Misplaced Pages

Part of the Politics series
Elections
Basic types By-election Corporate Direct / Indirect Fixed-term General Local Mid-term Plurality Primary Partisan Nonpartisan Proportional Recall Snap Sortition Two-round system
Terminology Anonymous elector Apportionment Audits Competition Boundary delimitation Crossover voting Electoral college Election law Election silence Gerrymandering Initiative Psephology Secret ballot Suffrage Right to stand for election
Subseries Administration Political party Voting Electoral systems
Lists Elections by country Close elections Most recent Next general elections National and local elections in 2024
Related Election security Electoral fraud Referendum (by country) Electoral reform Election science Paper candidate
Politics portal
v t e

Part of a series on
Universalism
Philosophical Moral universalism Universal value Universality Universalizability
Economic and societal Cultural universal Universal basic income Universal basic services Universal design Universal health care Universal suffrage
Christian Beliefs Apocatastasis Theosis Trinitarian universalism Universal reconciliation Churches and groups Unitarian Universalism International Council of Unitarians and Universalists Primitive Baptist Universalists Universalist Church of America Other History Unlimited atonement
Other religions Baháʼí Faith Brahmoism Hinduism (Neo-Vedanta) Sufism Universalism and the Latter Day Saint movement
Spiritual Mysticism Nondualism Perennialism Theosophy
Category
v t e

Universal suffrage or universal franchise ensures the right to vote for as many people bound by a government's laws as possible, as supported by the "one person, one vote" principle. For many, the term universal suffrage assumes the exclusion of the young and non-citizens (among others). At the same time, some insist that more inclusion is needed before suffrage can be truly universal. Democratic theorists, especially those hoping to achieve more universal suffrage, support presumptive inclusion, where the legal system would protect the voting rights of all subjects unless the government can clearly prove that disenfranchisement is necessary. Universal full suffrage includes both the right to vote, also called active suffrage, and the right to be elected, also called passive suffrage.

History

In the first modern democracies, governments restricted the vote to those with property and wealth, which almost always meant a minority of the male population. In some jurisdictions, other restrictions existed, such as requiring voters to practice a given religion. In all modern democracies, the number of people who could vote has increased progressively with time. The 19th century saw many movements advocating "universal suffrage", most notably in Europe and North America. Female suffrage was largely ignored until the latter half of the century, when movements began to thrive; the first of these was in New Zealand, in which all adult women of all ethnicities gained the right to vote in 1893. A year later, South Australia granted all citizens the right to vote and stand for election, making it the first place in the world where women could stand as candidates for election to parliament. From there, this groundbreaking reform set a precedent for broader suffrage rights worldwide. However, voting rights were often limited to those of the dominant ethnicity.

In the United States, after the principle of "One person, one vote" was established in the early 1960s by the U.S. Supreme Court under Earl Warren, the U.S. Congress, together with the Warren Court, continued to protect and expand the voting rights of all Americans, especially African Americans, through the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Voting Rights Act of 1965 and several Supreme Court rulings. In addition, the term "suffrage" is also associated specifically with women's suffrage in the United States; a movement to extend the franchise to women began in the mid-19th century and culminated in 1920, when the United States ratified the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, guaranteeing the right of women to vote. It would be 1928 before voting rights were guaranteed to all women in the UK.

In more detail

France, under the 1793 Jacobin constitution, was the first major country to enact suffrage for all adult males, though it was never formally used in practice (the constitution was immediately suspended before being implemented, and the subsequent election occurred in 1795 after the fall of the Jacobin government in 1794 discredited most ideas associated with them, including that constitution). Elsewhere in the Francophone world, the Republic of Haiti legislated for universal male suffrage in 1816. The Second French Republic instituted adult male suffrage after the revolution of 1848.

Following the French revolutions, movements in the Western world toward more universal suffrage occurred in the early 19th century, and focused on removing property requirements for voting. In 1867 Germany (the North German Confederation) enacted suffrage for all adult males. In the United States following the American Civil War, slaves were freed and granted rights of citizens, including suffrage for adult males (although several states established restrictions largely, though not completely, diminishing these rights). In the late-19th and early-20th centuries, the focus of the universal suffrage movement came to include the extension of the right to vote to women, as happened from the post-Civil War era in several Western states and during the 1890s in a number of British colonies.

