dynasty Chinese princess Ningguo 寧國公主, daughter of Emperor Suzong, married Uyghur Khagan Bayanchur.

In 758, the Uyghurs turned their attention to the northern Yenisei Kyrgyz. Bayanchur Khan destroyed several of their trading outposts before slaughtering a Kyrgyz army and executing their Khan.

On the ren-shen day of the fifth month of the first year of the Qianyuan reign , The envoys from Hui-he , Duo-yi-hai-a-bo and others, totaling eighty people, and an emir from the Black-robed Dashi , Nao-wen and others, totaling eight people, come at the same time to pay a visit ; when they walk to the side entrance of the palace, argue who should be the first . The interpreters and palace secretaries arrange them as left team and right team, and enter through the Eastern Gate and the Western Gate all at once. Wen-she-shi and the Black-robed Dashi envoy pay their visit .

— Cefu Yuangui

In 759 the Uyghurs attempted to assist the Tang in stamping out the rebels but failed. Bayanchur Khan died and his son Tengri Bögü succeeded him as Khagan Qutlugh Tarkhan sengün.

In 762 Tengri Bögü planned to invade the Tang with 4,000 soldiers but after negotiations switched sides and assisted them in defeating the rebels at Luoyang. After the battle the Uyghurs looted the city. When the people fled to Buddhist temples for protection, the Uyghurs burnt them down, killing over 10,000. For their aid, the Tang was forced to pay 100,000 pieces of silk to get them to leave. During the campaign the khagan encountered Manichaean priests who converted him to Manichaeism. From then on the official religion of the Uyghur Khaganate became Manichaeism.

Decline

In 779, Tengri Bögü planned to invade the Tang dynasty based on the advice of his Sogdian courtiers. However, Tengri Bögü's uncle, Tun Baga Tarkhan, opposed this plan and killed him and "nearly two thousand people from among the kaghan's family, his clique and the Sogdians." Tun Bagha Tarkhan ascended the throne, with the title Alp Qutlugh Bilge "Victorious, glorious, wise", and enforced a new set of laws, which he designed to secure the unity of the khaganate. During his reign, Manichaeism was suppressed, but his successors restored it as the official religion.

In 780, a group of Uyghurs and Sogdians was killed while leaving Chang'an with tribute. Tun demanded 1,800,000 strings of cash in compensation and the Tang agreed to pay this amount in gold and silk. In 789, Tun Bagha Tarkhan died and his son succeeded him as Külüg Qaghan. The Karluks took this opportunity to encroach on Uyghur territory and annexed Futu Valley. In 790, the Uyghurs and Tang forces were defeated by Tibetan Empire at Tingzhou (Beshbalik). Külüg Qaghan died, and his son, A-ch'o, succeeded him as Qutluq Bilge Qaghan.

In 791, the Tibetans attacked Lingzhou but were driven off by the Uyghurs, who presented captured prisoners and cattle to Emperor Dezong of Tang. The Tibetans and Karluks suffered another defeat against the Uyghurs at Beiting. The captured Tibetan general Zan Rgyal sum was sent to Dezong. In 792, the Uyghurs, led by Baoyi Qaghan, defeated the Tibetans and Karluks, taking Gaochang. Not long after the Tibetans attacked Yushu, a fortified town 560 li east of Kucha. They were besieged by Baoyi there and destroyed. In 795, Qutluq Bilge Qaghan died and the Yaghlakar dynasty came to an end. A general, Qutluq II, declared himself the new qaghan under the title Ay Tängridä ülüg bulmïsh alp qutlugh ulugh bilgä qaghan "Greatly born in moon heaven, victorious, glorious, great and wise qaghan", founding a new dynasty, the Ädiz (Chinese: 阿跌氏).

In 803, the Uyghurs captured Qocho. In 808, Qutluq II died and his son, Baoyi, succeeded him. In the same year, the Uyghurs seized Liang Province from the Tibetans. In 816, a Tibetan raid reached within two days' journey of the Uyghur capital, Ordu-Baliq. In 821, Baoyi Qaghan died, and his son, Chongde, succeeded him. Chongde was considered the last great khagan of the Uyghur Khaganate and bore the title Kün tengride ülüg bulmïsh alp küchlüg bilge "Greatly born in sun heaven, victorious, strong and wise". His achievements included improved trade up with the region of Sogdia, and on the battlefield he repulsed a force of invading Tibetans in 821. After defeating the Tibetan and Karluk force, the Uyghurs entered the Principality of Ushrusana and plundered the region. In 822, the Uyghurs sent troops to help the Tang in quelling rebels. The Tang refused the offer but had to pay them 70,000 pieces of silk to go home. In 823, the Tibetan Empire waged war on the Uyghurs. In 824, Chongde died and was succeeded by a brother, Qasar. In 832, Qasar was murdered. He was succeeded by the son of Chongde, Hu. In the same year, the Tibetan Empire failed to make war on the Uyghurs.

