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Waxiang
Waxianghua, Xianghua, Wogang
Native to	China
Region	western Hunan
Ethnicity	Waxiang people
Native speakers	(300,000 cited 1995)
Language family	Sino-Tibetan Sinitic Chinese (unclassified) Waxiang
Early forms	Proto-Sino-Tibetan Old Chinese Middle Chinese?
Language codes
ISO 639-3	wxa
Glottolog	waxi1236
Dialect map of Hunan. Waxiang is dark blue on the map.

Waxiang (simplified Chinese: 瓦乡话; traditional Chinese: 瓦鄉話; pinyin: Wǎxiānghuà; ɕioŋ˥tsa˧) is a divergent variety of Chinese, spoken by the Waxiang people, an unrecognized ethnic minority group in the northwestern part of Hunan province, China. Waxiang is a distinct language, and is very different from the surrounding Southwestern Mandarin, Xiang Chinese, and the Eastern Miao (Xong) languages.

Classification

As noted by Laurent Sagart (2011) and others, Waxiang appears to share some words with the Caijia language of western Guizhou. Sagart (2011) considers Caijia to be a sister of Waxiang. Currently, Waxiang is classified as a divergent Chinese variety rather than a non-Sinitic language. Similarities among Old Chinese, Waxiang, Caijia, and Bai have also been pointed out by Wu & Shen (2010).

Qu & Tang (2017) show that Waxiang and Miao (Qo Xiong) have had little mutual influence on each other.

Distribution

Waxianghua is found in Luxi, Guzhang and Yongshun counties in Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, Zhangjiajie prefecture-level city (in Dayong 大庸 ), and Chenxi, Xupu and Yuanling counties in Huaihua prefecture-level city. Neighboring languages include Southwestern Mandarin, Xiang Chinese, Tujia, Qo Xiong, and Hm Nai.

• hua means 'speech' in Mandarin Chinese,
• xiang means 'rural' in Mandarin Chinese
• wa means 'speech' in Southern Chinese dialects.

The word Wa 瓦 is only a phonetic transcription.

Wu & Shen (2010) report Waxianghua to be spoken in the following villages.

• Yuanling County: Qingshuiping 清水坪 , Maxipu 麻溪铺 , Taichang 太常 , Wusu 乌宿 , Liangshuijing 凉水井
• Luxi County: Basheping 八什坪 , Shangbao 上堡 , Liangjiatan 梁家谭 , Baisha 白沙镇
• Guzhang County: Linchang 林场 of Gaowangjie 高望界 , Gaofeng 高峰 (in Taojin 淘金村 , Beishuiping 北水坪 , etc.), Yantouzhai 岩头寨 , Shanzao 山枣 , Yezhu 野竹 , Hepeng 河蓬 , Caotan 草潭
• Chenxi County: Tianwan 田湾 , Banqiao 板桥 , Chuanxiyi 船溪驿 , Tanjiafang 谭家坊
• Xupu County: Rangjiaxi 让家溪 , Daweixi 大渭溪 , Muxi 木溪
• Yongshun County: Limin 里明村 , Zhenxi 镇溪 , Xiaoxi 小溪 of Wangcun Township 王村镇

Liubaohua 六保话 , a dialect closely related to Waxianghua, is spoken in several villages in southeastern Guzhang County (including in Shaojitian Village 筲箕田村, Shanzao Township 山枣乡 ) and parts of Luxi County. Liubaohua is spoken in the following locations (Zou 2013).

• Guzhang County
  • Shanzao Township 山枣乡 : Huoma 火麻村 , Gaozhai 高寨村 , Shaojitian 筲箕田村, Modao 磨刀村
  • Yantouzhai Township 岩头寨乡: Yinping 银坪村 , Zimuping 梓木坪村, Wangouxi 碗沟溪村, etc.
• Luxi County: Basheping Township 八什坪乡
• Yuanling County: Maxipu Town 麻溪铺镇 and Shaojiwan Town 筲箕湾镇

The Nanshan dialect of Waxianghua (Chinese: 南山乡话) is spoken in parts of Chengbu County, Hunan and Longsheng County, Guangxi by about 1,100 Waxiang people who had originally migrated from Yuanling County. Their villages include:

• Chengbu County, Hunan
  • Xuntou Village 巡头村 and Mugua Village 木瓜村, both of which are in Wutuan Town 五团镇
  • Juezhiping Village 蕨枝坪村, Nanshan Town 南山镇
• Longsheng County, Guangxi
  • Ganjia Village 甘甲村, Weishan Township 伟江乡

Phonology

Conservative features

Waxiang preserves a number of features of Old Chinese not found in most modern varieties of Chinese, such as the initial *l- (which became a voiced dental stop in Middle Chinese):

• Guzhang li, 地 OC (Baxter–Sagart) *lˤejs > MC dijH > Mandarin dì 'earth, ground'
• Guzhang lu, 大 OC *lˤats > MC dajH > Mandarin dà 'big'
• Guzhang li, 遲 OC *lrəj > MC drij > Mandarin chí 'slow'
• Guzhang luʔ, 讀 OC *C.lˤok > MC duwk > Mandarin dú 'read'

Waxiang also has some cases of /z/ for Old Chinese *r- (which became l- in Middle Chinese):

• Guzhang za, 棃 OC *C.rəj > MC lij > Mandarin lí 'pear tree, pear'
• Guzhang zɛ, 來 OC *mə.rˤək > *rˤə > MC loj > Mandarin lái 'come'

In a number of words, Waxiang and Proto-Min have affricate initials where Middle Chinese has sy-:

• Guzhang tsu, pMin *tšyi, 水 OC *s.turʔ > MC sywijX > Mandarin shuǐ 'water'
• Guzhang tɕiəu, pMin *tšy, 書 OC *s-ta > MC syo > Mandarin shū 'writing'

In some words, Waxiang and Proto-Min have voiced affricates where Middle Chinese has y-:

• Guzhang dzoŋ, pMin *-džioŋ, 癢 OC *Cə.ɢaŋʔ > MC yangX > Mandarin yǎng 'itch'

Waxiang and Caijia

Sagart (2011) argues that Waxiang and Caijia together constitute the earliest branching of Chinese. However, Sagart later retracted this proposal, saying that he is no longer sure whether Waxiang and Caijia actually form a subgroup together.

Like Waxiang, Caijia preserves Old Chinese *l-, has a voiced fricative reflex of *r-, and retains the Old Chinese word 字 'love', which has been replaced by 愛 in all other Chinese varieties. Waxiang and Caijia also share two words not found in other Chinese varieties:

• 'two': Caijia ta⁵⁵, Waxiang tso⁵³, from Old Chinese 再 *tsˤəs 'twice'
• 'milk': Caijia mi⁵⁵, Waxiang mi⁵⁵, which Sagart suggests is a non-Sinitic word

References

1. Waxiang at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
2. Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian (2023-07-10). "Glottolog 4.8 - Waxianghua". Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. doi:10.5281/zenodo.7398962. Archived from the original on 2023-08-24. Retrieved 2023-10-13.
3. ^ Baxter, William; Sagart, Laurent (2014). Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction. Oxford University Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-19-994537-5.
4. ^ Kurpaska, Maria (2010). Chinese Language(s): A Look Through the Prism of "The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects". Walter de Gruyter. p. 73. ISBN 978-3-11-021914-2.
5. ^ Sagart, Laurent. 2011. Classifying Chinese dialects/Sinitic languages on shared innovations. Talk given at Centre de recherches linguistiques sur l’Asie orientale, Norgent sur Marne.
6. de Sousa, Hilário. 2015. The Far Southern Sinitic Languages as part of Mainland Southeast Asia. In Enfield, N.J. & Comrie, Bernard (eds.), Languages of Mainland Southeast Asia: The state of the art (Pacific Linguistics 649), 356–439. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. doi:10.1515/9781501501685-009.
7. 湘西瓦乡话“吃饭”【柔摸】读音来历考
8. 沅陵乡话（船溪）与白语蔡家话个别读音对比
9. Wu Yunji, Shen Ruiqing . 2010. An Investigative Report of Waxianghua of Guzhang County, Xiangxi Prefecture . Shanghai Educational Press .
10. Qu Jianhui 瞿建慧; Tang Jiaxin 唐家新. 2017. Xiangxi Xianghua yu Xiangxi Miaoyu 湘西乡话与湘西苗语. Minzu Yuwen, vol. 2.
11. Zou, Xiaoling 邹晓玲. 2012. Classification of "Siklehua" in Guzhang County in Western Hunan 湘西古丈县“六保话”的系属. Journal of Jishou University (Social Science Edition) 吉首大学学报(社会科学版) 33(1).
12. Zheng, Yanxia ; Peng, Jianguo . 2016. Hunan Chengbu Xuntou Xianghua yanjiu . Hunan Normal University Press .
13. Zheng, Yanxia 郑焱霞. 2010. Xiang-Gui bianjie Nanshan Xianghua yanjiu 湘桂边界南山乡话研究. Doctoral dissertation. Changsha: Hunan Normal University 湖南师范大学.
14. 伍云姬、沈瑞清合著《湘西古丈瓦乡话调查报告》
15. Baxter & Sagart (2014), p. 109.
16. Baxter & Sagart (2014), p. 110.
17. Baxter & Sagart (2014), p. 93.
18. Baxter & Sagart (2014), p. 189.