On 19 September 1893 the British Governor of New Zealand, Lord Glasgow, gave assent to a new electoral act, which meant that New Zealand became the first British-controlled colony in which women had the right to vote in parliamentary elections. This was followed shortly after by the colony of South Australia in 1894, which was the second to allow women to vote, but the first colony to permit women to stand for election as well. In 1906, the autonomous Russian territory known as Grand Duchy of Finland (which became the Republic of Finland in 1917) became the first territory in the world to implement unrestricted universal suffrage, as women could stand as candidates, unlike in New Zealand, and without indigenous ethnic exclusion, like in Australia. It also lead to the election of the world's first female members of parliament the following year. Federal states and colonial or autonomous territories prior to World War I have multiple examples of early introduction of universal suffrage. However, these legal changes were effected with the permission of the British, Russian or other government bodies, which were considered the sovereign nation at the time. For this reason, Australia (1901), New Zealand (1908) and Finland (1917) all have different dates of achieving independent nationhood.

The First French Republic adopted universal male suffrage briefly in 1792; it was one of the first national systems that abolished all property requirements as a prerequisite for allowing men to register and vote. Greece recognized full male suffrage in 1844. Spain recognized it in the Constitution of 1869 and France and Switzerland have continuously done so since the 1848 Revolution (for resident male citizens). Upon independence in the 19th century, several Latin-American countries and Liberia in Africa initially extended suffrage to all adult males, but subsequently restricted it based on property requirements. The German Empire implemented full male suffrage in 1871.

In the United States, the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1870 during the Reconstruction era, provided that "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." This amendment aimed to guarantee the right to vote to African Americans, many of whom had been enslaved in the South prior to the end (1865) of the American Civil War and the 1864–1865 abolition of slavery. Despite the amendment, however, blacks were disfranchised in the former Confederate states after 1877; Southern officials ignored the amendment and blocked black citizens from voting through a variety of devices, including poll taxes, literacy tests, and grandfather clauses; violence and terrorism were used to intimidate some would-be voters. Southern blacks did not effectively receive the right to vote until the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

In 1893 the self-governing colony New Zealand became the first country in the world (except for the short-lived 18th-century Corsican Republic) to grant active universal suffrage by giving women the right to vote. It did not grant universal full suffrage (the right to both vote and be a candidate, or both active and passive suffrage) until 1919.

In 1902, the Commonwealth of Australia became the first country to grant full suffrage for women, i.e. the rights both to vote and to run for office. However, Australia did not implement universal suffrage at this time – nationwide voting rights for Aboriginal Australians were not established until 1962, before that varying by state.

Many societies in the past have denied or abridged political representation on the basis of race or ethnicity, related to discriminatory ideas about citizenship. For example, in apartheid-era South Africa, non-White people could generally not vote in national elections until the first multi-party elections in 1994. However, a nonracial franchise existed under the Cape Qualified Franchise, which was replaced by a number of separate MPs in 1936 (Blacks) and 1958 (Coloureds). Later, the Tricameral Parliament established separate chambers for Whites, Coloureds and Indians. Rhodesia enacted a similar statute to the former in its proclaimed independence of 1965, which however allowed a smaller number of representatives for the considerably larger Black majority (under its 1961 constitution, the voting classes had been based on socio-economic standards, which marginalized most Black and a few White voters to a separate set of constituencies, under the principle of weighted voting; this was replaced in 1969 by an explicitly racial franchise, with delegated all Blacks to the 'B' voters roll).

Women's suffrage

In Sweden (including Swedish-ruled Finland), women's suffrage was granted during the Age of Liberty from 1718 until 1772.

In Corsica, women's suffrage was granted in 1755 and lasted until 1769.

Women's suffrage (with the same property qualifications as for men) was granted in New Jersey in 1776 (the word "inhabitants" was used instead of "men" in the 1776 Constitution) and rescinded in 1807.

The Pitcairn Islands granted restricted women's suffrage in 1838. Various other countries and states granted restricted women's suffrage in the later half of the nineteenth century, starting with South Australia in 1861.

The first unrestricted women's suffrage in a major country was granted in New Zealand in 1893. The women's suffrage bill was adopted mere weeks before the general election of 1893. Māori men had been granted suffrage in 1867, white men in 1879. The Freedom in the World index lists New Zealand as the only free country in the world in 1893.

South Australia first granted women suffrage and allowed them to stand for parliament in 1894.

In 1906, the autonomous Grand Principality of Finland became the first territory to give women full political rights, i.e. both the right to vote and to run for office, and was the second in the world and the first in Europe to give women the right to vote. The world's first female members of parliament were elected in Finland the following year, 1907. After the German Revolution of 1918–19, the Weimar Constitution established universal suffrage in 1919 with a minimum voting age of 20.

The UK gave women the right to vote at the same age as men (21) in 1928.

In 1931, the Second Spanish Republic allowed women the right of passive suffrage with three women being elected.

During a discussion on extending women's right to active suffrage, the Radical Socialist Victoria Kent confronted the Radical Clara Campoamor. Kent argued that Spanish women were not yet prepared to vote and, since they were too influenced by the Catholic Church, they would vote for right-wing candidates. Campoamor however pleaded for women's rights regardless of political orientation. Her point finally prevailed and, in the election of 1933, the political right won with the vote of citizens of any sex over 23. Both Campoamor and Kent lost their seats.