Fall

In 839, Hu was forced to commit suicide and a minister named Kürebir seized the throne with the help of 20,000 Shatuo horsemen from Ordos. In the same year, there was a famine and an epidemic, with a particularly severe winter that killed much of the livestock the Uyghur economy was based on.

In 840, one of nine Uyghur ministers, Kulug Bagha, rival of Kurebir, fled to the Yenisei Kyrgyz and invited them to invade from the north. With a force of around 80,000 horsemen, they sacked the Uyghur capital at Ordu-Baliq, razing it to the ground. The Kyrgyz captured the Uyghur Khagan, Kürebir (Hesa/Qasar), and promptly beheaded him. They went on to destroy other cities throughout the Uyghur empire, burning them to the ground. The Uyghurs fled in two groups. A 30,000-strong group led by the aristocrat Ormïzt sought refuge in Tang territory but Emperor Wuzong of Tang ordered the borders to be closed. The other group, 100,000 strong, led by Öge, son of Baoyi and the new khagan of the defeated Uyghur Khaganate, also fled to Tang territory. However Öge demanded a Tang city for residence as well as the protection of Manichaeans and food. Wuzong found the demands unacceptable and refused. He granted Ormïzt asylum in return for the use of his troops against Öge. Two years later, Wuzong extended the order to ban Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and especially Buddhism.

The Yenisei Kyrgyz and Tang dynasty launched a successful war between 840 and 848 against the Uyghur Khaganate using their claimed familial ties as justification for an alliance.

In 841, Öge led the Uyghurs in an invasion of today's Shaanxi.

In 843, a Tang army led by Shi Xiong attacked the Uyghurs led by Öge and slaughtered 10,000 Uyghurs on February 13, 843, at "Kill the Barbarians" Mountain (Shahu). Öge was wounded. After the defeat of Öge, Wuzong ordered Ormïzt's troops to be broken up and dispersed among different units. Ormïzt refused to obey. His troops were massacred by general Liu Mian. With the defeat of the two major Uyghur groups, Wuzong saw his chance to get rid of the Manichaeans. He ordered Manichaean temples in several cities to be destroyed, the confiscation of their estates, and the execution of the clergy.

In the fourth moon of 843 an Imperial edict was issued the Manichaean priests of the empire to be killed. The Manichaean priests are highly respected by the Uighurs.

— Ennin

In 846, the penultimate Uyghur khagan, Öge, was killed after having spent his 6-year reign fighting the Kyrgyz, the supporters of his rival Ormïzt, a brother of Kürebir, and Tang dynasty troops in Ordos and today Shaanxi. His brother, Enian Qaghan, was decisively defeated by Tang forces in 847.

Successors

The Yenisei Kyrgyz who replaced the Uyghur Khaganate were unsophisticated and had little interest in running the empire which they had destroyed. They held the territory from Lake Baikal in the east to the Irtysh River in the west and left Kulug Bagha, the Uyghur who defected to them, in charge of the Orkhon Valley. During the reign of Emperor Yizong of Tang (860–873), there were three recorded contacts between the Tang and Kyrgyz, but the nature of their relationship remains unclear. Tang policy makers argued that there was no point in building any relations with the Kyrgyz since the Uyghurs no longer threatened them. The Khitans seized the Orkhon Valley from the Kyrgyz in 890 and no further opposition from the Kyrgyz is recorded.

The Khitan ruler Abaoji did extend his influence onto the Mongolian Plateau in 924, but there is no indication whatsoever of any conflict with the Kyrgyz. The only information we have from Khitan (Liao) sources regarding the Kyrgyz indicates that the two powers maintained diplomatic relations. Scholars who write of a Kyrgyz "empire" from about 840 to about 924 are describing a fantasy. All available evidence suggests that despite some brief extensions of their power onto the Mongolian Plateau, the Kyrgyz did not maintain a significant political or military presence there after their victories in the 840s.

— Michael Drompp

After the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate, the Uyghurs migrated south and established the Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom in modern Gansu and the Kingdom of Qocho near modern Turpan. The Uyghurs in Qocho converted to Buddhism, and, according to Mahmud al-Kashgari, were "the strongest of the infidels", while the Ganzhou Uyghurs were conquered by the Tangut people in the 1030s. Even so, Kashgari praised contemporary Uyghurs as bilingual Turkophones whose Turkic dialect remained "pure" and "most correct" (just like dialects spoken by monolingual Yagmas, and Tuhsis); meanwhile, Kashgari derided other bilingual Turkophones (Qay, Tatars, Basmyls, Chömüls, Yabakus, etc.), for incorporating foreign loanwords and "slurring" in their speech. In 1134, Qocho became a vassal of Yelü Dashi's nascent Qara Khitai empire. In 1209, the Qocho ruler Idiqut (" Lord of happiness") Barchuk Art Tegin declared his allegiance to Genghis Khan, and the Uyghurs became important civil servants in the later Mongol Empire, which adapted the Old Uyghur alphabet as its official script. According to the New Book of Tang, a third group went to seek refuge among the Karluks.