Further reading

• Hilary Chappell (2012), "Typology of an isolated Sinitic language: Waxiang, a language of northwestern Hunan, China" (presentation slides), keynote at 45th International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics.
• Chappell, Hilary; Peyraube, Alain; Wu, Yunji (2011). "A comitative source for object markers in Sinitic languages: 跟 kai in Waxiang and 共 kang in Southern Min". Journal of East Asian Linguistics. 20 (4): 291–338. doi:10.1007/s10831-011-9078-z. PMC 3837201. PMID 24273384.
• Yang, Wei . 1999. Yuanling Xianghua yanjiu . Changsha: Hunan Educational Press .
• Yang, Wei . 2010. Xiangxi Xianghua yuyin yanjiu . Guangzhou: Guangdong Press .
• Zheng, Yanxia ; Peng, Jianguo . 2016. Hunan Chengbu Xuntou Xianghua yanjiu . Hunan Normal University Press .
• Chen, Hui . 2016. Hunan Luxi Liangjiatan Xianghua yanjiu . Hunan Normal University Press .
• Chen, Hui . 2019. Hunan Luxi Xianghua . Beijing: The Commercial Press . ISBN 9787100179850.
• Deng, Jie . 2020. Xiangxi Xianghua jiechu yu yanbian yanjiu . Beijing: The Commercial Press.
• Li, Jiaolei . 2021. Xiangxi Xianghua yuyin cengci ji yanbian yanjiu / Phonological Strata and Evolution of Xianghua Dialects of Western Xiang. Beijing: The Commercial Press.

v t e Sino-Tibetan branches
Western Himalayas (Himachal, Uttarakhand, Nepal, Sikkim)	West Himalayish Tamangic Newaric Newar Baram–Thangmi Kiranti Dhimalish Dhimal Toto Lhokpu Lepcha Greater Magaric Magaric Magar Kham Chepangic Chepang Bhujel Raji–Raute Dura–Tandrange
Eastern Himalayas (Tibet, Bhutan, Arunachal)	Bodish Tibetic East Bodish Tshangla Basum Nam? Gongduk ʼOle Tani Chamdo
Myanmar and Indo- Burmese border	Karbi Kuki-Chin Mruic Mru Hkongso Pyu Taman "Naga" Ao Angami–Pochuri Meitei Tangkhulic Zeme Sal Boro–Garo Konyak Jingpho–Luish
East and Southeast Asia	Sinitic Bai Tujia Nungish Karenic Gong Kathu Cai–Long Caijia Longjia Luren Burmo-Qiangic Qiangic Gyalrongic Ersuic Naic Lolo-Burmese Mondzish Burmish Loloish
Dubious (possible isolates) (Arunachal)	Hrusish Hruso Mijiic Kho-Bwa Puroik Miju–Meyor Songlin Greater Siangic Siangic Koro Milang Idu–Taraon
Proposed groupings	Central Tibeto-Burman Kuki-Chin–Naga Macro-Bai Mahakiranti Rung Tibeto-Burman Tibeto-Kanauri
Proto-languages	Proto-Sino-Tibetan Proto-Tibeto-Burman Proto-Loloish Proto-Karenic Proto-Min Proto-Hakka
Italics indicates single languages that are also considered to be separate branches.