In Switzerland, women's suffrage was introduced at the federal level, by a nationwide (male) referendum in 1971, but the referendum did not give women the right to vote at the local Cantonal level. The Cantons independently voted to grant women the right to vote. The first Canton to give women the right to vote was Vaud in 1959. The last Canton, Appenzell Innerrhoden, had a centuries-old law forbidding women to vote. This was only changed in 1990 when Switzerland's Federal Court ordered the Canton to grant women the right to vote.

Youth suffrage

The movement to lower the voting age many consider an aspect of universal suffrage that the youth rights movement has helped to lead. Organizations such as the National Youth Rights Association are active in the United States to advocate for a lower voting age, with some success, among other issues related to youth rights. A related movement, suffrage for Americans with disabilities provides important precedents and intersectionality with the movement to extend voting rights to children and youth.

Non-citizen suffrage

While some jurisdictions extend the right to vote in at least some elections to resident non-citizens and non-resident citizens, many people remain unable to vote based on their citizenship and residency status. Non-citizen suffrage with non-resident citizen voting can result in dual transnational voting.

Dates by country

Parts of this article (those related to Afghanistan) need to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (August 2021)

States have granted and revoked universal suffrage at various times.

Note: this chart does not indicate periods of autocratic rule (when voting has little or no power).

• Adult citizens There are no distinctions between citizens over a certain age in any part of its territories due to gender, literacy, wealth, social status, religion, race, or ethnicity.
• Male is for all males over a certain age in the majority ethnic or sectarian group irrespective of literacy, wealth, or social status.
• Female is for when all women over a certain age can vote on the same terms as men.
• Ethnicity is for when all eligible voters over a certain age can vote on the same terms as the majority or politically dominant group irrespective of religion, race, or ethnicity.

Since historically one group or another might have lost suffrage rights only to regain them later on, this table lists the last uninterrupted time from the present a group was granted the right to vote if that group's suffrage has been fully restored.

Note: The table can be sorted alphabetically or chronologically using the icons.

See also

• Democracy indices
• Equality before the law
• List of suffragists and suffragettes
• List of women's rights activists
• One man, one vote
• One person, one vote
• Suffrage for Americans with disabilities
• Suffragette
• Timeline of women's suffrage
• Umbrella Movement
  • 2014 Hong Kong protests

Notes

1. ^ While the USSR was not formally founded until 1922, a group of socialist republics under the influence of Soviet Russia existed for several years before that.
2. Over the years suffrage increased and decreased based on the introduction, repeal and reintroduction of various degrees of universal, property and census-based suffrage. Universal male suffrage was given in 1848 and in 1944 women had equal universal suffrage rights to men. The military obtained the right to vote in 1945.
3. In 1792, the Convention assembly was elected by all French males 21 and over regardless of one's ethnicity. While not an ethnicity, those serving in the military obtained the right to vote in 1945.
4. ^ the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 reflects eligibility for office, not the eligibility to vote.
5. ^ Until the Reform Act 1832 specified "male persons", a few women had been able to vote in parliamentary elections through property ownership, although this was rare. In local government elections, women lost the right to vote under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. Unmarried women ratepayers received the right to vote in the Municipal Franchise Act 1869. This right was confirmed in the Local Government Act 1894 and extended to include some married women. By 1900, over 1 million women were registered for local government elections in England.
6. While local government gerrymandering in Northern Ireland was one of the factors which led to the Troubles, parliamentary elections still took place for all British citizens. In 1972 the British Parliament was unwilling to grant the mostly Protestant unionist Northern Ireland government more authoritarian special powers since it was now convinced of its inability to restore order. So they suspended the Parliament of Northern Ireland and the post of Governor and made provision for direct rule by the elected government of the United Kingdom.
7. Graduates of universities lost the right to vote in university constituencies as well as parliamentary boroughs and property owners lost the right to vote both in the constituency where their property lay and that in which they lived, if the two were different. For elections to the Parliament of Northern Ireland, these changes were made under the Electoral Law Act 1968.
8. Most of the British Overseas Territories and all of the Crown Dependencies have a local representative government, although ultimate authority still resides in Westminster. Legislation has been proposed in past to create parliamentary districts for the British Overseas Territories and the Crown Dependencies, though as of 2020 no bill has been put forward by the British government British nationality law has changed over the years has redefined who has the birthright to live and work in the UK. In 1968 and 1971, as a result of fears about increasing immigration by non-white British citizens, the UK Government introduced immigration restrictions and stripped birthrights on British subjects from some British Overseas Territories. The current principal British nationality law in force, since 1 January 1983, is the British Nationality Act 1981, which established the system of multiple categories of British nationality.
9. ^ While constitutionally given the right to vote by the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870 and 19th Amendment in 1920, the reality of the country was such that most African Americans and some poor whites could not vote until the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Starting in 1888 Southern states legalized disenfranchisement by enacting Jim Crow laws; they amended their constitutions and passed legislation to impose various voting restrictions, including literacy tests, poll taxes, property-ownership requirements, moral character tests, requirements that applicants interpret a particular document, and grandfather clauses that allowed otherwise-ineligible persons to vote if their grandfathers voted (which excluded many African Americans whose grandfathers had been ineligible). During this period, the Supreme Court generally upheld state efforts to discriminate against racial minorities. In Giles v. Harris (1903), the Court held that irrespective of the Fifteenth Amendment, the judiciary did not have the remedial power to force states to register racial minorities to vote. The Indian Citizenship Act in 1924 gave Native Americans the right to vote and officially recognized them as citizens, nearly two-thirds of whom already had citizenship and the right to vote. In 1943 Chinese immigrants were given the right to citizenship and the right to vote by the Magnuson Act. African Americans and others gained full enfranchisement through passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
10. The 1828 presidential election was the first in which non-property-holding white males could vote in the vast majority of states, but this was not consistent across the country until the last state, North Carolina, abolished property qualification in 1856 resulting in a close approximation to universal white male suffrage (however tax-paying requirements remained in five states in 1860 and survived in two states until the 20th century). The Fourteenth Amendment in 1868 altered the way each state is represented in the House of Representatives. It counted all residents for apportionment including slaves, overriding the three-fifths compromise, and reduced a state's apportionment if it wrongfully denied males over the age of 21 the right to vote; however, this was not enforced in practice. Some poor white men remained excluded at least until 1965. For state elections, it was not until the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 6–3 in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections (1966) that all state poll taxes were unconstitutional as violating the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. This removed a burden on the poor.
11. 19th Amendment in 1920 prohibited any United States citizen from being denied the right to vote on the basis of sex, but most African-American women some poor white women remained excluded at least until 1965. For state elections, it was not until the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 6–3 in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections (1966) that all state poll taxes were unconstitutional as violating the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. This removed a burden on the poor.