The Karluks, together with other tribes such as the Chigils and Yagmas, later founded the Kara-Khanid Khanate (940–1212). Some historians associate the Karakhanids with the Uyghurs as the Yaghmas were linked to the Toquz Oghuz. Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan, believed to be a Yagma from Artux, converted to Islam in 932 and seized control of Kashgar in 940, giving rise to the new dynasty, known as Karakhanids.

Relationship with the Sogdians

In order to control trade along the Silk Road, the Uyghurs established a trading relationship with the Sogdian merchants who controlled some oases of Central Asia. As described above, the Uyghur adoption of Manichaeism was one aspect of this relationship—choosing Manichaeism over Buddhism may have been motivated by a desire to show independence from Tang influence. Not all Uyghurs supported conversion - an inscription at Ordu-Baliq states that Manichaens tried to divert people from their ancient shamanistic beliefs. A rather partisan account from a Uyghur-Manichean text of that period demonstrates the unbridled enthusiasm of the khaghan for Manichaeism:

"At that time when the divine Bogu Khan had thus spoken, we the Elects of all the people living within the land rejoiced. It is impossible to describe this ourjoy. The people told the story to one another and rejoiced. At that time, groups of thousands and tens of thousands assembled and with pastimes of all sorts they entertained themselves even unto dawn. And at the break of the day they made a short fast. The divine ruler Bogu Khan and all the elects of his retinue mounted on horses, and all the princes and the princesses led by those of high repute, the big and the small, the whole people, amidst great rejoicing proceeded to the gate of the city. And when the divine ruler had entered the city, he put the crown on his head... and sat upon the golden throne."

— Uyghur-Manichean text.

As conversion was based on political and economic concerns regarding trade with the Sogdians, it was driven by the rulers and often encountered resistance in lower societal strata. Furthermore, as the khaghan's political power depended on his ability to provide economically for his subjects, "alliance with the Sogdians through adopting their religion was an important way of securing this objective." Both the Sogdians and the Uyghurs benefited enormously from this alliance. The Sogdians enabled the Uyghurs to trade in the Western Regions and exchange silk from China for other goods. For the Sogdians it provided their Chinese trading communities with Uyghur protection. The 5th and 6th centuries saw a large emigration of Sogdians to China. The Sogdians were main traders along the Silk Roads, and China was always their biggest market. Among the paper clothing found in the Astana cemetery near Turfan is a list of taxes paid on caravan trade in the Gaochang kingdom in the 620s. The text is incomplete, but out of the 35 commercial operations it lists, 29 involve a Sogdian trader. Ultimately both rulers of nomadic origin and sedentary states recognized the importance of merchants like the Sogdians and made alliances to further their own agendas in controlling the Silk Roads.

• Uyghur Manichaean Elect depicted on a temple banner from Qocho
• Uyghur Manichaean Electae (female Chosen ones) from Qocho
• Uyghur Manichaean clergymen from Qocho
• Fresco of Palm Sunday from Qocho

Karabalghasun

The Uyghurs created an empire with clear Persian influences, particularly in areas of government. Soon after the empire was founded, they emulated sedentary states by establishing a permanent, settled capital, Karabalghasun (Ordu-Baliq), built on the site of the former Göktürk imperial capital, northwest of the later Mongol capital, Karakorum. The city was a fully fortified commercial center, typical along the Silk Road, with concentric walls and lookout towers, stables, military and commercial stores, and administrative buildings. Certain areas of the town were allotted for trade and handcrafts, while in the center of the town were palaces and temples, including a monastery. The palace had fortified walls and two main gates, as well as moats filled with water and watchtowers.

The khaghan maintained his court there and decided the policies of the empire. With no fixed settlement, the Xiongnu had been limited in their acquisition of Chinese goods to what they could carry. As stated by Thomas Barfield, "the more goods a nomadic society acquired the less mobility it had, hence, at some point, one was more vulnerable trying to protect a rich treasure house by moving it than by fortifying it." By building a fixed city, the Uyghurs created a protected storage space for trade goods from China. They could hold a stable, fixed court, receive traders, and effectively cement their central role in Silk Road exchange. However, the vulnerability that came with having a fixed city was to be the downfall of the Uyghurs.

List of Uyghur Khagans

The following list is based on Yihong Pan's "Sui-Tang Foreign Policy: Four case studies".

Menglig Qaghan (r. 848–?), (personal name, Mang/Pang Te-qin 厖特勤), sovereign title: Ay Tengride Qut Bolmiş Alp Kutlugh Bilge Qaghan 溫祿登里邏汩沒密施合俱錄毗伽, Chinese title: Huaijian Qaghan 懷建可汗. He moved his political centre to the west.

Genetics

A 2020 study analyzed the genetic ancestry of 12 Uyghur Khaganate individuals c. 9th Century C.E. from Mongolia. The sample exhibited high (~60%) but variable West Eurasian ancestry, modeled as a mixture of Indo-Iranian Alans and Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex ancestry. The sample also carried substantial (~40%) ancestry from an East Asian source, closely related to the Slab Grave culture. The admixture between West and East Eurasian sources was estimated to have occurred around the year 500 CE.