v t e Chinese language
Sinitic languages
Major groups	Mandarin Northeastern Changchun Harbin Shenyang Taz Beijing Beijing Taiwan Jilu Tianjin Jinan Jiaoliao Dalian Qingdao Weihai Central Plains Dongping Gangou Guanzhong Xi'an Luoyang Xuzhou Dungan Xinjiang Southwestern Sichuanese Chengdu–Chongqing Minjiang Leshan Renshou–Fushun Zigong Kunming Nanping Wuhan Gui–Liu Wuming Jianghuai Nanjing Nantong Nanping Lanyin Lanzhou dialect [zh] Urumqi dialect [zh] Xinjiang Other Junjiahua Qinjiang Gyami Jin Zhangjiakou–Hohhot Zhi–Yan Wu Taihu Shanghai Suzhou Wuxi Changzhou Hangzhou (?) Shaoxing Ningbo Jinxiang Jiangyin Shadi Taizhou Wu Taizhou Tiantai Oujiang Wenzhou Rui'an Wencheng Wuzhou Jinhua Chu–Qu Quzhou Jiangshan Qingtian Xuanzhou Xuancheng Huizhou Ji-She [zh] Xiu-Yi [zh] Qi-De [zh] Yanzhou [zh] Jing-Zhan [zh] Gan Chang–Du Nanchang Yi–Liu Ying–Yi Da–Tong Xiang Changyi Changsha Loushao Shuangfeng Xiangxiang Wugang Ji–Xu Yong–Quan Qiyang Min Eastern Houguan Fuzhou Fuqing Changle Gutian Matsu Fu–Ning Ningde Fu'an Other Manjiang Zhongshan Longdu Nanlang Southern Hokkien Quanzhou Zhangzhou Amoy Chawan Taiwan Philippine Pedan Penang Singapore Malaysian Teochew Swatow Haklau Zhongshan Sanxiang Other Zhenan Longyan Other Northern Jian'ou Jianyang Central Pu–Xian Shao–Jiang Leizhou Zhanjiang Hainan Wenchang Haikou Banqiao Hakka Meixian Wuhua Huizhou Tingzhou Changting Taiwanese Sixian Hailu Raoping Yue Yuehai Guangzhou Hong Kong Malaysia Xiguan Jiujiang Shiqi Weitou Dapeng Siyi Taishan Xinhui Other Gao–Yang Goulou Wu–Hua Yong–Xun Luo–Guang Qin–Lian Pinghua Northern Tongdao Younian Southern Yongjiang Guandao Rongjiang Unclassified Shaozhou Tuhua Xiangnan Tuhua Badong Yao Danzhou Mai Shehua Waxiang Yeheni Huizhou Bai Cai-Long Caijia Longjia Luren Laobeizi
Standard forms	Standard Chinese Sichuanese Taiwanese Philippine Malaysian Singaporean Standard Singdarin Cantonese Hokkien Hakka
Phonology	Historical Old Old National Cantonese Hokkien Northern Wu Mandarin Literary and colloquial readings
Grammar	Numerals Classifiers Honorifics Cantonese grammar Classical grammar
Idioms	Chengyu Xiehouyu
Input	Biaoxingma Boshiamy Cangjie Simplified CKC Dayi Pinyin Google Microsoft Sogou Stroke count Wubi (Wang Ma) ZhengMa
History	Old Chinese Eastern Han Middle Chinese Old Mandarin Middle Mandarin Proto-Min Proto-Hakka Ba–Shu Gan
Literary forms	Official Classical Adoption in Japan in Vietnam Vernacular Written Cantonese Written Dungan Written Hokkien Written Sichuanese
Scripts	Logographic Script styles Oracle bone Bronze Seal Clerical Semi-cursive Cursive Chinese characters Simplified Traditional Punctuation Braille Cantonese Mainland Chinese Taiwanese Two-cell Phonetic Cyrillization Dungan Cyrillic Romanization Gwoyeu Romatzyh Hanyu Pinyin MPS II Postal Tongyong Pinyin Wade–Giles EFEO Lessing-Othmer Yale Bopomofo Cantonese Bopomofo Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols Taiwanese kana Taiwanese Hangul Xiao'erjing Nüshu
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• Yuanling County
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