References

1. "Universal suffrage definition and meaning | Collins English Dictionary". www.collinsdictionary.com. Retrieved 1 February 2019.
2. "Definition of UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 18 January 2023.
3. "Suffrage". Britannica. Retrieved 18 January 2023.
4. Rosenfeld, Sophia (3 January 2023). "Has the United States Ever Been a Democracy?". ISSN 0027-8378. Retrieved 21 January 2023.
5. ^ Hamilton, Vivian E. (2012). "Democratic Inclusion, Cognitive Development, and the Age of Electoral Majority". SSRN 2086875.
6. Gwen Jordan, "We Must Forget Every Difference and Unite in a Common Cause - Votes For Woman": Lessons From the Woman Suffrage Movement (Or, Before the Notorious RBG, There Were the Notorious RGBs), 11 ConLawNOW 91 (2020).
7. "Athenian Democracy". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 21 May 2020.
8. "America's True History of Religious Tolerance". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 21 May 2020.
9. ^ Caramani, Daniele (13 February 2017). Elections in Western Europe 1815–1996. Springer. ISBN 978-1-349-65508-3.
10. "Constitutional Rights Foundation". www.crf-usa.org. Retrieved 21 May 2020.
11. "White Manhood Suffrage". National Museum of American History. 3 May 2017. Retrieved 21 May 2020.
12. McLintock, Alexander Hare; Patricia Ann Grimshaw, M. A.; Taonga, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu. "WOMEN'S SUFFRAGE MOVEMENT". An encyclopaedia of New Zealand, edited by A. H. McLintock, 1966. Retrieved 18 February 2022.
13. Pickles, Katie (18 September 2019). "NZ was first to grant women the vote in 1893, but then took 26 years to let them stand for parliament". The Conversation. Retrieved 18 February 2022.
14. SA, Department of Human Services. "The South Australian women's suffrage campaign". officeforwomen.sa.gov.au. Retrieved 18 February 2022.
15. Grimshaw, Patricia (2000). "Settler Anxieties, Indigenous Peoples, and Women's Suffrage in the Colonies of Australia, New Zealand, and Hawai'i, 1888 to 1902". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (4): 553–572. doi:10.2307/3641224. ISSN 0030-8684. JSTOR 3641224.
16. Goldman, Ari L. (21 November 1986). "One Man, One Vote: Decades of Court Decisions". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 14 January 2020.
17. Pederson, William D. "Earl Warren". www.mtsu.edu. Retrieved 14 January 2020.
18. ^ "We Shall Overcome – The Players". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 5 October 2019.
19. ^ "Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections". Oyez. Retrieved 5 October 2019.
20. "19th Amendment". LII / Legal Information Institute. Retrieved 24 May 2019.
21. "Women Get The Vote". parliament.uk.
22. Dubois, Laurent (2012). Haiti: The Aftershocks of History. New York: Henry Holt and Company. pp. 60–61. ISBN 9780805095623. Retrieved 19 September 2019. In 1816, the Republic of Haiti put into place a new constitution . The creation of the Chamber of Deputies was a significant advance for democratic government: the deputies were elected by universal male suffrage, with no restrictions on the right to vote .
23. "new zealand women and the vote". nzhistory.govt.nz. Retrieved 30 June 2019.
24. "Women's suffrage". Retrieved 1 December 2019.
25. ^ "Eduskunnan lyhyt historia". www.eduskunta.fi.
26. ^ "Centenary of women's full political rights in Finland". 20 July 2011. Archived from the original on 20 July 2011.
27. "Greece – Building the nation, 1832–1913". Encyclopedia Britannica. 25 June 2023.
28. "Karen Offen, "Women, Citizenship, and Suffrage in France Since 1789"". www.iub.edu. Archived from the original on 1 April 2020. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
29. ^ Chandler Davidson, "The Recent Evolution of Voting Rights Law Affecting Racial and Language Minorities" in Quiet Revolution in the South: The Impact of the Voting Rights Act, 1965–1990 (Princeton University Press, 1994: eds. Chandler Davidson & Bernard Grofman), pp. 21–22.
30. Gary Gershman, "Fifteenth Amendment (1870)" in Race and Racism in the United States: An Encyclopedia of the American Mosaic (eds. Charles A. Gallagher, Cameron D. Lippard), pp. 441–43.