Of the 5 Uyghur males analyzed, 4 (or 80%) carried the West Eurasian paternal haplogroup Haplogroup R1b, while 1 (or 20%) carried the East Eurasian haplogroup Q1a. Of the 12 maternal haplogroups detected, 58% were of East Eurasian origin (A, B, D, G) while 41% were of West Eurasian origin (J T, H).

An Uyghur Male carried East Eurasian Y Haplogroup C2 and mtDNA haplogroup D4.

An Uyghur remain (GD1-3) analysed in a 2024 study was found to have carried primarily ancestry derived from Ancient Northeast Asians (c. 83% ±2–3%) with the remainder ancestry being derived from Western Steppe Herders (Sarmatians; c. 17% ±2–3%). The authors note that this is "providing a new piece of information on this understudied period".

Buddhist and Manichean Uyghur artifacts

Below is a set of images of Buddhist and Manichean Uyghurs, found from the Bezeklik caves and Mogao grottoes.

• Uyghur woman from the Bezeklik murals
• Uyghur princesses
• Uyghur donors
• Uyghur prince from the Bezeklik murals
• Uyghur noble from the Bezeklik murals

See also

History of the Turkic peoples pre–14th century
Turkic peoples Onogurs Oghuz Turks Saragurs Utigurs Bulgars Sabir Kutrigurs Karluks Kimek Kipchaks Cherniye Klobuki Uyghurs Tatars Kumyks Yakuts Dolgans Krymchaks Crimean Karaites
Turkic Languages Turkish Azerbaijani Uzbek Kazakh Uyghur Turkmen Tatar Kyrgyz Bashkir Chuvash Qasgqai Karakalpak Sakha Kumyk Karachay-Balkar Tuvan Gagauz Karaim Krymchak
Turkic Mythology Belief system: Tengrism and Shamanism Chief gods and goddesses: Kayra and Ülgen Epics and heroes: Ergenekon and Asena Major concepts: Sheka and Grey wolf
Pre-14th century Yenisei Kyrgyz People 202 BCE–13th CE Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate Dingling 71 BC–?? AD Tiele (Gaoche) Göktürks First Turkic Khaganate 552–581 Western Turkic Khaganate 581–657 (Tokhara Yabghus, Turk Shahis) Eastern Turkic Khaganate 581–650 Second Turkic Khaganate 682–744 Sabiri People Khazar Khaganate 618–1048 Xueyantuo 628–646 Kangar Union 659–750 Turk Shahi 665-850 Türgesh Khaganate 699–766 Kimek–Kipchak Confederation 743–1035 Uyghur Khaganate 744–840 Oghuz Yabgu State 750–1055 Karluk Yabgu State 756–940 Kara-Khanid Khanate 840–1212 Western Kara-Khanid Eastern Kara-Khanid Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom 848–1036 Qocho 856–1335 Pecheneg Khanates 860–1091 Ghaznavid Empire 963–1186 Seljuk Empire 1037–1194 Sultanate of Rum Cuman–Kipchak Confederation 1067–1239 Khwarazmian Empire 1077–1231 Kerait Khanate 11th century–13th century Atabegs of Azerbaijan 1136–1225 Delhi Sultanate 1206–1526 Mamluk dynasty Khalji dynasty Tughlaq dynasty Qarlughid Kingdom 1224–1266 Golden Horde 1242–1502 Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo) 1250–1517 Bahri dynasty Ottoman State 1299–1922
v t e

History of Mongolia
Timeline States Rulers Nobility Culture Politics Geography Language Religion
Prehistoric period Afanasievo culture 3300–2500 BC Chemurchek culture 2750–1900 BC Munkhkhairkhan culture 1800–1600 BC Sagsai culture 1500–1000 BC Ulaanzuukh culture 1450–1150 BC Deer stones culture 1400–700 BC Slab-grave culture 1100–300 BC Chandman culture 700–300 BC Pazyryk culture 600–300 BC
Ancient period Xiongnu 209 BC–93 AD Xianbei state 93–234 Rouran Khaganate 330–555 Göktürks (First, Eastern, and Second Turkic Khaganates) 555–630 682–744 Xueyantuo 628–646 Tang protectorate 647–682 Uyghur Khaganate 744–840 Liao dynasty 907–1125
Medieval period Mongol khanates 9th–12th century Khamag Mongol 1130–1206 Mongol Empire 1206–1368 Yuan dynasty 1271–1368 Northern Yuan 1368–1635 Oirat Confederation 1399–1634 Dzungar Khanate 1634–1757 Qing dynasty 1691–1911
Modern period National Revolution 1911 Bogd Khaganate 1911–1919 Chinese occupation 1919–1921 People's Revolution (Soviet intervention in Bogd Khanate) 1921 1921–1924 People's Republic 1924–1992 Democratic Revolution 1990 Modern Mongolia 1990–present
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Part of a series on the
History of Kazakhstan
Ancient Scythia Saka Wusun Kangju Kingdom Huns
Khanates Rouran 330–555 Turkic (Göktürks) 552–745 Karluk 665–744 Kimek 743–1220 Oghuz 750–1055 Kara-Khanid 840–1212 Qara Khitai 1124–1218 Mongol Empire 1206–1368 Golden Horde 1240s–1446 Uzbek Khanate 1428-1465 Kazakh Khanate 1465–1847
Post-nomadic period Russian Turkestan 1867–1918 Governor-Generalship of the Steppes 1882–1918 Alash Autonomy 1918–1920 Kirghiz ASSR 1920–1925 Kazakh ASSR 1925–1936 Kazakh SSR 1936–1991 Republic of Kazakhstan 1991–present
Topics Culture Geography Healthcare Religion Buddhism Eastern Orthodoxy Islam Judaism
Other Outline of Kazak military history Bibliography of Kazak history
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• History of Turkic people
• History of the Uyghur people
• An Lushan Rebellion
• Ethnic groups in Chinese history
• Guo Ziyi