31. ^ Nohlen, Dieter (2001). Elections in Asia and the Pacific: South East Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacific. Oxford University Press. p. 14.
32. "Australian suffragettes". Archived from the original on 10 March 2016. Retrieved 17 March 2017.
33. Karlsson Sjögren, Åsa, Männen, kvinnorna och rösträtten: medborgarskap och representation 1723–1866 , Carlsson, Stockholm, 2006 (in Swedish)
34. ^ A. Kulinski, K. Pawlowski. "The Atlantic Community – The Titanic of the XXI Century". p. 96. WSB-NLU. 2010
35. ^ "1990 - Einführung des Frauenstimmrechtes" (in German). Appenzell, Switzerland: Kanton Appenzell Innerrhoden. Archived from the original on 22 August 2016. Retrieved 7 August 2016.
36. Pearse, Harry (28 December 2022). "Why aren't children allowed to vote? An expert debunks the arguments against". The Conversation. Retrieved 18 January 2023.
37. Conner, Brian (14 March 2019). "Congress Votes on Lowering Voting Age to 16". youthrights.org. National Youth Rights Association. Retrieved 4 April 2019. NYRA has been campaigning for a lower voting age since we were founded in 1998, and we are overjoyed that pro-youth policies are finally close to passing on the national level thanks to our years of local advocacy in towns such as Takoma Park, MD where we helped lower the voting age in 2013.
38. Umpierrez de Reguero, Sebastián; Finn, Victoria (2 July 2024). "Migrants' intention to vote in two countries, one country, or neither". Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties. 34 (3): 466–489. doi:10.1080/17457289.2023.2189727. hdl:1814/75483. ISSN 1745-7289.
39. ^ "The Fight for Women's Voting Rights". 8 November 2017.
40. "Profile: Ex-king Zahir Shah". BBC News. 1 October 2001.
41. Badalyan, Lena (5 December 2018). "Women's Suffrage: The Armenian Formula". Chai Khana. Archived from the original on 1 December 2018. Retrieved 30 November 2018.
42. Harutyunyan, Anahit (8 March 2018). Առաջին խորհրդարանի (1919-1920) երեք կին պատգամավորները. ANI Armenian Research Center (in Armenian). Yerevan: Armenian Research Center for Anteriology. Archived from the original on 4 May 2018. Retrieved 11 January 2019. Three female deputies of the first parliament (1919-1920)
43. Simon Vratsian Hayastani Hanrapetutyun (The Republic of Armenia, Arm.), Yerevan, 1993, p. 292.
44. "Constitution Act (No 2 of 19 Vic, 1855-6)". 4 January 1856. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
45. "Australian voting history in action". Australian Electoral Commission. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
46. "Women's Suffrage". National Library of Australia. Retrieved 9 July 2022.
47. "Indigenous Australians' right to vote". National Museum of Australia. Retrieved 9 July 2022.
48. "Woman Suffrage Timeline International – Winning the Vote Around the World". Womenshistory.about.com. 25 April 1908. Archived from the original on 12 July 2015. Retrieved 6 May 2013.
49. "History | Electoral & Boundaries Commission". Electoral & Boundaries Commission Barbados. Retrieved 25 October 2024.
50. "The History | BARBADOSPARLIAMENT.COM". www.barbadosparliament.com. Retrieved 25 October 2024.
51. pt:Constituição brasileira de 1891
52. "Constitui o91".
53. History of the Constitution of Brazil
54. "Constitui o46".
55. "Emc25". Archived from the original on 6 July 2007.
56. "Burma timeline". BBC News. 30 March 2011.
57. "Equality and Justice – for Some". Canadian Human Rights Commission. Retrieved 19 July 2015.
58. "When women got the right to vote in 25 places around the world". Insider.com.
59. "Valgret 1834–1915". danmarkshistorien.dk.
60. "Udlandsdanskeres valgret". valg.oim.dk.
61. "Zorrilla Ozuna propone incluir voto militar en modificación constitucional". El Día (in Spanish). 1 June 2015. Retrieved 23 August 2019.
62. Official Report of Debates. 1991. p. 113. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
63. Thompson, J. M. (1959). The French Revolution. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
64. décret relatif à la formation de la convention nationale du 10 août 1792 : « L'assemblée nationale décrète que, pour la formation de la convention nationale prochaine, tout Français âgé de vingt et un ans, domicilié depuis un an, vivant du produit de son travail, sera admis à voter dans les assemblées de commune et dans les assemblées primaires, comme tout autre citoyen actif. »