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17. Rong, Xinjian (24 October 2022). "Gaochang in the Second Half of the 5th Century and Its Relations with the Rouran Qaghanate and the Kingdoms of the Western Regions". The Silk Road and Cultural Exchanges between East and West. Brill. pp. 577–578. doi:10.1163/9789004512597_006. ISBN 978-90-04-51259-7.
18. Golden 1992, p. 156–157.
19. Senga, T. (1990). "The Toquz Oghuz Problem and the Origins of the Khazars". Journal of Asian History. 24 (1): 57–69. JSTOR 419253799.
20. Henning 1938, p. 554–558.
21. Tang Huiyao, Vol. 98
22. Theobald, U. "Huihe 回紇, Huihu 回鶻, Weiwur 維吾爾, Uyghurs" in ChinaKnowledge.de – An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art
23. Rhie, Marylin Martin (15 July 2019). Early Buddhist Art of China and Central Asia, Volume 2 The Eastern Chin and Sixteen Kingdoms Period in China and Tumshuk, Kucha and Karashahr in Central Asia (2 vols). BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-39186-4. After the disastrous defeat of the T'ang armies to the rising power of the Arabs at the Battle of the Talas River in 751, T'ang pulled out of Central Asia and the area around Turfan came under the control of the Uighurs, who emerged as the dominant power of Eastern Central Asia.
24. ^ Barfield 1989, p. 152.
25. Wan 2017, p. 42.
26. Barfield 1989, p. 152–153.
27. ^ Bosworth 2000, p. 70.
28. Asimov 1998, p. 194.
29. Barfield 1989, p. 153.
30. ^ Barfield 1989, p. 154.
31. "Chapter 195". 舊唐書 [Old Book of Tang]. 葛祿乘勝取回紇之浮圖川，回紇震恐，悉遷西北部落羊馬於牙帳之南以避之。 (In Xin Tangshu, Fu-tu valley (浮圖川) was referred to as Shen-tu Valley 深圖川)
32. Beckwith 1987, p. 155-156.
33. Beckwith 1987, p. 156.
34. Bregel 2003, p. 20.
35. Wang 2013, p. 184.
36. "The Tibetans in the Ordos and North China: Considerations on the Role of the Tibetan Empire in World History" (PDF).
37. Beckwith 1987, p. 165.
38. ^ Wang 2013, p. 187.
39. SKUPNIEWICZ, Patryk (Siedlce University, Poland) (2017). Crowns, hats, turbans and helmets.The headgear in Iranian history volume I: Pre-Islamic Period. Siedlce-Tehran: K. Maksymiuk & G. Karamian. p. 253.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
40. "chapter 217 part 2". 新唐書 [New Book of Tang]. 方歲饑，遂疫，又大雪，羊、馬多死
41. Drompp 2005, p. 37.
42. ^ Baumer 2012, p. 310-311.
43. Drompp, Michael R. (1999). "Breaking the Orkhon Tradition: Kirghiz Adherence to the Yenisei Region after A. D. 840". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 119 (3): 390–403. doi:10.2307/605932. JSTOR 605932. Retrieved 4 September 2021.
44. ^ Drompp 2005, p. 114.
45. Dardess, John W. (10 September 2010). Governing China: 150–1850. Hackett Publishing. pp. 32–. ISBN 978-1-60384-447-5.
46. Drompp, Michael R. (2018). "THE UIGHUR-CHINESE CONFLICT OF 840–848". In Cosmo, Nicola Di (ed.). Warfare in Inner Asian History (500-1800). Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 8 Uralic & Central Asian Studies. BRILL. p. 92. ISBN 978-9004391789.
47. Drompp, Michael R. (2018). "THE UIGHUR-CHINESE CONFLICT OF 840–848". In Cosmo, Nicola Di (ed.). Warfare in Inner Asian History (500-1800). Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 8 Uralic & Central Asian Studies. BRILL. p. 99. ISBN 978-9004391789.
48. ^ Baumer 2012, p. 310.
49. Barfield 1989, p. 165.
50. Golden 1992, p. 181.
51. Drompp, Michael (January 2002), "The Yenisei Kyrgyz from Early Times to the Mongol Conquest", The Turks, 1, Ankara: Yeni Türkiye: 480–488
52. Golden 2011, p. 47.