65. Przeworski, Adam (2009). "Conquered or Granted? A History of Suffrage Extensions". British Journal of Political Science. 39 (2): 291–321. doi:10.1017/S0007123408000434. ISSN 1469-2112.
66. M. L. Anderson: Praciticing Democracy. Elections and Political Culture in Imperial Germany. Princeton (NJ) 2000;
67. Brown, J.M. & Roger Louis, W.M. (1999) The Oxford History of the British Empire
68. "Greece – Building the nation, 1832–1913". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 23 August 2019.
69. "Hungarian Voting Act of 1925" (in Hungarian). Archived from the original on 23 June 2015.
70. Jóhannesson, Guðni Th. (2010). "Country Report: Iceland" (PDF). EUDO Citizenship Observatory.
71. ^ "Hvenær varð kosningaréttur almennur á Íslandi?". Vísindavefurinn (in Icelandic). Retrieved 30 April 2022.
72. "Iceland celebrates Women's Rights Day today!". Iceland Monitor. Retrieved 30 April 2022.
73. ^ Styrkársdóttir, Auður. "Kvennasögusafn Íslands – Women's suffrage in Iceland". kvennasogusafn.is (in Icelandic). Director of the Women's History Archives, Iceland from 2001–2016. Archived from the original on 19 October 2018. Retrieved 19 October 2018.
74. Benjamin, Gabríel (6 March 2015). "Icelanders Celebrate The 100 Year Anniversary Of Women's Suffrage". The Reykjavik Grapevine. Retrieved 19 October 2018.
75. "Iran". The National Democratic Institute. Retrieved 17 January 2016.
76. ^ "The History of the Parliamentary Franchise". House of Commons Library. 1 March 2013. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
77. Electoral Act 1923, s. 1: Dáil Franchise (No. 12 of 1923, s. 1). Act of the Oireachtas. Retrieved from Irish Statute Book.
78. "The progressive enlargement of suffrage through to 1913 when universal suffrage among males was granted (...) was a true constitutional change, for it transformed an oligarchical constitution into a democratic one": Bernardo Giorgio Mattarella, ADMINISTRATIVE LAW IN ITALY: AN HISTORICAL SKETCH (1), Riv. trim. dir. pubbl., fasc.4, 2010, pag. 1009.
79. ^ "Lietuvos Valstybės Laikinosios Konstitucijos pamatiniai dėsniai". e-seimas.lrs.lt. Retrieved 30 November 2024.
80. "Rinkimų teisė moterims ir moterys 1920–1940 m. Lietuvos Respublikos Seime". www.lrs.lt (in Lithuanian). Retrieved 30 November 2024.
81. "Right to vote – Luxembourg". 26 April 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
82. "Mauritius: History". The Commonwealth. Archived from the original on 19 June 2020. Retrieved 28 July 2020.
83. "Mexican women were granted the right to run for office and to vote in national elections in 1953". Thinkfinity. Archived from the original on 9 August 2010. Retrieved 1 April 2012.
84. "Mexico: Voting Rights and Emigration – Migration News | Migration Dialogue". migration.ucdavis.edu.
85. "History of the Vote: Māori and the Vote". Archived from the original on 29 April 2007. Retrieved 9 June 2007.
86. "Da samer fikk stemmerett". Stortinget (in Norwegian). 15 May 2018. Retrieved 23 August 2019.
87. Tan, Michael (12 November 2009). "Suffrage". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
88. Octavian Dobrișan (11 December 2016). "Istoria votului în România [Voting history in Romania]" (in Romanian). Radio Oltenia. Retrieved 29 January 2019.
89. Ionuț Dulămiță, Ionuț Sociu (26 March 2018). "80 de ani de când femeile pot vota în România [80 years since women can vote in Romania]" (in Romanian). Scena 9. Retrieved 29 January 2019.
90. Национальные парламенты мира : энцикл. справ. / А. Х. Саидов; Рос. акад. наук, Ин-т государства и права, p. 148.
91. Fahim, Kareem (27 November 2020). "Crackdowns by U.S. allies could test Biden's pledge to promote human rights". The Washington Post. Retrieved 19 March 2022.
92. Kenneth, Pollack M. (16 October 2020). "The Mysteries of the American-Saudi Alliance". The New York Times. Retrieved 19 March 2022.
93. Fields, Jeffrey (3 March 2021). "Why repressive Saudi Arabia remains a U.S. ally". USC Dornsife. Retrieved 19 March 2022.