53. Millward 2007, p. 50.
54. Maħmūd al-Kašğari. "Dīwān Luğāt al-Turk". Edited & translated by Robert Dankoff in collaboration with James Kelly. In Sources of Oriental Languages and Literature. (1982). Part I. p. 82-84
55. 新唐書 [New Book of Tang]. 俄而渠長句錄莫賀與黠戛斯合騎十萬攻回鶻城，殺可汗，誅掘羅勿，焚其牙，諸部潰其相馺職與厖特勒十五部奔葛邏祿，殘眾入吐蕃、安西。
56. Sinor 1990, p. 355–357.
57. ^ Sinor 1990.
58. ^ Prof. R. Roemer, ed. (1984). "The Uighur Empire of Mongolia (chapter 5)". Guo ji zhongguo bian jiang xue shu hui yi lun wen chu gao. Taipei.
59. de la Vaissière, Étienne. "Sogdians in China: a short history and some new discoveries".
60. Azad, Shirzad (9 February 2017). Iran and China: A New Approach to Their Bilateral Relations. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 34. ISBN 978-1-4985-4458-0.
61. ^ Barfield 1989.
62. Pan, Yihong (1990). Sui-Tang foreign policy: four case studies (Thesis). University of British Columbia. doi:10.14288/1.0098752.
63. Swendseid, Katrina (1 January 2018). "Turkic Stelae - Figures". Turkic Stelae of Central and Inner Asia: 6th - 13th Centuries C.E.: Figure 34.
64. Jeong 2020: "The high genetic heterogeneity of the Early Medieval period is vividly exemplified by 12 individuals from the Uyghur period cemetery of Olon Dov (OLN; Figure 2) in the vicinity of the Uyghur capital of Ordu-Baliq. Six of these individuals came from a single tomb (grave 19), of whom only two are related (OLN002 and OLN003, second-degree; Table S2D); the absence of closer kinship ties raises questions about the function of such tombs and the social relationships of those buried within them. Most Uyghur-period individuals exhibit a high but variable degree of west Eurasian ancestry—best modeled as a mixture of Alans, a historic nomadic pastoral group likely descended from the Sarmatians and contemporaries of the Huns (Bachrach, 1973), and an Iranian-related (BMAC-related) ancestry—together with Ulaanzuukh_SlabGrave (ANA-related) ancestry (Figure 3E). The admixture dates estimated for the ancient Türkic and Uyghur individuals in this study correspond to ca. 500 CE: 8 ± 2 generations before the Türkic individuals and 12 ± 2 generations before the Uyghur individuals (represented by ZAA001 and Olon Dov individuals)."
65. Jeong, Choongwon (12 November 2020). "A Dynamic 6,000-Year Genetic History of Eurasia's Eastern Steppe". Cell. 183 (4): 890–904.e29. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.10.015. ISSN 0092-8674. PMC 7664836. PMID 33157037. Haplogroup information found in Table S2, S2C_SexHaplogroups, Supplementary Materials GUID: E914F9CE-9ED4-4E0F-9172-5A54A08E9F6B
66. Jeong, Choongwon; Wang, Ke; Wilkin, Shevan; Taylor, William Timothy Treal; Miller, Bryan K.; Ulziibayar, Sodnom; Stahl, Raphaela; Chiovelli, Chelsea; Bemmann, Jan H. (2020-03-26), A dynamic 6,000-year genetic history of Eurasia’s Eastern Steppe, doi:10.1101/2020.03.25.008078, hdl:21.11116/0000-0007-77BF-D, retrieved 2024-12-10, Haplogroup information found in Table S2, S2C_SexHaplogroups, Supplementary Materials GUID: E914F9CE-9ED4-4E0F-9172-5A54A08E9F6B
67. Lee, Juhyeon; Sato, Takehiro; Tajima, Atsushi; Amgalantugs, Tsend; Tsogtbaatar, Batmunkh; Nakagome, Shigeki; Miyake, Toshihiko; Shiraishi, Noriyuki; Jeong, Choongwon; Gakuhari, Takashi (1 March 2024). "Medieval genomes from eastern Mongolia share a stable genetic profile over a millennium". Human Population Genetics and Genomics. 4 (1). doi:10.47248/hpgg2404010004. ISSN 2770-5005.