94. Lacey, Robert (2009). Inside the Kingdom: Kings, Clerics, Modernists, Terrorists, and the Struggle for Saudi Arabia. Viking. p. 267. ISBN 9780670021185. Abdullah was already the first Saudi ruler to have presided over elections. Admittedly the voting, held in the spring of 2005, was only for local, virtually powerless municipal councils -- and then for only half the seats on those; women were not allowed to stand for office or to vote. But the male electorate got the change to eat large quantities of mutton for three weeks since Saudi electioneering proved to revolve around lamb and tents ... the candidate held court, inviting voters inside and plying them with mountains of rice and whole roasted sheep.
95. Photograph Tasneem Alsultan, National Geographic (12 December 2015). "In a Historic Election, Saudi Women Cast First-Ever Ballots". Archived from the original on 17 December 2015.
96. Cumings, Bruce (2010). The Korean War: A History. p. 111.
97. King, James F. (1953). "The Colored Castes and American Representation in the Cortes of Cadiz". The Hispanic American Historical Review. 33 (1): 33–64. doi:10.2307/2509621. ISSN 0018-2168. JSTOR 2509621.
98. "Constituciones Españolas 1812 - 1978".
99. "El sufragio universal en Espana (1890–1936)" (PDF). Retrieved 5 December 2019.
100. "Sveriges Riksdag: Kampen för rösträtt".
101. Von Wyl, Benjamin (2 February 2021). "Appenzell Inner Rhodes: the last Swiss canton to give women the vote". Swissinfo.ch.
102. Bowie, Katherine (n.d.). "Women's Suffrage in Thailand: A Southeast Asian Historiographical Challenge". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 52 (4): 708–741. doi:10.1017/S0010417510000435.
103. Coles, Isabel (21 August 2011). "UAE elections: what substance behind the gloss?". Reuters. Retrieved 26 May 2021.
104. Herb, Michael (2009). "A Nation of Bureaucrats: Political Participation and Economic Diversification in Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 41 (3): 375–395. doi:10.1017/S0020743809091119. ISSN 1471-6380. S2CID 154366494.
105. Ledstrup, Martin (2019). Nationalism and Nationhood in the United Arab Emirates. Palgrave. p. 10. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-91653-8. ISBN 978-3-319-91652-1. S2CID 158959849.
106. Walker, Graham (4 September 2004). A History of the Ulster Unionist Party: Protest, Pragmatism and Pessimism (Manchester Studies in Modern History). Manchester University Press. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-7190-6109-7.
107. Heater, Derek (2006). "Emergence of Radicalism". Citizenship in Britain: A History. Edinburgh University Press. p. 107. ISBN 9780748626724.
108. Heater, Derek (2006). "Emergence of Radicalism". Citizenship in Britain: A History. Edinburgh University Press. p. 136. ISBN 9780748626724.
109. "Women's rights". The National Archives. Retrieved 11 February 2015.
110. "Which Act Gave Women the Right to Vote in Britain?". Synonym. Retrieved 11 February 2015.
111. "Female Suffrage before 1918", The History of the Parliamentary Franchise, House of Commons Library, 1 March 2013, pp. 37–39, retrieved 16 March 2016
112. Peter N. Stearns (2008). "The Oxford encyclopedia of the modern world, Volume 7". p. 160. Oxford University Press, 2008
113. "From Magna Carta to universal suffrage, the 1000-year history of British democracy". The Telegraph. 18 April 2017. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
114. "Electoral Law Act (Northern Ireland) 1968". www.legislation.gov.uk. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
115. Bingham, Adrian (25 June 2019). "'The last milestone' on the journey to full adult suffrage? 50 years of debates about the voting age". History & Policy. Retrieved 31 December 2022.
116. Loughran, Thomas; Mycock, Andrew; Tonge, Jonathan (3 November 2021). "Lowering the voting age: three lessons from the 1969 Representation of the People's Act". British Politics and Policy at LSE. Retrieved 31 December 2022.
117. House of Commons Library (6 March 2021). Who can vote in UK elections? (Report).
118. Ragoonath, Reshma (18 November 2020). "Proposed UK Overseas Territories MP bill a no-go". Cayman Compass.