Bibliography

• Asimov, M.S. (1998), History of civilizations of Central Asia Volume IV The age of achievement: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century Part One The historical, social and economic setting, UNESCO Publishing
• Barfield, Thomas (1989), The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China, Basil Blackwell
• Baumer, Christoph (2012), The History of Central Asia: The Age of the Steppe Warriors
• Beckwith, Christopher I (1987), The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages, Princeton University Press
• Benson, Linda (1998), China's last Nomads: the history and culture of China's Kazaks, M.E. Sharpe
• Bregel, Yuri (2003), An Historical Atlas of Central Asia, Brill
• Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (2000), The Age of Achievement: A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century – Vol. 4, Part II : The Achievements (History of Civilizations of Central Asia), UNESCO Publishing
• Bughra, Imin (1983), The history of East Turkestan, Istanbul: Istanbul publications
• Drompp, Michael Robert (2005), Tang China And The Collapse Of The Uighur Empire: A Documentary History, Brill, ISBN 9004141294. Volume 13 of Brill's Inner Asian Library.
• Golden, Peter B. (1992), An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples
• Golden, Peter B. (2011), Central Asia in World History, Oxford University Press
• Haywood, John (1998), Historical Atlas of the Medieval World, AD 600–1492, Barnes & Noble
• Henning, W.B. (1938), "Argi and the "Tokharians"", Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London, 9 (3): 545–571, doi:10.1017/S0041977X0007837X, JSTOR 608222, S2CID 161147644
• Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1964), The Chinese, their history and culture, Volumes 1–2, Macmillan
• Mackerras, Colin (1990), "Chapter 12 - The Uighurs", in Sinor, Denis (ed.), The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Cambridge University Press, pp. 317–342, ISBN 0-521-24304-1
• Mackerras, Colin (1972), The Uighur Empire: According to the T'ang Dynastic Histories, A Study in Sino-Uighur Relations, 744–840, Australian National University Press, ISBN 0-7081-0457-6
• Millward, James A. (2007), Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang, Columbia University Press
• Rong, Xinjiang (2013), Eighteen Lectures on Dunhuang, Brill
• Sinor, Denis (1990), The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-24304-9
• Wan, Lei (2017), The First Chinese Travel Record on the Arab World
• Wang, Zhenping (2013), Tang China in Multi-Polar Asia: A History of Diplomacy and War, University of Hawaii Press
• Xiong, Victor (2008), Historical Dictionary of Medieval China, United States of America: Scarecrow Press, Inc., ISBN 978-0810860537
• Xue, Zongzheng (1992), Turkic peoples, 中国社会科学出版社

Further reading

• Jiu Tangshu (舊唐書) Old Book of Tang Chapter 195 (in Chinese)
• Xin Tangshu (新唐書) New Book of Tang, chapter 217, part 1 and part 2 (in Chinese). Translation in English here (most of part 1 and beginning of part 2).
• Die chinesische Inschrift auf dem uigurischen Denkmal in Kara Balgassun (1896)

v t e Turkic topics
Languages	Afshar Altai Northern Southern Äynu Azerbaijani Bashkir Bulgar Chagatai Chulym Chuvash Crimean Tatar Cuman Dolgan Fuyü Gïrgïs Gagauz Ili Turki Karachay-Balkar Karaim Karakalpak Karamanli Turkish Kazakh Khakas Khalaj Khazar Khorasani Turkic Kipchak Krymchak Kumyk Kipchak languages Kyrgyz Nogai Old Turkic Ottoman Turkish Pecheneg Qashqai Sakha/Yakut Salar Shor Siberian Tatar Tatar Tofa Turkish Turkmen Tuvan Urum Uyghur Uzbek Western Yugur Alphabets Old Turkic Common Turkic Cyrillic Old Uyghur Persian
Peoples	Afshars Altaians Chelkans, Kumandins, Telengits, Teleuts, Tubalars Azerbaijanis in Iran, Armenia, Georgia Balkars Bashkirs Chulyms Chuvash Crimean Karaites Crimean Tatars Dolgans Gagauz Karachays Karakalpaks Kazakhs in China Khakas Khalaj Khorasani Turks Krymchaks Kyrgyz in China Kumyks Naimans Nogais Qarai Turks Qashqai Salar Shors Siberian Tatars Baraba Tatars Tatars Astrakhan, Chinese, Lipka, Kryashens, Mishar, Nağaybäk, Volga Tofalar Turkmens Afghan, Iranian Turkish in Abkhazia, Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Crete, Cyprus, Dodecanese, Egypt, Iraq, Israel, Kosovo, Lebanon, Libya, North Macedonia, Meskhetia (Ahiska), Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Syria, Tunisia, Western Thrace, Yemen Tuvans Uyghurs Uzbeks in Afghanistan Yakuts (Sakha) Yugurs Extinct Turkic groups Bulaqs Bulgars Cumans Dughlats Göktürks Karluks Khazars Kimek Kipchaks K'o-sa Oghuz Turks Shatuo Türgesh Uzes
Politics	Grey Wolves Kemalism Burkhanism Jadid Pan-Turkism Turkesism Turanism (Hungarian)
Origins	Turkestan Mongolia History Timeline of the Göktürks Timeline 500–1300 Migration Turkification Nomadic empire Turco-Mongol Tian Shan / Altai Mountains Otuken Oğuz
Locations	Sovereign states Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Northern Cyprus Turkey Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Autonomous areas Altai Republic Bashkortostan Chuvashia Crimea Gagauzia Kabardino-Balkaria Karachay-Cherkessia Karakalpakstan Khakassia Nakhchivan Sakha Tatarstan Tuva Xinjiang
Studies	Old Turkic script Proto-Turkic language Turkology
Religions	Turkic mythology Tengrism Shamanism Aiyy Faith Tibetan Buddhism Islam Alevism Batiniyya Bayramiye Bektashi Order Burkhanism Christianity Hurufism Khalwati order Malamatiyya Qadiri Qalandariyya Rifaʽi* Safaviyya Zahediyeh Vattisen Yaly
Traditional sports	Kyz kuu Jereed Kokpar Jigit Chovgan
Organizations	Organization of Turkic States International Organization of Turkic Culture (TÜRKSOY) Parliamentary Assembly (TURKPA) Turkic Academy Organization of the Eurasian Law Enforcement Agencies with Military Status (TAKM) World Turks Qurultai
These are traditional areas of settlement; the Turkic group has been living in the listed country/region for centuries and should not be confused with modern diasporas. State with limited international recognition.