119. "Island Should Be Represented In UK". BERNEWS. 13 January 2012. Retrieved 2 June 2021.
120. "Having reps in British parliament could help the BVI". BVI News. BVI News, Media Expressions Limited. 25 November 2020. Retrieved 2 June 2021.
121. "Representation of Overseas Territories Bill". Parliament of the United Kingdom (Session 1999–2000 of the House of Commons). Parliament of the United Kingdom. 15 June 2000. Retrieved 2 June 2021.
122. "Representation of the People (Gibraltar), Volume 643: debated on Tuesday 19 June 2018". HANSARD (House of Commons Chamber). Parliament of the United Kingdom.
123. ^ Scher, Richard K. (2015). The Politics of Disenfranchisement: Why is it So Hard to Vote in America?. Routledge. p. viii–ix. ISBN 9781317455363.
124. ^ "Civil Rights in America: Racial Voting Rights: A National Historic Landmarks Theme Study" (PDF). National Park Service. 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2015.
125. "Voting in Early America". Colonial Williamsburg. Spring 2007. Retrieved 21 April 2015.
126. "Expansion of Rights and Liberties – The Right of Suffrage". Online Exhibit: The Charters of Freedom. National Archives. Archived from the original on 6 July 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2015.
127. Janda, Kenneth; Berry, Jeffrey M.; Goldman, Jerry (2008). The challenge of democracy: government in America (9. ed., update ed.). Houghton Mifflin. p. 207. ISBN 9780618990948; Murrin, John M.; Johnson, Paul E.; McPherson, James M.; Fahs, Alice; Gerstle, Gary (2012). Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People (6th ed.). Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. p. 296. ISBN 9780495904991.
128. Stanley L. Engerman; Kenneth L. Sokoloff (February 2005). "The Evolution of Suffrage Institutions in the New World" (PDF). Yale University. pp. 16, 35. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 March 2016. By 1840, only three states retained a property qualification, North Carolina (for some state-wide offices only), Rhode Island, and Virginia. In 1856 North Carolina was the last state to end the practice. Tax-paying qualifications were also gone in all but a few states by the Civil War, but they survived into the 20th century in Pennsylvania and Rhode Island.
129. "U.S. Voting Rights". Infoplease. Retrieved 21 April 2015.
130. David Quigley, Acts of Enforcement: The New York City Election of 1870, in: New York History (2002).
131. Schultz, Jeffrey D.; Aoki, Andrew L.; Haynie, Kerry L.; McCulloch, Anne M. (2000). Encyclopedia of Minorities in American Politics: Hispanic Americans and Native Americans. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 528. ISBN 978-1-57356-149-5.
132. Scher, Richard K. (4 March 2015). The Politics of Disenfranchisement: Why is it So Hard to Vote in America?. Routledge. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-317-45536-3.
133. Ashlyn K. Kuersten (2003). Women and the Law: Leaders, Cases, and Documents. p. 13. ABC-CLIO, 2003
134. Madsen, Deborah L., ed. (2015). The Routledge Companion to Native American Literature. Routledge. p. 168. ISBN 978-1317693192.
135. "One Person, One Vote | The Constitution Project". www.theconstitutionproject.com. Retrieved 24 September 2019.
136. Smith, J. Douglas (26 July 2015). "The Case That Could Bring Down 'One Person, One Vote'". The Atlantic. Retrieved 24 September 2019.
137. Goldman, Ari L. (21 November 1986). "One Man, One Vote: Decades of Court Decisions". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 24 September 2019.
138. Transcript of Voting Rights Act (1965) U.S. National Archives.
139. The Constitution: The 24th Amendment Time.

Further reading

• Duong, Kevin (2020). "What Was Universal Suffrage?". Theory & Event. 23 (1): 29–65.

External links

• Limited suffrage in England prior to the 1832 reforms
• Finnish centennial celebration
• "Have you heard the news?", a pamphlet published by an anonymous English freeman in 1835
• An address to the middle and working classes engaged in trade and manufactures throughout the empire on the necessity of union at the present crisis (1842) by Richard Gardner

• Politics

• Suffrage
• Equality rights
• Universalism
• Democratization