v t e Inner Asia history series
Nomadic empires	Xiongnu Xianbei Rouran Göktürks First Turkic Khaganate Eastern Turkic Khaganate Western Turkic Khaganate Second Turkic Khaganate Tibetan Zubu Uyghur Kyrgyz Mongol Tatar Khamag Mongol Mongol Empire Chagatai Timurid Dzungar
Chinese empires	Han against Xiongnu Protectorate of the Western Regions Chief Official Tang against Western Turks / Eastern Turks against Tibet Mongolian Plateau Beiting Tarim Basin Liao Western Liao Northern Liao Eastern Liao Later Liao Yuan against Northwest khanates Manchuria Mongolia Tibet Northern Yuan Ming against Mongols against Turpan Manchuria Tibet Qing against Dzungar genocide Lifan Yuan Amban Manchuria Mongolia Tibet Xinjiang
Related topics	The Cambridge History of Inner Asia Greater Central Asia Central Asia Eurasian nomads Tartary Chinese Tartary Western Regions (Chinese Turkestan) China proper Sinosphere Greater China

v t e Manichaeism
Prophets	Mani (Founder) Jesus Sakyamuni Zarathustra Narayana Seth
Scripture	Seven treatises of Manichaeism (Gospel of Mani, Treasure of Life, The Epistles, The Book of Mysteries, Pragmateia, The Book of Giants, Psalms and Prayers) Book of Pictures Shabuhragan
Extracanonical literature	New Testament Fundamental Epistle Manichaean Psalm Book Psalms of Thomas Kephalaia Xuastvanift Cologne Mani-Codex Medinet Madi library Dunhuang Manichaean texts Xiabuzan Manichaean Compendium Incomplete scripture of Manichaeism Irk Bitig† Turpan Manichaean texts Sogdian-language Manichaean letter Xiapu Manichaean manuscripts Moni Guangfo
Theology	Father of Greatness Prince of Darkness Zarathustra in Manichaeism The Buddha in Manichaeism Jesus in Manichaeism Two Principles and Three Moments Gnosis Messenger of Light Xroshtag and Padvaxtag Archon Asrestar
History	Apostles Mar Ammo Mar Sisin Mar Zaku Mar Adda Shad Ohrmazd Mihr Faustus Agapius Aphthonius Hegemonius Marcus Three Persian religions Huichang Persecution of Manichaeism Bögü Qaghan Sergius-Tychicus East-West Schism Amr ibn Adi Abū Hilāl al-Dayhūri Lü Shinang Synod of Gangra Lin Deng Persecution Uyghur Khaganate Cangnan Stele Qianku
Sects	See of Babylon Denawars Astati Chinese Manichaeism Miqlāsiyya
Organisation	Archegos Patriarch Apostle Bishop Presbyter Elect Hearers
Commandments	Three Seals Pañcavidyā
Rituals	Eucharist Evangelism Repentance Fasting
Buildings	Cao'an Puxi Fushou Palace [zh] Flying Road Pagoda [zh] Leshan Temple [zh]
Visual art	Birth of Mani Book of Pictures Diagram of the Universe Episodes from Mani's Missionary Work Icon of Mani Leaf from a Manichaean book MIK III 4959 Leaf from a Manichaean book MIK III 4974 Leaf from a Manichaean book MIK III 4979 Leaf from a Manichaean book MIK III 6368 Leaf from a Manichaean book MIK III 8259 Mani's Community Established Mani's Parents Manichaean stone reliefs of Shangwan village Manichaean temple banner MIK III 6286 Manichaean wall painting MIK III 6918 Painting of the Buddha Jesus Sealstone of Mani Sermon on Mani's Teaching of Salvation Veneration of the Tree of Life
Writing system	Manichaean script Manichaean (Unicode block)
In fiction	Ming Cult The Gardens of Light Story of the Twin Dragons of Great Tang The Secret of Heaven
Notes: † mainly a Tengrist text but recorded in a Manichaean monastery

• Uyghur Khaganate
• Turkic peoples of Asia
• Former countries in Chinese history
• Former monarchies of Asia
• 744 establishments
• States and territories established in the 740s
• 847 disestablishments
• Khanates
• States and territories disestablished in the 9th century
• Former empires